Running Head: STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 1

The University of the West Indies

Open Campus

A Comparative Investigation into Secondary School Students’ Perspectives of the Differences

between American English and British English Spelling Systems in the Bahamas and Trinidad.

Submitted in partial fulfillment

for the requirements for the course

LING 6402 World Englishes

Course Instructor: Dr. Kedisha Williams

Kathleen Austin (316103085)

Hassan Basarally (806007430)

Christobelle Simpson (311500164)

July 12, 2019

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 2

Title

A Comparative Investigation into Secondary School Students’ Perspectives of the Differences

between American English and British English Spelling Systems in the Bahamas and Trinidad.

Background to the Issue

The English orthography system is viewed as a complicated one for language learners,

in part due to its spelling conventions. English does not have a one to one sound to letter

correspondence and its phonemes or speech sounds vary in between contexts and speakers

(Carney, 1997). Spelling is one of the key elements of effective writing as it prevents obscurity

and enables understanding of the intended meaning. In addition, spelling can mark regional or

social group membership (Cook, 2004). The variety in orthography has manifested itself into

two major spelling systems in English. Firstly, there is the British spelling system which

continued to be used by the majority of the Commonwealth, including the Anglophone

Caribbean, even after independence. Secondly, the other major spelling system that exists is the

American spelling system. This system originated in 1783 when Noah Webster introduced some

spelling changes that were not too radical from the British spelling and became accepted in that

country (Carney, 1997). The changes by Webster sought to standardise the spellings that were

appearing in the United States at that time. It should also be noted that there were attempts to

standardise British spelling and reduce irregularities as early as the 12th Century and up to the

19th Century. Traditionally, the majority of English language learners worldwide learnt the

British variety of English, including its spelling system. With the rise of the United States as an

economic, political and military power, its English variety became another target language for
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 3

English learners. Many English language learners today prefer to learn a particular spelling

system depending upon the geographical area they intend to use the target language.

In the Anglophone Caribbean, English is a second language for the majority of speakers

who have as their first language, an English-lexified creole. Added to this, most educational

institutions implement the British spelling system in matters of governance and public

information, though there is a large exposure to the American spelling system through television

and the internet. These conflicting factors have the potential to create a level of difficulty to

Caribbean students. For example, students are expected to use a consistent spelling system in

academia and the workplace but may mix the system.

Statement of the Problem

English spelling performance in Caribbean schools can be negatively affected by the

existence of two spelling systems in the region. The British spelling system is used in the

education system, official communication and local media. Simultaneously, students are

exposed to the American spelling system in online content and foreign news and entertainment

programming. This situation results in students mixing spelling systems, especially in academic

writing. Two such anomalous elements are the -iz/-ise, and -or/-our, both of which are the

focus of this research. Many students do not have the linguistic awareness of the differences,

thereby creating writing that is a mixture of the spelling systems despite the fact that the

territories of The Bahamas and Trinidad uphold their colonial past in both language and its

structure.

Aim/Objective
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 4

The main objectives of this study are:

1. Identify the spelling system used by students in selected secondary schools in the

Bahamas and Trinidad.

2. Assess the level of linguistic awareness students in selected secondary schools in the

Bahamas and Trinidad have regarding American and British spelling systems.

Research Questions

1. Are students in selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad able to

identify the differences between American and British spelling systems?

2. Do students in selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad consciously

use the American or British spelling system in words ending with -iz/-ise, -or/-our?

3. If students in selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad consciously use

either the American or the British spelling system, what are the reasons for the choice?

4. What are the opinions of Bahamas and Trinidad secondary school students about the use

of either spelling system?

Rationale/Significance of Research

The study s to sought to analyse the extent to which secondary school students in

selected territories are aware of the differences between the American and British spelling

systems. It also aimed to determine whether students in the sample consciously use a particular

system and the reasons, if any for this choice. English language proficiency is an important

measure of academic achievement and employment qualification in the regional workplace. As

many students would be required to produce written texts at higher education and in
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 5

employment, it is important to stimulate students’ awareness of the differences in the spelling

systems and what this difference signifies within the Caribbean region. The study will have

useful implications for the education field as it would provide insight into possible reasons for

errors in spelling performance in the English language classroom.

