10.1 Introduetion ‘The construction of foundations on rock will sualy involve one or more of the folowing three tasks. Fist, there is likely to be some roek exca- vation either by blasting, oF a non-explosive method such as pping or spliting, which mustbe done with care co avoid damaging the rockin the bearing surface. Second, some reinforcement of the foundation may have tobe installed to ensure fhe long-term stablity of the structure. Third, @ suitable bearing surface forthe structure wil ave to be prepared. Often these construction tasks willbe performed by an independent contactor ‘whose performance in allthis work will depend to a large degree on the specications to which he is working. Therefore, the construction of « stable foundation will depend not only on the preparation of reliable designs, but also on con- tract documents that define slearly the work required, and the rights and responsibilities of ‘the owner and contractor, and provide a fair level ‘of compeiisation. This chapter describes common construction methods for rock excavations, and sliseuses the principles involved in the prepare- tion of contract documents. 10.2 Drilling On most rock foundation projects there is = requirement to drill holes for such purposes as ‘geological investigation, blasting, the installation fof anchors or socketed piers, and the set-up of instrumentation. An example of the versatility in 10 ———————__ Construction methods 4riling equipment is shown in Fig. 10.1 where & benches is erin hoes for rock bots ina vertical cliff face, The bencher comprises a pneumatic percussion drifter mounted on a boom equipped With 2 chain feed; the boom is attached t0 the lif face with a rock anchor. The dilers are suspended on heavy-duty canvas belts atached with cacabiners to steel-core, hemprvopes which te specifclly designed for this t9pe of work ‘Theis supplies are carried ina spidgt(in the fore- round) which is an aluminum basket equipped with a pneumatic hoist motor; a stgel hoist rope attached toa pin at the top ofthe cliff allows the spider to be raised and lowered on the cif. Drilling methods that are commonly used on rock construction projects are diamond, pereus- sion, rotary and auger deling, with the ocea- sional use of equipment such asthe Calyx dil for large-diameter holes. In selecting the appropriate dling equipment, the following site conditions and requirements should be considered 1. Recovery of intact samples; 2. Length of hole; 3. Diameter of hole; 4 Directional tolerances; 5. Site access; 6. Strength and degree of fracturing of rock; 7. Depth and contition of overburden; 8. Availability of dling water; 9. Condition of wall of hole; 10. Drilling rates and costs. ‘This section describes common drilling methods and the conditions in which they may be used;284 Construction methods Figure 10.1 Rock bott holes being drilled in the face ofa vertical eff with a peumatic bencher [photograph by D. Wood information on drilling equipment and methods ‘may be obtained from such sources us McGregor (1967), SME (1973), Atlas Copco (1978), FHWA. (1982), Tamrock (1983), Boyles Bros Driling Co. (1989), and Longyear (1989). 10.2.1 Diamond drilling The primary use of diamond drilling is invest sation work to recover intact cores for the study Of site geology, and to obtain samples for Iabora- tory strength testing (see Section 4.3). Diamond rill may also be used in construction where itis necessary to drill long, accurately aligned holes, for where access space is limited and it is not possible to use percussion drils. Because dia mond drills rely on rotational speed and thrust rather than impact force to cut the rock, diamond Grils have smaller dimensions than percussion Grills, and are capable of driling to greater depth Diamond-rill holes ean reach depths in excess of 1000 m (3000 ft). The deviation of diamond dried holes is less than that of percussion holes because diamond drill rods are stiffer than rods used with percussion drills. Also, the steady thrust of a di. ‘mond drill causes less deviation than the impact in a percussion drill. With the use of appropriate casing and drilling mues, diamond-drill holes can ‘be put down in highly fractured ground which ‘would cave if drilled with a percussion drill The disadvantages of diamond drilling are the low advance rates and high cost relative to per- cussion