BIOL 1507E Histology I

Summary
A. Histotechnology
B. Tissues
C. Epithelial Tissues
1. Respiratory System
2. Digestive System
3. Urinary System
4. Reproductive System

When you examined the organs of the fetal pig, you observed the structures with
the naked eye. Anatomy at this scale is called "gross anatomy". Anatomy at the
microscopic level is called histology.

In this and the subsequent laboratories, you will examine, draw and label portions
of histological sections of tissues or organs. You will be provided with slides on which
the sections have already been stained and mounted. The slides will be observed using
the light compound microscope. Remember to always use the proper focusing technique
so as not to damage the microscope or the slides. If you have focusing problems please
ask the teaching assistants to help you.

A. Histotechnology
Histotechnology is the science that deals with the preparation of histological
sections. Histological sections are prepared by treating the tissue of interest according to
a specific routine. Typically, the tissue is "fixed", that is preserved, with a reagent such as
formaldehyde. After the fixing period, the tissue is completely embedded and infiltrated
with paraffin wax. This makes the tissue stiff and therefore easier to cut. The tissue is
cut or shaved into a series of thin sections using an apparatus called a microtome. The
sections are individually mounted on glass slides; the wax is dissolved away in a series of
baths then the tissue is immersed in a series of stains. Staining of the tissue provides a
greater contrast between the intracellular structures and their surroundings. The stained
tissue is mounted in a special medium under a coverslip to produce a permanent slide.

B. Tissues
In biological systems, there is a hierarchy of structural order. Atoms join together
to form molecules, molecules join together to form cellular organelles, cellular organelles
join together to form cells, cells form tissues, tissues form organs and organs form an
organism. In this and the following laboratory you will be studying tissues and organs.
A tissue is a group of cells with a common structure and function. Tissues are
categorized into four groups:

1. epithelial tissue
2. connective tissue
3. muscular tissue
4. nervous tissue
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In this particular laboratory you will be observing epithelial tissues and some of
the organs in which they are found.

C. Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue occurs in sheets of tightly packed cells which cover the external
body and line the body cavities as well as blood vessels, ducts and organ systems. The
tight packing of the cells is consistent with its function as a barrier, protecting the
organism against mechanical injury, invading microorganisms and fluid loss.

Epithelial tissues are classified firstly by the shape of the cells at the free surface
or most superficial cell layer and secondly by the number of cell layers which make up
the tissue. The free surface is the side of the epithelial cells that is in contact with the air
or fluid. The non-free surface is the side of the epithelial cells that is attached to a
basement membrane, a dense layer of extracellular material. There are generally three
cell shapes recognized in epithelial tissues: squamous, which are flat, cuboidal, which
are square and columnar which are cylindrical. An epithelium (epithelia plural) is said
to be simple if it has only one cell layer whereas it is said to be stratified if it has
multiple cell layers. A stratified epithelium is usually found in an area where the surface
of the organ sloughs off. Epithelia can be found in any combinations of the two
mentioned characteristics i.e. simple cuboidal, stratified squamous, etc.

Another type of epithelium, which has yet to be mentioned, is pseudostratified

epithelium. Pseudostratifed epithelium is a type of simple columnar epithelium, whose
cells are of different length and width, giving the appearance of multiple cell layers when
in reality there is only one layer. Cilia are sometimes present on the free surface of this
epithelium.

See Figure 1 for diagrams of the various epithelia.

You will observe slides of organs in which different types of epithelia are found.
You will also observe specific structures found within these organs. It is best to first scan
the slide at a magnification of 100X to familiarize yourself with the organ, and then you
can increase the magnification to 400X or 1000X to observe the epithelial cells more
closely. If you use the 1000X magnification make sure to use oil and to use proper
focusing techniques so as not to damage the lenses or break the slides. Do not forget to
clean the oil from the lenses and slides when you are done.

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Figure 1 Epithelial types

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Use your class textbook or photographic atlas to find diagrams and actual
histological pictures of some of the organs, structures and tissues that you are asked to
look at in this lab and the next. You can also make use of the charts available at the front
of the lab to help you identify the various parts of the slides you are observing.
Remember that when you look at a slide, the structures will not jump out at you and tell
you what they are! You need to read and find diagrams and or pictures which will assist
you in identifying what you need and which will help you relate to the slide.

1. Respiratory System
Lungs are part of the respiratory system, which functions in the release of CO2
and absorption of O2. Observe a cross-section of a lung. You should be able to identify
numerous alveoli, alveolar sacs, bronchioles and blood vessels. The alveolar sacs are
composed of groups of alveoli clustered around a common air space. One could compare
the alveolar sac to a bunch of grapes where each individual grape is an alveolus (alveoli
plural). You will observe that the alveoli have thin walls composed of simple squamous
epithelium. Note that the nuclei (nucleus singular) of the simple squamous epithelium
are somewhat flattened. The thin walls of the alveoli permit gaseous exchange between
the lungs and the rich blood capillary network found around the alveoli. The bronchioles
lead gases to and from the alveoli. They can be recognized by the folded inner wall.
Bronchioles are lined by simple columnar to simple cuboidal epithelium. The type of
epithelium depends on the location of the cut in the bronchiole. Blood vessels can be
recognized by the blood cells (orange-red color) found in the lumen (central canal).
Blood vessels are lined with simple squamous epithelium. Again look for the flattened
nuclei which tend to protrude into the lumen of the blood vessel.