Literature Review

In the Caribbean, English spelling appears to pose challenges to students whenever they

undertake the task of spelling. These challenges at times may result in the mixing of the British
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 6

and American spelling conventions in their writing. Bowers and Bowers (2017) posit that the

richness of homophonic words in English could be one source of the spelling problems

experienced by students (p:128). Carney (1977:34) discusses how variant vowels are used in

the spelling of homophonic words such as ‘dear’ ‘deer’ and ‘dare.’ Therefore, instructions

catering to this convention must be made known to students so that they can eliminate errors in

their writing. Since the English spelling system is complex and irregular (Trask, 2016:24), an

awareness in the conventions of spelling must be assumed.

Students’ awareness of the differences between the two systems should help to mitigate

against the possible mixing of the spelling systems in their writing and at the same time develop

their knowledge of words. For example, the declension of the adjective ‘big’ to the comparative

or superlative forms is a problematic area for students. Most times, students omit the doubling

of the consonant thereby creating a spelling error. Hence the need for formal instruction in this

area to reduce or eliminate these types of errors.

Another problem is the choice of spelling variation to be employed. These variations in

spelling have stemmed from the two spelling systems, the English and American systems,

which are both utilized by secondary school students in the English-speaking Caribbean. In the

Bahamas and Trinidad, students’ perspectives on the differences between the English and

American spelling system is being researched. This literature review will survey and

summarize what researchers have written about secondary students’ attitudes to the two spelling

systems.

Since no policy exists in the Bahamas and Trinidad about the use of a spelling system,

the English spelling system of the colonisers is the preferred choice of both countries - hence,

the presumption by teachers that students are competent, proficient or average spellers of the
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 7

English spelling system. Nevertheless, it appears that the secondary students employ both the

British and the American spelling system, which generates both negative and positive

perspectives of both systems. Arftberg (2009), posits that generally secondary students show no

preference in a spelling system (p 18). He further states that students’ attitudes towards the

American spelling system are a positive one resulting in that system be used more frequently

than the English system. Porter’s (2003), research on students’ attitudes towards the two

spelling system, claims that students’ frequent exposure to Americanised spelling through

advertisements has fostered the American spelling. He further claims that the lack of a formal

spelling instruction propels students to utilise the spelling system that seems to be the easiest.

The differences in both spelling systems have produced a plethora of subtle spelling

variations, which students are requested to memorize because no spelling rule can be applied.

Daily proliferation in mass media and even social platforms of contrast in both spelling systems,

appear to have resulted in an effortless approach by secondary students in the act of spelling.

Carney (1997), lists the contrast between both methods of spelling. For example, the British

spelling convention of verbs ending with the sound /aɪz/ is ‘ise.’ However, the American

spelling is ‘-ize’. Thus, words like ‘criticize’ and ‘hypnotize’ demonstrate American spelling.

He further highlights the ending ‘-re’ in British words such as ‘litre’ and ‘metre’ as compared to

‘liter’ and ‘meter’ which are the American spelling convention (p. 65).

Venezky (1999), elucidates the difference in both spelling system where suffixes are

concerned. He opines that the final /z/ sound is uncommon in English spelling and is generally

spelt with the letter ‘s’ whereas in American spelling the final letter ‘z’ is standard. His

rationale explains Carney’s (1977), view on the English orthography ‘-ise’ versus the

American’s ‘-ize,’ which was previously mentioned. Cook (2004), also states that the British
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 8

spelling for nouns ending in ‘-our’ has the American spelling convention of ‘-or.’ As such, the

English spelling of ‘neighbour’ and ‘favourite’ is realised as ‘neighbor’ and ‘favorite’ using the

American spelling system. Likewise, Rua (2013), highlights suffix spelling in both spelling

system. The British ending ‘-logue’ in words such as ‘catalogue’ and ‘dialogue’ is consistently

spelt with the ending ‘-log’ in words such as ‘catlog’ and ‘dialog’ using the American system

(p. 82).

Spelling is an essential tool, which creates a bridge between written and verbal

communication. Therefore, the differences between the two spelling systems do not hinder the

students’ expressive ability, but promotes understanding and eliminates misconceptions among

users of the English language. The knowledge and application of both spelling system are of

equal importance because they provide individuals with the requisite spelling skills needed for

written interaction in the global village.

