General Relativity: Theory of gravity

Sarthak Duary
International Centre for Theoretical Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Shivakote,
Bengaluru 560089, India.

E-mail: sarthak.duary@icts.res.in

Abstract: This note is based on lecture note ( http://www.hri.res.in/˜sen/grmine.pdf)

and video lectures (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tUzIjKpOAKA&list=PL8Jh6jb5VG7w4WEFu5mRKQRG_
A398p2aE) of Prof. Ashoke Sen available online.
Contents

1 An application of the equations of motion of a free particle–Gravitational

red shift 1

2 Universality of Principle of equivalence 3

3 Generalization to gravity 9

4 Construction of sources in terms of motions of particles 10

1 An application of the equations of motion of a free particle–Gravitational

red shift

The following section is based on Ashoke Sen lecture note page no. G.44, G.45 and G.46.
In this section we describe an application of the equations of motion of a free particle
known as Gravitational red shift.
We have

ds2 = gµν dxµ dxν = −dτ 2

=⇒ dτ 2 = −gµν dxµ dxν (1.1)
dxµ dxν
gµν = −1 .
dτ dτ
dxi
Consider a particle at rest =⇒ dτ = 0.
We have
 dx0 2
g00 = −1
dτ
dx0
=⇒ = (−g00 )−1/2 . (1.2)
dτ
Take a clock

∆τ = Proper time taken by the second hand of the clock to move one step
= 1 second .

In the locally inertial frame the second hand takes one second to move one step.
Time elapsed during this process

∆x0 = (−g00 )−1/2 × 1 second . (1.3)

–1–
If (−g00 )−1/2 < 1, the clock moves slower.
If (−g00 )−1/2 > 1, the clock moves faster.
But everything else also moves slower. So we will not feel it.
In order to see this we have to compare clocks at two different points with two different
values of g00 .
 −1/2
∆x0 = − g00 (~x1 ) × 1 second
 −1/2 (1.4)
∆x0 = − g00 (~x2 ) × 1 second .

Thus the ratio of the time taken by the second hand to move 1 second is given by
" #−1/2
∆t(1) g00 (~x1 )
(2)
= . (1.5)
∆t g00 (~x2 )

Larger g00 =⇒ lower ∆t(1) .

In the non-relativistic limit
2φ
g00 = −1 − . (1.6)
c2
We have
" #−1/2
∆t(1) g00 (~x1 )
(2)
=
∆t g00 (~x2 )
" #−1/2
1 + 2φ(~x1 )/c2 (1.7)
=
1 + 2φ(~x2 )/c2
φ(~x2 ) − φ(~x1 )
=1+ + ··· .
c2
Now,
1
ν= .
∆t
This gives
ν2 ∆φ
=1+ 2 , (1.8)
ν1 c
where
∆φ = φ(~x2 ) − φ(~x1 ) . (1.9)
Now for ν2 = ν + ∆ν and ν1 = ν we get
∆ν ∆φ
= 2 . (1.10)
ν c
This gives lower potential =⇒ lower frequency.
Gravitational potential near a point mass M is given by
GM
φ=− . (1.11)
r2

–2–
We have
!
∆ν GM 1 1
=− 2 −
ν c r2 r1
! (1.12)
GM 1 1
= 2 − .
c r1 r2

This can be experimentally verified.

∆ν is the frequency of a spectral line.
Note:
φ near a point mass < φ at ∞.
=⇒ ν near a point mass < ν at ∞.

This is called gravitational red shift.

The following section is based on Ashoke Sen lecture note page no. G.50
A clock is sitting at each point. Proper time elapsed between two successive pulse is ∆τ .
Clock at ~x(1) .

First pulse at x0 ; signal reaches ~x(2) at x0 + τ .

Second pulse at x0 + ∆x0 ; signal reaches ~x(2) at x0 + ∆x0 + τ .
Therefore we have
q
∆τ = −g00 (~x(1) )∆x0
∆τ (1.13)
=⇒ ∆x0 = q
−g00 (~x(1) )

Now, we calculate the proper time elapsed for the clock at ~x(2) between these two signals
which is given by
q
∆τ̃ = ∆x0 −g00 (~x(2) )
s
−g00 (~x(2) )
= ∆τ .
−g00 (~x(1) )

Thus, s
Period of clock at ~x(2) ∆τ g00 (~x(1) )
= = . (1.14)
Period of clock at ~x(1) ∆τ̃ g00 (~x(2) )

2 Universality of Principle of equivalence

Principle of equivalence can be applied to any system, not just a free particle.