drills. Also, the diamond bit euts a hole ‘with a smooth wall surface which will result in a lower bond strength for rock anchors compared with the relatively rough surface produced by percussion drills ‘The main components of a diamond drillDiilling 285 Figuts 10.2 Diesel powered surface diamond dil (courtesy of Boles Bros.. 1989). comprise a power unit which inay be a diesel or compressed-air motor, and a drill head that is powered directly from the motor through a gear box and gear train (Fig. 10.2). The funciion of the drill head is to rotate the crit string, supply f thrust to the drill bit and to advance the rods 2s the drill bit cuts the hole. The drill string com= prises lengths of drill rod which are fush coupled \d have a diemeter slightly smaller than the hole diameter, a core bartel which retains the drill core. as the hole advances, and the drill bit on the lower ‘end ofthe core barrel. The cutting face of the dill bit is empregnated with diamonds set in a metal alloy matrix, and the cutting action is achieved by applying a high rotational speed (about 2000 revimin) and low thrust (30 10 70KN, or 6700 +0 160001b). ‘tis essential thatthe bit is fushed continually with water or deilling mud to cool the bit, remove the cuttings and reduce friction between the dri siring and the walls of the hole. Where driling ffuid circulation is lost, casing or muds are used to seal fractures and zones of broken, permeable ground, Usual practice isto install casing through the overburden and seat the casing shoe in bed- rock to form a watertight seal through the per- meable upper formations. If the drill uid is lost in a fracture intersected in the bedrock, various types of muds can be used to form a cake on the walls of the hole, or the fracture can be sealed with grout, However, if itis later planned to conduct permeability tests in the hole, it is nec- essary to employ muds that will break down a few days after use, and can be washed out of the hole to leave the walls of the hole uncontaminated. In North America, diamond-coring equipment ‘dimensions are designated by letters as shown in ‘Table 10.1. For example, NOTT refers to: N size core, OQ designates wire line equipment, and TT designates @ triple-tube core barrel. Wire line equipment, which is used for deep drill holes, has 1 double-tube core barrel consisting of an inner ‘core barrel that is retrieved with an overshot assembly lowered down the hole on a steel cable, or wire Tine (Fig. 10.3). This system allows the core to be retrieved without the time-consuming286 Construction methods co Figure 10.3 Diagram of witeline core barrel and trplesube assembly (a) core-barrel teriever: () upper end of core barrel: and (c)lower end of core barrel and dil bit (counery of Alas Copco) process of pulling the rods atthe end of every drill fun. A triple-tube barrel contains a split inner tube that is pumped out of the barrel without isturbing the core. The split tube is placed on a cradle and the top half of the tube is removed, making it possible 10 log the core with minimal sisturbance. In comparison, the core is removed from a double-tube core barrel by pumping or hammering, which inevitably results in some disturbance to the core. 10.2.2 Percussion drilling Percussion drilling is the most common method of rock driling because of its relatively low cost, ‘and the high production rates that can be achieved (Fig. 10.4), While the predominant use of this equipment is for drilling blast holes, its also used 1 drill holes for rock anchors, socketed piers and drainage. The two main categories of percussion drills are pneumatic and hydraulic, with the drifier either being on the surface (conventional jack hammer or airtrac) oF in the hole (down-the- hhole (DTH) drills). The common range of hole diameters for this equipment is from 35mm (14 in) 10 150mm (Gin) for surface drills. and from 100mm (4in) to 200mm (Bin) for DTH drills ‘The maximum length of holes drilled with surface- mounted drifters is limited to about 30 10 40m (100 t0 1208), although efficiency tarts to dimin- ish at depths greater than about 20m (651). This depth limitation is the result of the difficulty in flushing cuttings from the hole, the reduetion efficiency as a result of loss of energy in the dil String, and the excessive deviation. However, DTH drills can drill holes to depths of about 