Methodology and Methods of Analysis

Study design

Given its origin in social science investigation, this study incorporated both the

quantitative and qualitative approaches. Also known as mixed methods research, it refers to the

deliberate mixing of qualitative and quantitative data within a single investigation based on the

belief that the combination provides a more complete and unified use of the data and a more

comprehensive perspective of the findings (Creswell, 2001). The mixed methods approach was
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 9

particularly beneficial to this study in that it proved useful in providing contradictions between

quantitative results and qualitative findings.

Sample Population

Since this study investigated perceptions that high school students have toward the British

and American spelling systems, the informants - thirty-three(17 Trinidad; 16 Bahamian)

students in total from each territory - were drawn from the Form Five (Grade 11) student

population of one high school in The Bahamas and Trinidad and Tobago. These target groups

were in the thirteen to seventeen year age range. Having completed their junior years, and

being on the verge of completing their final year of compulsory schooling, deemed these

students suitable informants for eliciting the type of information the study intended to

investigate.

Elements of Spelling System

This study specifically examined two spelling elements, namely the -iz/-ise, -or/-our, notable

differences between the American and British spelling systems.

Instrumentation

The data collection instrument consisted of a four-part questionnaire designed to elicit both

statistical information as well as participants’ lived experiences as secondary school students

learning English as a Second Language and specifically rules for spelling English words. The

first section consisted of biographic information; the second and third sections consisted of

multiple choice, yes-no and open-ended questions soliciting informants’ reasons for choosing a

particular spelling system, as well as elicitation of informants’ perceptions and attitudes

regarding the two spelling systems. In the fourth section, participants wrote a short dictated
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 10

passage consisting of an equal number of words from the two spelling systems, -iz/-ise, -or/-

our, provided by the researcher.

Data Collection and Analysis Plan

Collection of data was done during one of the lunch time periods. The multiple choice, yes-

no questions were analysed on the basis of students’ lived experiences, and the quantitative

results presented in tables, charts, and graphs.

The responses to the open ended questions were analysed, using an interpretivist approach,

for the major issues arising therefrom in keeping with the qualitative approach. Using the

outsider perspective, meaning was sought through rigorous interrogation of the verbatim

transcriptions of participants’ actual conversations (Patton & Cochran, 2002). The analysis of

these actual conversations, induced themes, and categories assisted in understanding the issues

which were revealed in the research. These issues were then identified and coded based on their

similarities and emerging themes, before being displayed by means of concept maps and tables

which told the story of participants’ experiences regarding the two English spelling systems.

.Limitations

This study was limited to two Anglophone Caribbean territories and two government-run

secondary schools, one in each territory, and one Grade 11/Form Five English classroom

respectively. Therefore, the findings may not be generalisable to other Caribbean territories.

The investigation will not seek the perceptions of other stakeholders.

Ethical Considerations

Two of the three researchers are English A teachers of the grade level being investigated.

These teachers ensured that none of their perceptions regarding the focus of the investigation

impacted the students’ responses on the questionnaire or influenced the interpretation of the
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 11

data. They assured participants that they were participating in a Caribbean research and that the

information would be useful to teachers and other stakeholders across the English-speaking

Caribbean. A consent form was incorporated in the instrument. Students sought oral

permission from their parents, and in some cases, teachers contacted parents using the

WhatsApp platform.

Presentation of Data

This section presents the data gathered from both samples using tables, graphs and

charts.

Criteria Bahamas Trinidad

Male 56% 18%
Female 44% 82%
Standard English Speaker 25% 24%
Creole Speaker 75% 76%

Figure 1. Table showing the composition of the samples from Bahamas and Trinidad

This table shows the composition of the two samples according to the criteria of sex and

language spoken by participants.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 12

Figure 2. Column chart showing the average number of American and British spellings

correctly identified by both samples

This column chart shows the average number of American and British spellings

identified by participants in each sample. The spelling variation used was -iz/-ise, -or/-our and

maximum possible score for each sample is eight (8).

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 13

Figure 3. Bar chart showing the spelling system preferred by both samples

This bar chart shows whether participants in both samples prefer the American or British

spelling system.
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 14

Figure 4. Pie chart showing the reasons for the preference for the American Spelling System in

both samples

The pie chart shows the percentages of the reasons why participants in both samples

prefer the American Spelling System.