–3–
 Equation of motion for a free particle is given by
d2 xµ µ dxν dxρ
+ Γ νρ =0 , (2.1)
dτ 2 dτ dτ
where
dxµ dxν
gµν = −1 (τ is the proper time). (2.2)
dτ dτ
This can be also regarded as a principle of equivalence because in the local inertial frame
where Γ is zero this is exactly the equation of motion of a free particle that we see in the
absence of gravity.
Now, suppose we are interested in studying how a particle behaves in the presence of a
force acting on it. Let’s suppose we try to use principle of equivalence to guess what the new
equations will look like.
Principle of equivalence tells us that if we go to a frame in which

Γ0µνρ = 0 , gµν
0
= ηµν (local inertial frame) , (2.3)

the equations of motion look like

d2 x0µ
= f 0µ . (2.4)
dτ 2
Here f 0µ is the expected force in absence of gravity.
Let, x be general coordinate system x0 (x).
!
d2 x0µ 2 ν
0µ d x ν dxρ dxσ
= ∂ν x + Γ ρσ . (2.5)
dτ 2 dτ 2 dτ dτ

Now, using eq.(2.4) we have

!
0µ d2 xν dxρ dxσ
∂ν x + Γ ν
ρσ = f 0µ (2.6)
dτ 2 dτ dτ

Multiplying both sides by ∂µ0 xα we get

!
d2 xν dxρ dxσ
δ αν + Γ ν
ρσ = ∂µ0 xα f 0µ
dτ 2 dτ dτ
(2.7)
d2 xα dxρ dxσ
=⇒ 2
+ Γα ρσ = ∂µ0 xα f 0µ .
dτ dτ dτ | {z }
define this byf α (x)

Therefore we have
d2 xα α dxρ dxσ
+ Γ ρσ = f α (x) . (2.8)
dτ 2 dτ dτ
Suppose x00 is another general coordinate system. We have
d2 x00α 00ρ
00α dx dx
00σ
+ Γ ρσ = f 00α . (2.9)
dτ 2 dτ dτ

–4–
where
f 00α = ∂µ0 x00α f 0µ
f α = ∂µ0 xα f 0µ (2.10)
=⇒ f 00α = ∂β x00α f β .
Example 1:
Consider a charged particle moving under the the simultaneous influence of electromag-
netic and gravitational field.
Q. What will be its equation of motion.
–1. In the locally inertial frame the equation of motion will be that of a relativistic
particle moving under the influence of the electromagnetic field.
–2. Convert this equation back to the general coordinate system.
Equation of motion of a relativistic particle in background electromagnetic field is given
by
d2 xµ
m 2 = fµ ,
dτ
dxρ
Relativistic force = f µ = qη µν Fνρ [Set c = 1] . (2.11)
dτ
Electromagnetic field strength tensor = Fνρ = ∂ν Aρ − ∂ρ Aν . (2.12)
(A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 ) , A0 = electrostatic scalar potential .
| {z }
vector potential

Ei = −F0i = ∂i A0 − ∂0 Ai
~
~ = −∇φ
E ~ − ∂A . (2.13)
∂t
1 X
Bi = ijk Fjk
2 j,k=1,2,3

F23 = B1 = ∂2 A3 − ∂3 A2
F31 = B2 = ∂3 A1 − ∂1 A3
F12 = B3 = ∂1 A2 − ∂2 A1
~ =∇
B ~ ×A
~ . (2.14)
For µ = i we have
! !
d dxi dxρ
m = q η ij Fjρ
dτ dτ dτ
3
!
dx0 X dxk
= q Fi0 + Fik
dτ k=1
dτ
!
dx0 dxk
= q Ei + ikl B l
dτ dτ