300m (10004), because there is no loss of energy in the dril string, ‘The principle of percussion drilling is to apply a seties af impact forces to a tungsten carbide drill bit with sufficient energy to crush and break the rock, With each impact, the bit is rotated to expose a new face to the bit, while the eutings are continuously flushed from the hole with air or Water. The minimum flushing or bailing velocity for cleaning the cuttings is 1000 to 2000 m/s (3000 to 7000 {.p.s.). Thus the drilling rate depends on the following factors: the impact energy, the thrust on the drill rods, the rotation speed, the rate at which the cuttings are Bushed from the hole, the condition of the rock, and the hole dimensions, All these factors are considered in the selection of the most appropriate type and ‘method of drilling for each project.Figare 10.4 Tracked drillequipped In both pneumatic and hydraulic percussion sills, impact is applied by means of a recipro~ cating piston which strikes the bit or drill steel and produces a series of high-energy stress waves that are transmitted to the bit. The impact rate is in the range of 2000 to 3500 blows per minute. The reciprocating action of the piston is controlled by, “Table 10.1. Dimensions of éiamond dling equipment (Longyeat Ds ‘Hole diameter mm (a) AQ. 46.00.59) 26.9 (1.00) BOTT 60.0236) 335(132) NOTT 75.72.98) 4510.78) HOTT 96.0(3.78) 611 eb, POTT 122.7483) 85.03.27) * Wire loe series censors, AW. BW. NW. HW. Core diamaer mo (in) surface mounted hydraulie der (Tamrock Drills. ‘valves that introduce compressed air or hydraulic fluid alternatively at each end of the cylinder (Fig. 10.5). The shock wave travels down the drill steel at @ speed of about S000 (the speed of sound in steel), and the shape of the shock wave depends on shape and impact velocity of the piston. A pneumatic drill produces a shock wave Co) Casing OD* min) Dri rod OD mnt (in) 37.1.225) 445 (2.75) B02) 556 (219) 89 (275) $8.9 6.5) 1175 4.83)288 Construction methods Figure 10.5 Working principe ofa hydraulic drifter (Handbook of Underground Drilling, Tamrock). “The piston is ahown atthe frontend ofits stoke. Oil enter drifter through the high-presure port (1) and flows to the front par of evlinder (2). The piston isfored backwards and at the same time oll enters he distbution chamber pushing the disbutor (1) to the rear position. A portion of the «il enters the high-pressure accumulator (8) thats filled wit nitrogen. The ntvozen is compressed and accumulates eneray. "Te olin the ‘ear ofthe cylinder escapes through port (6) othe return por (7) The low-pressure aceumlator (8) prevents ‘hock load inthe return hose, that has a high peak stress, while the shock wave produced by a hydraulic drill is more uniform (Fig. 10.6). The result i that a hydraulic dil can produce a shock wave with higher total energy, Figure 10.6 Impulse curves for (a) hydraulic and (b) ‘pneumatic drifters (Atlas Copco). and therefore a higher penetration rate, than a pneumatic dil. Ifa pneumatic drill was to pro- duce a shock wave with the same total energy 2s the hydraulic drill, overstressing and breakage of the drill rods would occur. Rotation of the drill steel is either dependent ‘or independent, of the movement of the piston With dependent rotation, the drill rod is rotated ‘on the backstroke of the piston by a rifle bar. A system of ratchet and pawls allows the piston to travel forward without rotation on the forward stroke while the fluted rifle bar is positioned for the next stroke (Fig. 10,7). Therefore the speed of rotation, which is usually in the range of about 50 to 100revimin, cannot be changed to suit varying rock conditions. Independent rotation is achieved by a motor that operates independently ‘of the movement of the piston, and is both re- versible and has variable torque. ‘The advantages of hydraulic drills over pneu- ‘matic drills are the greater penetration rates (up 10 50% higher), greater control of the drilling functions, and reduced noise and exhaust mist. However, the disadvantages are the high capitalDrilling 289 ‘comprising ratchet and paws (Couriesy Ingersoll-Rand (Cov and Society of Mining Engivees, 1973). cost of hydraulic drills and the more expensive (8) Down-thechole drills Drills with the drifter mounted at the surface requite'that che impact energy produced by the ston be transmitted