Figure 5. Concept map showing the reasons for the preference for the American Spelling

System in the Bahamian sample

The concept map shows the breakdown of the reason for preference for American

spelling by participants in the Bahamian sample.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 15

Figure 6. Concept map showing the reasons for the preference for the American Spelling

System in the Trinidadian sample

The concept map illustrates the different reasons why participants in the Trinidadian

sample prefer to use the American Spelling System.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 16

Figure 7. Pie chart showing the reasons for the preference for the British Spelling System

The pie chart shows the percentages of the reasons why participants in both samples

prefer the British Spelling System.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 17

Figure 8. Concept map showing the reasons for the preference for the British Spelling System

in the Bahamian sample

The concept map illustrates the different reasons why participants in the Bahamian

sample prefer to use the British Spelling System.

Figure 9. Concept map showing the reasons for the preference for the British Spelling System

in the Trinidadian sample

The concept map shows the breakdown of the reason for preference for British spelling

by participants in the Trinidadian sample.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 18

Figure 10. Pie chart showing the reasons for the choice of spelling system being of concern to
the student

The pie chart shows the general reasons why students in both samples believe that the

choice of spelling system matters.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 19

Figure 11. Graphic organiser showing the reasons for the choice of spelling system being of

concern to the student

The graphic organiser shows the breakdown of reasons why participants in both samples

view the choice of spelling system as being of concern.

.
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 20

Figure 12. Pie chart showing the reasons for the choice of spelling system not being of concern

to the student

The pie chart shows the general reasons why students in both samples believe that the

choice of spelling system does not matter.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 21

Figure 13. Graphic organiser showing the reasons for the choice of spelling system being of no

concern to the student

The graphic organiser shows the breakdown of reasons why participants in both samples

view the choice of spelling system as being of no concern.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 22

Figure 14. Column chart showing the spelling system taught at school by both samples

The chart comparatively displays a high frequency in students’ beliefs that it does not

matter which spelling system is used. Whereas students in The Bahamas revealed an

approximately forty-sixty frequency in favour of does not matter, Trinidad students displayed

an approximately twenty-five to sixty frequency.

Category American British Spelling Both

Spelling System System
Bahamas Education 3 3 11
Workplace 2 6 7
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 23

Print Media 4 5 6
Online Media 7 3 5

Trinidad Education 4 9 3
Workplace 5 6 4
Print Media 6 3 6
Online Media 4 1 10

Figure 15. Table showing the spelling system used in different contexts by both samples

The table shows the different contexts in which students in both samples believe the

American and British spelling systems are used.

Figure 16. Column chart showing the average number of words from each spelling system used
by the sample in a dictation passage

The column chart shows the average number of American and British spellings used in

the dictation passage found in the data collection instrument. The spelling variant used was -iz/-

ise, -or/-our and the total number of words with the variant in the passage was ten (10).
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 24

Analysis of Data

In this section, the main research question and its four subsidiary questions are the focal

point to determine whether they are supported by the data presented in the previous section.

Additionally, the results generated will be compared with the literature to establish whether or

not they corroborate the current thinking and practices of linguists interested in the British and

American spelling systems and how these systems impact students in the high school

classrooms. Finally, the conclusions and recommendations would be discussed. The research

question and its subsidiary questions are aligned with those of the questionnaire, as Table 2

depicts.

Question Alignment to Data Collection

Instrument

Main Research Question To what extent are secondary

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 25

school students in The Bahamas

and Trinidad aware of the
differences between the
American and British spelling
systems? Do students in the
sample consciously use a
particular system and what are
their reasons for this choice?

Subsidiary Question 1- Are students in Section B

selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and
Trinidad able to identify the differences
between American and British spelling
systems?
American or British spelling system in words

ending with -iz/-ise, -or/-our?

Subsidiary Question 2 - Do students in Sections B and D

selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and
Trinidad consciously use the American or
British spelling system in words ending with
-iz/-ise, -or/-our?

Subsidiary Question 3 - If students in selected Section C - Ques 1, 2

secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad
consciously use either the American or the Section D
British spelling system, what are the reasons for
the choice?

