ADD THIS PARAGRAPH IN INTRODUCTION-

India is the second largest footwear producer in the world, with footwear production
accounting for approximately 9 per cent of the global annual production – 22 billion
pairs as compared to China, which produces over 60 per cent of the global
production. India annually produces 2.1 billion pairs of which 90 per cent are
consumed internally while remaining are exported primarily to European nations
which include United Kingdom, Germany, USA, Italy and France, as per market
analysts. India is the third largest footwear consuming country in the world after
China and USA, but with very little separating the three, India is very soon expected
to be the second largest consumer as well.

HAZARDROUS CHEMICALS USED IN FOOTWEAR INDUSTRY

Footwear manufacturing is one of the world’s oldest and most globalised industries.
Traditionally, shoes were made from leather, wood or canvas, but increasingly they
also can be made from rubber, plastics, and other petrochemical-derived materials.
For various types of shoes, such as Oxfords, derby, high-heels, sneakers, sandals
and athletic shoes etc., different materials and processes may apply.

Basic footwear components can be made from leather, textile, plastics, metal,
rubber and other synthetic compounds. A diverse range of chemicals are used in
various manufacturing steps such as leather tanning, dyeing, finishing, sole
manufacturing, leather finishing and footwear manufacturing. As global consumers
become increasingly conscious of health and the environment, growing attention has
been paid to hazardous chemicals and restricted substances used in the footwear
production process.
In the Rapid Alert System for non-food dangerous products (RAPEX) in the
European Union (EU) for example, in 2013, footwear and leather accounted for more
than 70 recalls due to restricted substance (RS) non-compliance.  More than 90% of
the cases were due to chromium (Cr) VI, which was followed by phthalates, dimethyl
fumarate (DMFu), nickel release, pentachlorophenol (PCP), banned azo dyes
(carcinogenic aromatic amines), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH), etc.
 
In addition to product recalls, reports also have been published concerning
worker intoxication involving Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC) generated from latex,
neoprene and adhesives used in footwear manufacturing. Toluene and
formaldehyde are also popular VOCs.

LEATHER FOOTWEAR

Chromium VI is considered to be a high risk parameter for leather footwear, because

more than 85% of all leathers produced globally use chrome-based tanning
technology. Tanning can help to improve leather’s dimensional stability and its
resistance to mechanical action and heat, but it can also bring in Cr VI as a major
risk., Although Cr VI is not intentionally added during the tanning process, it may be
generated in situ in leather through the oxidation of Cr III compounds, which are
added to crosslink collagen subunits in the raw hide. To minimize the risk, proper
tanning recipes and processes should be planned ahead, and the necessary amount
of antioxidant auxiliaries such as magnesium chloride also should be considered and
used. Proper pH control should be applied in neutralization steps in tanning in order
to control the formation of Cr VI. Besides in the manufacturing process, formation of
Cr VI from Cr III in leather has been reported during shipment and storage.
Temperature and humidity must be well controlled during the manufacturing process,
shipment and storage, as high temperature and low humidity favour chromium VI
formation. Besides Cr VI, the use of PCP and other chlorophenols should be of
concern as they are sometimes used as preservatives and biocides for leather.

PLASTIC & RUBBER COMPONENTS IN FOOTWEAR

Phthalates are important concerns for plastic and rubber footwear. Phthalates or
phthalate esters are a group of chemical compounds that are mainly used as
plasticizers to increase the flexibility of plastic. For example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
can be turned from a hard plastic into a flexible plastic by adding plasticizers.
Substitutes for phthalates may include acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), alkyl sulfonic
phenyl ester (ASE), diisononyl adipate (DINA) etc. 
Besides phthalates, nitrosamines and the vulcanization process are also used in
rubber footwear. Nitrosamines are often used in the manufacture of rubber products
and are carcinogenic. Although no footwear has been recalled because of
nitrosamines, relevant recall cases in cosmetics and toys have been reported by
RAPEX; Vulcanization is a chemical transformation which converts rubber or related
polymers into more durable materials with superior mechanical properties via the
addition of sulphur or other equivalent curatives in a heating process in an oven.
Vulcanization is hence a risky process.
For both leather and plastics/rubber components, desiccants are used during
transport and storage to prevent mould growth. Some desiccants may contain DMFu
that can cause a skin allergy. For metal parts and accessories on footwear, nickel
release should be strictly monitored and it is better to only use qualified metal parts
after proper processing and testing. For VOCs which are present in adhesives and
solid materials such as EVA, proper ventilation is necessary and appropriate
personal protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves or masks should be worn by
workers to avoid the health risk.