–5–
 !
dpi dpi dx0 dx0 dxk dx0
= = q Ei + ikl B l
dτ dt dτ dτ dt dτ
!
dpi dxk (2.15)
=⇒ = q Ei + ikl B l
dt dt
dpi h i
~ i .
=⇒ = q Ei + (~v × B)
dt
In local inertial frame (Γ0µνρ = 0 , gµν0 = η ) we have equations of motion given by
µν
principle of equivalence
d2 x0µ q 0 dx
0ρ
2
= g 0µν Fνρ . (2.16)
dτ m dτ
L.H.S. is given by !
d2 x0µ d2 xν dxρ dxσ
2
= ∂ν x0µ 2
+ Γν ρσ .
dτ dτ dτ dτ
R.H.S. is given by
q dxγ
∂α x0µ ∂β x0ν g αβ Fνρ
0
∂γ x0ρ .
m dτ
Multiplying both sides by ∂µ0 xδ
!
d 2 xν dxρ dxσ q 0 δ dxγ
∂ν x0µ ∂µ0 xδ + Γ ν
ρσ = ∂µ x ∂α x0µ ∂β x0ν g αβ Fνρ
0
∂γ x0ρ
dτ 2 dτ dτ m dτ
(2.17)
d2 xδ dxρ dxσ 0ν δβ 0 0ρ dx
γ
=⇒ + Γδ ρσ = ∂ β x g Fνρ ∂γ x .
dτ 2 dτ dτ dτ
Now we define
Fβγ ≡ ∂β x0ν ∂γ x0ρ Fνρ
0
.
We have
d2 xδ ρ
δ dx dx
σ q δβ dxγ
+ Γ ρσ = g Fβγ . (2.18)
dτ 2 dτ dτ m dτ
We can show that

Fβγ = ∂β Aγ − ∂γ Aβ

Aβ = ∂β x0µ A0µ
A00β = ∂β00 x0µ A0µ (2.19)
=⇒ A00β = ∂β00 xα Aα .
Aβ : rank (0, 1) tensor
Fαβ : rank (0, 2) tensor .
Equation of a particle in electromagnetic field derived from principle of equivalence

d2 xδ ρ
δ dx dx
σ q δβ dxγ
+ Γ ρσ = g Fβγ . (2.20)
dτ 2 dτ dτ m dτ

–6–
From general coordinate invariance

d2 xδ ρ
δ dx dx
σ q δβ dxγ δ dxα βγ
+ Γ ρσ = g Fβγ + aR αβγ F . (2.21)
dτ 2 dτ dτ m dτ dτ
Eq.(2.21) violates principle of equivalence. Even in local inertial frame Riemann tensor doesn’t
vanish. This is a demonstration that general coordinate invariance doesn’t necessarily require
that equation has to satisfy principle of equivalence. Principle of equivalence is a useful
principle to arrive at the correct equations to a very good accuracy. Principle of equivalence
is not a sacred principal. Sacred principal is general coordinate invariance.
Coefficient a should have a dimension of (length)2 .
From stringy corrections

a = (lp )2 = (10−33 cm)2 O(1) . (2.22)

We can ignore such terms for everyday purpose.

What are the equations which determine how electromagnetic and gravitational fields are
produced in the presence of a chargd particle?
Principle of equivalence =⇒ In the local inertial frame the em field equations should
be exactly identical to the equation that determine em field in flat spacetime. That’s the
guideline.
EM field equations in flat spacetime:

Fµν = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ . (2.23)

∂(µ Fνρ) = 0 ,
=⇒ ∂µ Fνρ + ∂ν Fρµ + ∂ρ Fµν = 0 . (2.24)
~ B
∇. ~ =0
~
~ ×E
∇ ~ + ∂B = 0 (2.25)
∂t
Eq.(2.23) contains the same information as eq.(2.24).
Dynamical equations (equations for the source) is given by

∂ µ Fµν = −Jν , (2.26)

where J 0 = ρ is the charge density and J i is the current density.

Eq.(2.26) is given by
~ E
∇. ~ =ρ
~
∇~ ×B~ − ∂ E = J~ (c = 1 unit). (2.27)
∂t
In local inertial frame (From principle of equivalence)