Subsidiary Question 4 - What are the opinions Section C - Ques. 3, 4

of Bahamas and Trinidad secondary school
students about the use of either spelling system?

Figure 17. Table of alignment of sections to research questions

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 26

Comparative analysis of The Bahamas and Trinidad Samples

The sample consisted of a total of thirty- three secondary school students in Bahamas

and Trinidad. The Bahamas sample consisted of sixteen participants and the Trinidad sample

consisted of seventeen participants. Both samples were of the same class level, Grade 11 in the

Bahamas, which is equivalent to Form 4 in Trinidad. The samples were also similar in the

number of students who identified themselves as Creole and Standard English speakers

respectively. The samples had 3:1 ratio of students who identified themselves as Creole

speakers compared to Standard English speakers respectively (See Figure 1). One major

difference between the samples was the composition of males and females; the Bahamas sample

was more evenly distributed compared with the Trinidad sample which was predominantly

female (See Figure 1). Another difference in the composition of the samples was in the age

ranges; the Bahamas sample consisted of participants from ages thirteen to sixteen (13-16),

while the Trinidad sample consisted of participants from ages fifteen to eighteen (15-18).

The data collected focussed on two main areas in order to address the purpose of the

research and the research questions. Firstly, the word recognition and dictation exercises

addressed the ability of the participants to correctly identify and consciously American and

British spelling. Secondly, the open and structured questions provided feedback on preference

of spelling system and the reasons for the preference.

1. Are students in selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad able to

identify the differences between American and British spelling systems?

After the data collection instrument collected bio data, a word list was presented to the

participants in which they were to identify whether words are spelt using the American or
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 27

British spelling systems. The number of correctly identified words were tabulate and an average

found. In both the Bahamas and Trinidad samples, students identified more words with

American spelling than the British one (See Figure 2).

Out of a maximum score of eight (8) in each category, the Bahamas sample scored at

least 50%, while the Trinidad sample scored a maximum of 50%. Though both samples

displayed difficulty in correctly matching words to their respective spelling conventions, the

Trinidad sample had greater difficulty is correctly identifying the spelling systems used.

The data in Figure 2 provides information for the first research question; Are students in

selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad able to identify the differences between

American and British spelling systems? Participants in both samples were able to match

between 40% and 50% of the words with the corresponding systems correctly. Hence it can be

concluded that the ability to identify the differences between the systems is not well developed

in the students in both Bahamas and Trinidad.

The data also has relevance to the second research question; Do students in selected

secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad consciously use the American or British

spelling system in words ending with -iz/-ise, -or/-our? As participants in both samples cannot

match more that half of the words to the respective spelling systems, it indicates that students

will not be consciously using the variant spellings of -iz/-ise and -or/-our. The results are

consistent with observations by Ay and Uzin (2017) that showed despite the variety of English

identified with, participants in that study used features of both American and British English.

2. Do students in selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad consciously use

the American or British spelling system in words ending with -iz/-ise, -or/-our?
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 28

The ratio of preference for British spelling system and that of American spelling system

is 8:8 as opposed to a 15:2 ratio for Trinidad students. Furthermore, as depicted in Figure 10,

the comparison between the two sample groups revealed that the Bahamian secondary school

students used on an average seven out of ten American spelling words as compared to their

Trinidadian counterparts, who used three out of ten words with the American spelling structure.

It can be inferred that the prolific use of the American spelling system in the Bahamas may be

due to the geographical location of the Bahamas with the United States, thus language contact,

the tourism industry, and the Americanised advertisements may have been influential in the

American spelling system used by Bahamian secondary school students. The Bahamian

students’ affinity to using the American spelling system is consistent with Porter’s (2003) claim

that frequent exposure to American advertisements can influence the spelling system.

In contrast, the Trinidadian students were less inclined to use the American system of

spelling. Analysis of the data using the variants ‘-or/-our’ and ‘-ise/-ize revealed that there was

an equal number in the average amount between the two spelling systems (See Figure 10).