down the drill rods to the it. There isa significant loss of energy inthe drill string, that becomes greater as the hole depth increases. The efficiency of the drill ean be in ‘proved significantly by mounting the drifter in the hole immediately behind the bit which allows both larger-diameter and deeper holes (at least ‘300m, oF 1000 t) to be drilled, Other advantages of the DTH drills are lower noise levels, and reduced wear on the drill rods, However, the isadvantages are that the minimum hole di- ameter is limited by the cylinder diménsions 10 about 100mm (4in). Also, in short holes the penetration rate of a DTH dil is less than that of ‘ surface-mounted drill because of the smailer cylinder diameter of the DTH drifter. In highly fractured rock, DTH drills should be used with care because caving of the hole can result in loss of the drifter. 10.2.3 Rotary drills Rotary drilling is a versatile drilling method thet ean be used to drill holes from 75mm (3in) 10 430-mam (17 in) in diameter, and, in the case of wells, up to several thousand metres deep. The components of 2 rotary drill are a surface unit, which may be a standard diamond drill, that applies a torque and thrust to the drill string ‘and bit. The thrust applied to the bit may be as high S00KeN (1100001b) in hard rock in order to achieve contact prossures which arg;high enough to break the rock. The rotation of-the bit. at 2 speed of between 30 and 120rev/min, continu ‘ously exposes the bit to a fresh rock face Rotary drills can be employed in very soft rock. vsing drag bits, and in very hard rock using roller tri-cone bits equipped with tungsten carbide inserts (Fig. 10.8). In soit rock the bit serapes the rock, while in hard rock the torque and thrust applied to the bit produces a crushing and chip- ping ection. The cuttings are cleaned from the hole by either air or water which is forced down the drill rods and exhausted up the annulus between the drill rods and the wall of the hote. ary applications of rotary drills are in oil wells, and large-diameter blast holes in open- pit mines. They may be used in geological explo- ‘ation to advance the hole through materials such as boulder till and rock where there is no require- ‘ment t0 obtain intact samples. Examination of the cuttings and recording the advance rate will sive an indication of the geological conditions. 10.2.4 Overburden drilling Where holes must be advanced through @ con- siderable thickness of overburden overlying the290 Construction methods Figure 10.8 Rotary tricone dil bits: (a) soft-ormation. (b) medium formation. ()haré-formation. () tungsten carbide inserts for very hard formation (couresy Hughes Tol Co. and Society of Minne Engineers. 1973) bedrock, it is often necessary to install casing to prevent the hole from caving. Where the over- burden is soft soil, the casing can be pushed or driven, but in situations where the overburden is dense soil or contains boulders, it will be neces ary to advance the casing by deiling. Drilling economies can be realized if the casing instal lation and rock drilling can be carried out in one ‘operation using the same drill rig. Drilling $96 tems that can perform these dual operations are diamond drilis, or two percussion methods, namely the Tubex (previously Odex) systemDuilling 291 Figure 10.9 ODEX drilling ystem for setting casing through overburden (courts? alas Copco), 4, Shoulder. Bittube 3. Guide. 4 Reamer 5. Pilot bit. manufactured by Sandvick, and the Klemm drill, ‘The Tubex bt, which is used with either surface mounted of down-the-hole percussion drills, ‘comprises a reamer mounted on a’cam behind a tungsten carbide insert pilot bit Fig. 10.9). When a torque is applied to the drill rods the reamer expands the pilot hole to 2 diameter just larger than the easing and the shoulder on the guide advances the casing. When the casing has been seated in bedrock and the torque is reversed, the reamer contracts and the bit can be-withérawn through the casing. Hole diameters drilled with Tubex bits are shown in Table 10.2. ‘The Klemm drill uses a wo-tube drilling system and a top-drive hammer to rotate and impact both the outside casing and the inside drill rods. The end of the casing Is equipped with a ring bit to ream out the pilot hole driled with the tungsten carbide bit on the drill rods. The drill rods can ‘be advanced independently in the rock once the ‘easing has been seated in the bedrock and the (mm) (in) (ram) fia) overburden driling is complete. Cuttings are cleaned from the hole using air or water pamped dowa the drill rods and returned in the space between the rods and the casing. 