–7–
 0 0 0
∂(ρ Fµν) =0 (follows from Fµν = ∂µ0 A0ν − ∂ν0 A0µ )
(2.28)
∂ 0µ Fµν
0
= −Jν0 .
In a general frame
0
Fµν = ∂µ0 xρ ∂ν0 xσ Fρσ (x)
(2.29)
Define Jν ≡ ∂ν x0σ Jσ0 ,
we get
Dµ Fµν = −Jν . (2.30)
Eq.(2.30) is consistent with principle of equivalence.
Now we combine
Jν = ∂ν x0σ Jσ0 (2.31)
with
Jν00 = ∂ν00 x0σ Jσ0 (2.32)
to eliminate J0 and obtain
Jν00 (x00 ) = ∂ν00 xσ Jσ (x) . (2.33)
Now,
Fµν = Dµ Aν − Dν Aµ = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ . (2.34)
Now,
Dµ Fµν = −Jν
=⇒ Dν Dµ Fµν = −Dν Jν .
Now, Fµν is antisymmetric.
Using this we get
−Dµ Dν Fµν = −Dν Dµ Fνµ
= Dν Dµ Fµν
1
=⇒ Dν Dµ Fµν = [Dν , Dµ ]Fµν .
2
Therefore we have
1 ν µ
[D , D ]Fµν = −Dν Jν .
2
Now we calculate L.H.S. [Dν , Dµ ]Fµν
[Dν , Dµ ]Fαβ = −Rασ µν Fσβ − Rβσ µν Fασ
=⇒ [Dν , Dµ ]Fµν = −Rµσ µν Fσν − Rνσ µν Fµσ
= −Rσν Fσν + Rσµ Fµσ
=0 (since R is symmetric in two indices and F is antisymmetric in two indices) .
(2.35)

–8–
Therefore, we have
Dν Jν = 0 . (2.36)
It follows from current conservation law in flat spacetime

∂ 0ν Jν0 = 0 . (2.37)

3 Generalization to gravity

What are the equations that determine gµν ?

In weak field, non relativistic limit

∇2 φ = 4πGρm , (3.1)

where ρm is the mass density.

In this limit h00 = −2φ. The L.H.S. must be something constructed out of two derivatives
of the metric. We replace R.H.S. by energy density.
In flat space, energy-momentum tensor T µν transforms nicely under lorentz transforma-
tion. In local inertial frame define T 0µν as in flat space. In general coordinate system, we
define
T µν (x) = ∂ρ0 xµ ∂σ0 xν T 0ρσ (x0 ) . (3.2)
T µν transforms as a tensor. We replace the R.H.S. by aTµν , where a is some constant. The
L.H.S. is constructed out of two derivatives of the metric. L.H.S. is given by

bRµν + cRgµν . (3.3)

We have
Rµν + cRgµν = aTµν (dropping b) . (3.4)
Assuming in the local inertial frame

∂ 0µ Tµν
0
=0

we have
Dµ Tµν = 0
=⇒ Dµ (Rµν + cRgµν ) = 0 identically
 1  (3.5)
=⇒ Dµ Rµν − Rgµν = 0 .
2
It follows from Bianchi identity.

Ds Rijkl + Dk Rijls + Dl Rijsk = 0 (s,k,l anti.symm., R already anti.symm. in k and l gives cyclic perm.)
(3.6)

Multiply this by g js
Dj Rijkl + Dk Ril − Dl Rik = 0

–9–
Contraction with g ik gives

Dj Rjl + Di Ril − Dl R = 0
=⇒ 2Dj Rjl − Dl R = 0 (3.7)
 1 
=⇒ 2Dj Rjl − Rgjl = 0 ,
2
where Rjl − 21 Rgjl is the Einstein tensor.
Therefore,
1
Rµν − Rgµν = aTµν .
2
Now, we fix a. In weak field non-relativistic limit the 00 component of both sides give

g00 = −1 − 2φ
(3.8)
=⇒ −2∇2 φ = aρm .

where ρm = T00 . This gives a = −8πG.

Einstein’s equation is given by
1
Rµν − Rgµν = −8πGTµν . (3.9)
2

4 Construction of sources in terms of motions of particles

Let’s suppose we have a particle moving along a trajectory denoted by x̃i (t), i = 1, 2, 3.
Particle carries charge q. We are working in flat space.
Charge density is given by

J 0 (~x, t) = qδ (3) (~x − ~x̃(t)) . (4.1)

This tells us at any given time the charge density is nonzero if the coordinate ~x coincides
with the particle location ~x̃(t), otherwise this is zero. The normalization is fixed by requiring
that for any time t if we integrate over x we get q.
Similarly,
dx̃i (t)
J i (~x, t) = qδ (3) (~x − ~x̃(t)) . (4.2)
dt
Write a Lorentz covariant expression:
We use parametric form X µ (u), where µ = 0, 1, 2, 3. Here, u is the parameter along the
trajectory.
X: particle trajectory, x: spacetime point or variables that we want to vary.

X 0 (u) = t → solve this to get u as a function of t .