This evidence confirms that secondary school students in Trinidad do not consciously use the

two systems. Noteworthy, was the difference between the average of the incorrect spelling by

both groups. As evident in Figure 10, the result showed that students in Trinidad were weak

spellers with an average of four as compared to the Bahamian students who registered an

average of one. From this result, it can be inferred that regardless of whether the word endings

were learnt, no significant change would have been realised since the spelling inconsistencies

were not suffixed oriented.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 29

3. If students in selected secondary schools in the Bahamas and Trinidad consciously use

either the American or the British spelling system, what are the reasons for the choice?

Research clearly documents that knowledge of spelling is connected to reading, writing,

and vocabulary development because they all depend upon the same underlying language

abilities (Snow, Griffin, & Burns, 2005; Alstad et al., 2015); that spelling is foundational for

reading (Abbott, Berninger, & Fayol, 2010; Gentry & Graham, 2010; Moats, 2005; Reed, 2012)

as well as for writing (Kandel & Perrett, 2015; Graham & Santangelo, 2014; McCutcheon &

Stull, 2015). These researchers in turn confirm students’ convictions on the use of either

spelling system - that it does not matter. In fact, van Gelderen (2006) acknowledges that the use

of either the British or American spelling systems is done primarily for external reasons; that

despite the slight spelling differences the spellings are understood by both British and

American speakers and that the standardness of English makes the varieties mutually

intelligible. Pettersson (2008) finds that students’ choice of either the British or American

system is first influenced by their teachers, and later by the type of English to which they are

exposed outside of school. The fact that there exists a specific type of English - English as a

Lingua Franca (ELF) corroborates this belief, more so that American English is the most widely

used of the two dominant Englishes.

4.What are the opinions of Bahamas and Trinidad secondary school students about the

use of either spelling system?

Students from each of the territories have their preference for either of the two spelling

systems and valid reasons for their choice. One prevailing reason for choosing the American

spelling system and the British is its “ease of spelling” (BS7M; BS11M, /BS12F). Tottie
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 30

(2002), acknowledges that while most spelling differences are systematic, some have to be

learnt individually. The rules of each system are divided and organised into simplified rules

thus making them systematic. Because of its relatively shorter spellings, American spelling

system is preferred over that of the British.

Preference in the use of the spelling systems is shown in Figure 9. The majority of the

times, both sample groups use both spelling systems in the areas of education, for the Bahamian

students, and online media, for the Trinidadian students. From the results, it seems that the

Bahamian secondary school students had no preference in a spelling system in the area of

education even though the British spelling system was taught at the school (See Figure 8). For

Trinidadian students however, online media saw the mixing of both systems, which may be

because of students’ ability to interface with both American and British individuals on social

media platforms. Hence the subtle differences that exist between the two spelling system were

of less concern to the students. Venezky (1990: 6) acknowledges that variation is tolerated in

the spelling system. Therefore, both groups of students were not perturbed about which system

to use since meaning was not affected.

The concept maps (see Figures 5-6 and 8-9) show the themes emerging from the reasons

provided by students for their choice of British and American spelling systems. A comparison

of Bahamian and Trinidadian students’ reasons for their choice of the British spelling system

reveals great similarity in the emergent themes: ease of spelling and pronunciation; notions of

proper/standard, correct TS9F - British is proper English BS8M - British lang or proper Eng is

easier to speak ; and notions of English being world’s lingua franca BS13F - Mostly everyone

wants to learn English, Proper English helps with your future.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 31

Similar themes emerged for those whose preference was for the American spelling

system. Themes included ease of spelling pronunciation (TS, use, recognition; absence of huge

syllables ( ); personal preference (TS4F - I prefer it ; BB14M - It is something that I am

common to; It is something I use more often).

The preference by Trinidadian students to use the American spelling system in the

sphere of Online Media appears to be fostered by the myriad of American software designers,

which gave partiality to the use of the American spelling system. For example, the spell check

on computers caters to the American spelling. This advantage that is given to the American

spelling system will entice students to use the system regularly as opposed to the British system.

Overall, the results showed that the mixing of both systems might be an indication that the issue

of preference did not arise through each group was schooled in the British spelling system. This

result is consistent with Arftberg’s (2009), views that preference is not an issue with the two

sample groups.

Conclusion

Considering the importance of spelling and the role it plays in the language

communication, this study reveals that students in the two sample groups seem to be unfamiliar
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 32

with the differences in the British spelling system and the American spelling system. Though

the British system of spelling is the model taught at schools in both regions, data indicates that

the American spelling system is dominant over the British spelling system. Students show a

preference for the American spelling system because of its simplicity, usefulness and

recognisable features that make spelling manageable. Throughout the study, data indicate that

participants' knowledge of both systems differs as a result of the usage and preference.