Draw a LOW POWER PLAN of the lung at a 100X magnification. Label a blood
vessel, a bronchiole, an alveolar sac (identify with a square bracket ] )and an alveolus.
You can do a “composite drawing” to include all of the different structures as you will not
likely find a good example of each within one field of view. Use the full side of one
page. This drawing is to be handed in for marking before you leave the lab.

The trachea, also known as the windpipe, is a rigid tube that starts below the
larynx and travels down until it divides into the right and left bronchi, which enter the
lungs. The trachea is lined by ciliated pseudostratified epithelium. The cilia propel the
mucus towards the throat where it is expectorated or swallowed. This mucus captures
dust particles, bacteria and other debris that would be heading for the lungs.

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Look at a cross section of trachea. In the box below draw a section of the
pseudostratified epithelium only. The trachea will be revisited next week when we look
at cartilage.

Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium

2. Digestive System
The jejunum is the middle part of the small intestine. Examine a cross-section
section of the jejunum. Identify the structures that are in bold character below. The
innermost layer of the jejunum is known as the mucosa. It is a rather thick layer of
digestive cells that is highly folded therefore increasing the digestive surface area. You
will observe the finger-like projections called villi (villus singular). External to the
mucosa is a layer of connective tissue known as the submucosa. The submucosa
supports the mucosa and provides nerve, vascular, and lymphatic supply to the mucosa.
You will observe finer connective tissue fibers and circular vessels in this layer. External
to the submucosa is a double layer of smooth muscle called the muscularis externa. The
innermost layer of muscles is arranged circularly while the outermost layer is arranged
longitudinally. The function of the muscularis externa is to churn and propel the luminal
contents of the intestine via peristaltic action.

Take a closer look at the epithelium lining the villi. You should be able to observe
a simple columnar epithelium.

Draw a LOW POWER PLAN of the jejunum at a 40X magnification, showing at least
three villi. Label a villus, the submucosa and the muscularis externa, and bracket the
mucosa layer. Use the opposite side of the page with the lung drawing. Hand in this
drawing for marking before leaving the laboratory.

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In the following box draw the details of one villus showing the cells of the simple
columnar epithelium.

Villus showing columnar epithelium

Look at a slide of mesothelium (surface view). Mesothelium is the epithelium of

a thin membrane found in the abdominal cavity. This membrane covers the interior of the
cavity and, it covers the organs. The mesothelium produces a secretion which minimizes
friction during movement of the organs. When looking at the superficial view of the
mesothelium, you will note the cellular nature of the simple squamous epithelium which
forms a sheet. Note how the cells are very close to each other with very little intercellular
spaces. Do a quick drawing of the superficial view of a simple squamous epithelium in
the box below.

Simple squamous epithelium (superficial view)

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3. Urinary system
The kidney is the urine producing organ of the body. When the whole kidney is
cut longitudinally, you can distinguish three distinct areas; the outer cortex area where
the renal corpuscles are found; the inner medulla area where mostly renal tubules are
found (generally in longitudinal section) and the renal pelvis, which is the cavity into
which the collecting ducts drain and which leads to the ureter. Observe the model at the
front of the lab and draw a longitudinal section through a whole kidney in the box below
and identify the three areas.

Longitudinal section of kidney

Examine a slide of a kidney section. The renal corpuscle and its associated
tubules make up the functional unit of the kidney known as the nephron. On the tissue
section you will not see complete nephrons but rather cuts through parts of the nephrons.
Therefore you will not be able or expected to distinguish between the different renal
tubules on the slide, but you will be expected to identify them from the kidney model
provided in the laboratory. The renal corpuscle is a circular structure composed of an
inner mesh of capillaries called a glomerulus (glomeruli plural) and an outer capsule
called Bowman's capsule. These are clearly visible in the cortex area of the kidney
slide. Observe the lining of Bowman's capsule that is composed of simple squamous
epithelium. Again note the thin flat cells with flattened nuclei which protrude to the
inside of the capsule. The fluid fraction of blood passes from the capillaries of the
glomeruli into Bowman's capsule. From Bowman's capsule the fluid flows into a series
of tubules (proximal convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule)
then drains into the collecting duct which leads to the renal pelvis and out of the kidney
via the ureter. The fluid, now called urine, collects in the urinary bladder. The various
ducts and tubules can be seen on the slide in cross section and longitudinal section. You
will observe that most of these tubules are composed of simple cuboidal epithelium. In
the box below draw the complete nephron based on your textbook or the model and
identify the various parts in bold text above that refer to the nephron.

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The nephron and collecting duct

4. Reproductive System
Examine a slide of vagina. Observe the thick layer of stratified squamous
epithelium that lines the inside of the vagina. Note that in the most superficial layer the
cells are very flat whereas the in the deeper layers the cells tend to be more rounded or
elongated. Draw a small sample of stratified squamous epithelium as observed in the
vagina in the following box.

Stratified squamous epithelium of vagina