X i (u) → substitute in terms of t gives x̃i (t) . (4.3)

– 10 –
In flat spacetime (Minkowski spacetime)

~ 2
ds2 = −(dX 0 )2 + (dX)
= −(dX 0 )2 + (dX 1 )2 + (dX 2 )2 + (dX 3 )2
= −dτ 2
<0 for a physical particle . (4.4)
 dX 0 2  dX i 2
=⇒ =1+
dτ dτ
 dX 0 2
=⇒ >1 .
dτ
0
Choosing dX 0
dτ to be positive for physical particle. We can choose τ to be u. X is monotonic
increasing function of τ .
Therefore X 0 (u) = t gives unique solution.
Claim: Z ∞   dX µ
µ
J (x) = du q δ (4) xµ − X µ (u) . (4.5)
−∞ du
 
Proof: We use δ (0) x0 − X 0 (u) to do the u integral. Solving X 0 (u) = x0 = t (c=1) to
find u as a function of t.
This gives
dX µ 1
J µ (~x, t) = qδ (3) (~x − ~x̃(t)) 0 , (4.6)
du | dX
du |
using
δ(u − u0 )
δ(f (u)) = where f (u) = 0 at u = u0 . (4.7)
|f 0 (u0 )|
This finally gives
J 0 (~x, t) = qδ (3) (~x − ~x̃(t))
dx̃i (t)
J i (~x, t) = qδ (3) (~x − ~x̃(t)) . (4.8)
dt
Replacing u by τ (proper time) defined by

dX µ dX ν
ηµν = −1 ,
dτ dτ
we have Z ∞   dX µ
J µ (x) = dτ q δ (4) xµ − X µ (τ ) . (4.9)
−∞ dτ
For multiple particles with different trajectories and charges we have
Z ∞   dX µ
n
X
µ
J (x) = qn dτn δ (4) xµ − Xnµ (τn ) . (4.10)
n −∞ dτn

– 11 –
 Energy-momentum tensor/Four momentum current T µν :

T µ0 -energy four current i.e.T 00 -energy density and T i0 -current of energy density .
T µi -momentum four current i.e. T 0i -momentum density and T ji -momentum current .

Replacing electric charge by the four momentum defined as

dXnν
pνn = mn
dτ
in eq.(4.10) we get energy-momentum tensor T µν in the flat space given by
XZ ∞   dX µ dXnν
µν n
T(matter) = dτn δ (4) xµ − Xnµ (τn ) mn . (4.11)
n −∞ dτn dτn

µν νµ
Here, T(matter) = T(matter) .
Conservation laws:
Z ∞ 3   dX µ (τ )
n n
X X Y
∂µ J µ = ∂µ qn dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn )
µ n −∞ ρ=0
dτn
Z ∞ Y     dX µ (τ )
n n
δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) δ 0 xµ − Xnµ (τn )
XX
= qn dτn
µ n −∞ ρ6=µ
dτn
Z ∞
XX Y   d  µ 
= qn dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) − δ x − Xnµ (τn )
µ n −∞ dτn
ρ6=µ (4.12)
Z ∞ 3
X d Y  
= qn dτn − δ xρ − Xnρ (τn )
n −∞ dτn ρ=0
3 τn =∞

X Y 
ρ
=− qn δ x − Xnρ (τn )


n

ρ=0 τn =−∞
=0 (since Xn0 (τn = −∞) = −∞ and Xn0 (τn = ∞) = ∞) .

– 12 –
 3
µν
X XZ ∞ Y   dXnµ (τn ) dXnν (τn )
∂µ T(matter) = ∂µ dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) mn
µ n −∞ ρ=0
dτn dτn
XXZ ∞ Y     dX µ (τ ) dXnν (τn )
n n
= dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) δ 0 xµ − Xnµ (τn ) mn
µ n −∞ ρ6=µ
dτn dτn
XXZ ∞ Y   d  µ  dXnν (τn )
= dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) − δ x − Xnµ (τn ) mn
µ n −∞ ρ6=µ
dτn dτn
3
" #
XZ ∞ d Y   dXnν (τn )
= dτn − δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) mn
n −∞ dτn ρ=0 dτn
3
XZ ∞ Y   d2 Xnν (τn )
= boundary term + dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) mn
n −∞ ρ=0
dτn2
3
XZ ∞ Y   d2 Xnν (τn )
= dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) mn
n −∞ ρ=0
dτn2
!
d2 Xnν
=0 since for free particle =0 .
dτn2
(4.13)