10.25 Large-iameter ring Large-diameter (greater than abouit-0.6m, or 2ft) Ail holes may be required for such, purposes os ‘etaled in sie inspections of dam foandations, ot the instalation of rock-socketed pieis. Holes of these dimensions ean be dled with augers (in soft rock) or pereussion methods where no core recovery is required, or by the Calyx method there i a need to recover core. ‘Augers are used in overburden and soft rock with compressive strengths up to 30MPa (4350, asi.) where the material is strong enough for the walls of the hole to stand unsupported. The advantages of augering are the high penetration rates, the low noise levels, and that no flushing medium is required to remove cuttings from the hole. In shor eles, coatinuous-ight augers are used where the excavated material is brought to the surface by the rotating fights and the dill firing is not Brought to the surface until the hole is complete. For larger holes, the 2 to 3m (6 to 108) long auger is lowered into the hole on the Loaded noes 2 _Unicacea eo Line ar tole Figure 10.18 Layout of pre-shear and line holes to excavate rockin tight corner: (a) pattern when excavation 1 inside pre'shear plane; and (b) pattern when excavation isoutsde presshear plan. within the rock is called the primary or P wave which is a compressive wave that produces par- ticle motion in the direction of propagation. The slower body wave is called the secondary or S \wave whieh isa shear wave that produces motions perpendicular 10 the direction of propagation. ‘The surface wave, which is slower than either the Por S wave, is named after Rayliegh who proved its existence, and is known as the R wave. In terms of vibration damage, the R wave isthe mostBlasting and non-explosive rock excavation 301 ‘supuai” TEeEND A design grave 444+ approumate oxet of Figure 10.16 Comparison of extent of over-excavation when sing vertical and inclined blast holes to excavate foundation: () inclined bl important because it propagates along the ground surface, and because its emplitude decays more slowly with distance travelled than either the P or S wave, ‘The wide variations in geometrical and geo {ogical conditions on typical blasting sites preclude the calculation of ground vibration levels by means of elastodynamic equations, Therefore, poles; 2nd (o) vertical Bast holes. the most reliable predictions are given by empir- jeal relationships developed from the measure- ment of vibration levels produced by full-scale blasts. "The potential of damage to a structure {rom blast vibrations ie related to the response of the structure to passing vibrations. Damage occurs ‘when differential movement between structural302 Construction methods ‘members or between different points in the same structural member causes strains to develop Which, in turn, cause cracking (Dowding, 1985). ‘The strain induced in a structure is related both to the magnitude, and to the frequency of the vibration. Numerous studies that examined the level of ‘ground vibrations that induce damage in struc- tures, ané particularly in residential structures, hhave shown that damage potential can_most readily be correlated with the particle velocity (Siskind er al., 1976; Siskind er al, 1980; Stage, 1984). The particle velocity is a measure of the velocity of particles of ground during passage of the shock wave, and not the propagation velocity of the shock wave itself. The stress wave has three components ~ ver- tical, longitudinal and transverse ~ and itis nec- ‘essary to measure all three components and use the greatest, termed the peak particle velocity (PPV), to assess damage potential. The magri- tude of the PPV is related both to the radial distance from the blast (R.) ang to the explosive weight (W.) detonated per delay by? roren Se) where kz and Rare constants which have to be determined by measurements of vibrations at ceach particular blast site; the term (Re/V/W.) is known as the sealed distance, Equation (10.3) plots as a straight line on log-log paper in which &. is the intercept on the (20.3) 100 00 00 06 200 Peak Velociy 10 