The findings show that there is growing evidence that secondary school students resort

to the mixing of the two systems because they are unaware that differences exist between the

two spelling systems. Many students have given a plausible explanation such as manageable

syllables, as to why they prefer to use the American spelling system. Students who were unable

to use either method to spell a word correctly should be further researched to ascertain the

degree of incompetence in both spelling systems. Moreover, errors made in the spelling of

words should be analysed to determine whether the use of either of the two systems can correct

the mistakes.

For students to develop an awareness of the two systems, it is recommended that

specific instructions in the variants and their usage be part of the teaching and learning process

in the classroom. The method of declension should form the nexus for the teaching as well as

collaboration among course designers, textbook writers and curriculum officers. In this way,

the findings, in conjunction with the recommendations, would make it possible for students in

both regions to develop a working knowledge of the differences between the British spelling

system and the American spelling system.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 33

Works Cited

Alftberg, A. (2009). British or American English? – Attitudes, Awareness and Usage Among
Pupils in a Secondary School. Gothenburg: GUPEA.

Alstad Z., Sanders, E., Abbott, R.D., Barnett, A.L., Henderson, S.E., Connelly, V., & Berninger,
V.W. (2015). Modes of alphabet letter production during middle childhood and
adolescence: Interrelationships with each other and other writing skills. Journal of
Writing Research, 6(3), 199–231.
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 34

Ay, S. & Uzun, T. (2017). Unintentional chaos in vocabulary and spelling: British and
American English preferences of English teachers. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler
Dergisi, 8(1), 45-62.

Bowers, J., & Bowers, P. (2017). Beyond Phonics: The Case for Teaching Children the Logic of
the English Spelling System, Educational Psychologist. Retrieved from: https://content-
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T=P&P=AN&K=122253956&S=R&D=ehh&EbscoContent=dGJyMMTo50Sep7A4yOv
qOLCmr1Gepq5Sr624SLKWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPPk54713%2Bx8uePfg
eyx44Dt6fIA

Carney, E. (1997). English Spelling. Oxford, United Kingdom: Routledge.

Cogo, A. (2011). English as a Lingua Franca: Concepts, Use, and Implications. ELT Journal,
[Online]. 66/1, 97-105. Available at:
http://eltj.oxfordjournals.org.ezproxy.bib.hh.se/content/66/1/97.full

Cook, V. (2004). The English Writing System. London, United Kingdom: Arnold Publishers.

Creswell, J. (2001). A Framework for research design. 2nd Ed. Retrieved from:
https://ucalgary.ca/paed/files/paed/2003_creswell_a-framework-for-design.pdf

Graham, S., & Santangelo, T. (2014). Does spelling instruction make students better spellers,
readers, and writers? A meta-analytic review. Reading and Writing, 27, 1703–1743

Kandel, S., & Perret, C. (2015). How does the interaction between spelling and motor processes
build up during writing acquisition? Cognition, 136, 325–336.

Modiano, M. (1996). The Mid-atlantic Handbook: American and British English. 1 st ed. Lund:
Studentlitteratur. Retrieved from:https://epdf.pub/a-mid-atlantic-handbook-american-
and-british-english.html
Pettersson, J. (2008). British, American or Mid-Atlantic English: What accent do Swedish
learners use and where do they get their influences from? Retrieved from:
http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:5728/FULLTEXT01.pdfTitel

Porter, M. (2003). Spelling Attitudes and Abilities of Secondary Students (Unpublished doctoral
dissertation).

Rúa, P. L. (2011). English Spelling for EFL Students. Santiago de Compostela: Universidade de
Santiago de Compostela, Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico. Retrieved
from: https://books.google.tt/books?
id=4hl1daXN5VMC&pg=PA81&dq=british+and+american+orthography&hl=en&sa=X
&ved=0ahUKEwjC5ZmVyInjAhVFwFkKHaAKDl04ChDoAQgzMAI#v=onepage&q=
british%20and%20american%20orthography&f=false
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 35

Snow, C., Griffin, P., & Burns, M.S. (2005). Knowledge to support the teaching of reading:
Preparing teachers for a changing world. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Tottie, G, (2002). An Introduction to American English. 1 st ed. Malden, Ma: Blackwell

Publishers.