Suppose we have a set of particles moving under a background electromagnetic field. Equation
of motion is given by
d2 X νn ν dX αn (τn )
mn = q F | α
n α X n (τn ) . (4.14)
dτn2 dτn
Now, we calculate
3
µν
XZ ∞ Y   d2 Xnν (τn )
∂µ T(matter) = dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) mn
n −∞ ρ=0
dτn2
3
XZ ∞ Y   dX αn (τn )
= dτn δ xρ − Xnρ (τn ) qn F να |X αn (τn )
n −∞ ρ=0
dτn
Z ∞   dX α (τ )
n n
X
= F να (x) qn dτn δ (4) x − Xn (τn )
n −∞ dτn
= F να (x)J (x) α
(4.15)
= F να (−∂ ρ Fρ α )
= −F να ∂ ρ Fρ α
= −F να ∂ ρ Fρ α
µν
= −∂µ T(EM )
!
µν µν
=⇒ ∂µ T(matter) + T(EM ) =0 .

– 13 –
where we use EM field equation

∂ ρ Fρµ = −Jµ (em field equation) .

µν
TEM is given by

µν µα ν 1
T(EM ) =F F α − η µν Fαβ F αβ (where indices raised and lowered by ηµν ) . (4.16)
4
Curved space: In local inertial frame

dXn0µ (τn )
Z
J 0µ (x0 ) = dτn δ (4) (x0 − Xn0 (τn ))
X
qn . (4.17)
n dτn

Now,
J ρ (x) = ∂µ0 xρ J 0µ (x0 ) . (4.18)
J ρ (x) is given by

dXn0µ (τn )
Z
dτn δ (4) (x0 − Xn0 (τn ))∂µ0 xρ
X
ρ
J (x) = qn
n dτn
dXnµ (τn )
Z
dτn δ (4) (x0 − Xn0 (τn ))
X
= qn
n dτn
µ (4.19)
−1 dXn (τn )
Z
0β
X
(4)
= qn dτn δ (x − Xn (τn ))|det(∂α x )|
n dτn
dXnµ (τn ) 1
X Z
= qn dτn δ (4) (x − Xn (τn )) √ .
n dτn −detg

Here, we will prove the identity given by eq.(4.20) and eq.(4.22) we used to obtain eq.(4.19).
Identity:
δ (4) (x0 − Xn0 (τn )) = δ (4) (x − Xn (τn ))|det(∂α x0β )|−1 . (4.20)
This eq.(4.20) follows from eq.(4.21) where we have for x1 , · · · , xn functions f 1 (~x), · · · , f n (~x)

n  n   ∂f j −1
 
Y  XY 
i i i (4.21)
δ f (~x) = δ x − x (k) det ,
 
∂xi 


i=1 k i=1
 
where ~x(k) satisfies f i ~x(k) = 0 .
Now,

gαβ (x) = ∂α x0µ ∂β x0ν ηµν

=⇒ detg = |det(∂µ x0ν )|2 (detη) (4.22)
=⇒ |det(∂µ x0ν )| =
p
−detg .

– 14 –
 In a general coordinate frame electromagnetic current is given by

1 dXnµ (τ )
Z X
J µ (x) = p dτ qn δ (4) (x − Xn (τ )) . (4.23)
−detg(x) n dτ

The way we arrive at this expression given by eq.(4.23) is we first calculate this in a
local inertial frame and then transform into the general coordinate frame.

Here, we drop subscript n in the proper time and call it τ instead of τn .

We derived the expression for the energy-momentum tensor in the flat space. This ex-
pression will take over as the correct expression in the local inertial frame. We have
µν 0ρσ
T(matter) = ∂ρ0 xµ ∂σ0 xν T(matter)

µν 0ρσ
T(EM) = ∂ρ0 xµ ∂σ0 xν T(EM)

The energy-momentum tensor in a general frame is given by

1
Z ∞   dX µ dX ν
µν n n
X
T(matter) =√ mn dτ δ (4) xµ − Xnµ (τ )
−detg n −∞ dτ dτ

µν µα ν 1
T(EM ) =F F α − g µν Fαβ F αβ (where indices raised and lowered by gµν ) . (4.24)
4

Here, Fµν ≡ Dµ Aν − Dν Aµ = ∂µ Aν − ∂ν Aµ . Conservation equation is

 
µν µν
Dµ T(matter) + T(EM) =0 .

– 15 –