Van Gelderen, E. ( 2006). A History of the English Language. 1st ed. Amsterdam: John
Benjamins.

Venezky, R. L. (1999). The American Way of Spelling: The Structure and Origins of American
English Orthography. New York: Guilford Press. Retrieved from:
https://books.google.tt/books?id=jO-_5aZHK-
AC&pg=PA26&dq=british+and+american+orthography&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEw
jUmKK4lInjAhVPJ80KHWwdAHUQ6AEIQTAF#v=onepage&q=british%20and
%20american%20orthography&f=false

Venezky, R. L. (1999). The American Way of Spelling: The Structure and Origins of American
English Orthography. New York: Guilford Press

Appendix A

Data Collection Instrument

OPEN CAMPUS
UNIVERSITY OF THE WEST INDIES, MONA

Good day. Thank you for taking the time to participate in this survey.
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 36

I am a graduate student in the Master of Arts in the English Language programme coordinated

by the Open Campus of the University of the West Indies Mona. I am currently conducting a

study on students’ perspectives on American and British spelling systems. Please assist by

reading the list of words, completing the dictation and answering the questions. Should you

choose to participate, your identity will be kept confidential. Your name will not appear

anywhere on the survey or in our report. Participation in this survey is completely voluntary so

you are free to withdraw from the survey at any time. By agreeing to respond to these questions,

you are indicating that you have consented to participate in this survey.

Please complete Section A and the interview.

Please place a tick in the box next to your answer and/or write in the space provided.

SECTION A (All Participants are asked to complete this Section)

1. What is your gender?

□ Male

□ Female
2. What is your age?

□ 13
□ 14
□ 15
□ 16
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 37

□ 17
□ 18
3. What is your nationality?

□ Bahamian
□ Trinidad

4. What is the language that you use most often?

□ Standard English
□ Bahamian Creole
□ Trinidad Creole
_____________________________________________________________________________

SECTION B

This section checks your differentiation of two spelling systems: American and British. Place a
tick in the box that corresponds with the spelling system.
American British

1. honor □ □
2. sensitise □ □
3. computerize □ □
4. Valour □ □
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 38

5. recognize □ □
6. prioritise □ □
7. color □ □
8. behaviour □ □
9. individualise □ □
10. revitalize □ □
11. surprise □ □
12. favor □ □
13. concretise □ □
14. idealize □ □
15. flavour □ □
16. rigor □ □

SECTION C

1.Which spelling system do you prefer American or English?

____________________________________________________________________________

2.Provide at least TWO reasons for your choice in question 1.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

3. Which school spelling system is taught at your school?

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 39

American □ British □ Neither □

4.Do you think it matters which spelling system is used in your writing? Give reasons for your

response.

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

5. Is spelling taught as a component of the English A class? YES □ NO □

6.. Select which spelling system is used in the following settings: American English Both

● Education (school) □ □ □
● Workplace/Government Documents □ □ □
● Print Media ( newspapers, billboards, posters, flyers, novels) □ □ □
● Online Media ( Social Media (Facebook, Instagram, Online News, Blogs)□ □ □

SECTION D

Write the following dictated passage on the lines provided below.

STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 40

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________

Appendix B

Dictation Passage

Our Form Teacher spoke to us concerning our behaviour in class. He received reports from

subject teachers of our misdemeanours and heard rumours that we were loitering after school.

We clamoured to deny everything, but realised that he was unconvinced. He criticised us for not

capitalising on our educational opportunities. He spoke with great candour and reminded us of

the need to organise our studies and recognise our potential to succeed.
STUDENTS’ PERSPECTIVES ON AMERICAN AND BRITISH SPELLING 41

Appendix C

The data collected in the Bahamas sample can be accessed from

https://drive.google.com/file/d/139Jlgx3-__AEvVZDS7XqOMfrDEaaqU7a/view?usp=sharing

The data collected in the Trinidad sample can be accessed from:

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1gmHIwqKJa3qN-uKaPIYcDky_rGo3oXPd/view?usp=sharing