Irom seated den 90 Fi wo 20 904050 100 ma" Figure 10.17 Typical plot of measured peak particle velocity versus scaled distance for a series of blastsBlasting and non-explosive rock excavation 303 GPE ee eee eee eee eee eee eee velocity axis at a sealed distance of 1.0, and Beis the slope of the line (Fig, 10.17). The results of vibration measurements for surface blasts show that values ofthe constanis k, and fi are (Oriard, 1971; Golder Associates, 1989): ke = 400 to 1600, By = ~1.5 units: PPV — sms, Rem, We kgi ke = 50 to 200, ip = 1.5 units: PPV = inks, Re~ fh, We =. For preshear blasts where the explosive is more highly confined, the constant ke can reach values ‘of 6400 (metric) or 800 (imperial) Equation (10,3) can be solved to predict ground vibration levels for a particular blast. Alterna tively, the maximum allowable explosive weight per delay can be calculated to ensure vibration levels will be below a certain threshold level at a specified distance from the blast. Where equation 0.3) shows that vibrations will be close to eriti= fal levels, it is preferable to measure. actual Nibrations 0 establish reliable values for the constants k, and Ba. (2) Damage thresholds ‘Test programmes have determined the threshold vibration levels that may result in damage to structures of various types, as well as the Vibra- tion levels that are pereeptible and objectionable to humans (Table 10.3). ‘Table 10.3 Peak partie velocity damage threshold levels Threshold velocity mis (ints) Description of damage 3-5 (012-02) Vibrations percepibte ro humans 33-50013-2) fons objectional to humans 2@ Limit below which sk of damage 0 flruetures, even od buildings. very slight (= 5%). AMO, no ‘damage to underground uit. Damage‘ restrained, monolithic ‘concrete walls. 250(19) ‘The velocity of SOmm/s (2in/s) is used as 2 damage thresholé for a wide range of structures ‘and is accepted as a practical limit in many blast- ing operations. For the results shown in Fig. 430.17, i was necessary that the scaled distance exceeded 6.35 m/kg?? to ensure that the velocity ‘was below SOmm/s. “The frequency of the vibration is also of im- portence in assessing damage potential. If the principal frequency, that is the frequency of ‘greatest amplitude pulse, is approximately equal fo the natural frequency of the structure, then there isa greater risk of damage than ifthe prin- cipal and natural frequencies are significantly different (Dowding, 1985). The natural frequency lof two-storey residential buildings is in the range of Sto 20H, and the natural frequency decreases ‘with increasing height of the structure. The prin cipal frequency of a blast will vary with such factors as the type of blast, the distance between the blast and the structure, and the material through which the ground. vibrations travel. ‘Typical construction blasts produce vibrations with principal frequencies in the range of about 50 to 100Hz. It is found that large quarry blasts: produce vibrations with lower principal fre~ ‘quencies than do construction blasts, that prin= Cipal frequencies decrease withincreasing distance due to frequency attenuation, and that vibrations ‘measured in rock have higher frequencies then ‘those measured in soil, 10.3.5 Vibration in uncured concrete On some construction projects there may be @ need to carry out blasting operations close to ‘uncured concrete. Under these circumstances, explosive charge weights per delay should be Gesigned to keep ground vibrations to within limits which are determined by the age of the conerete, the distance of the concrete from the blast, and the type of structure, Figure 10.18 and Table 10.4 show an approximate relationship between allowable peak particle velocity levels and the concrete age (Oriard, 1980). At ages less than 4 hours, the conerete has not yet set and somewhat higher vibration levels are permissible303. Construction methods Tne ae aS eS 2 a = ; = : set : ee i) ba 10 & : = Ae a : ‘ : eee eee Time trom batening (touts) Figure 10.18 Approximate maximum allowable vibration leyelsin uncured concrete (Oriard and Coulson. 1980) {G)non-strucaral fil mass conerete: nd (i) slucturalconerete walls, slabs ais for 10 15m (S04) ane bis for greater than 75m (2508) than during the petiod of between 4 and 24 hours ‘when the concrete is taking is initial set Figure 10.18 also shows that vibration levels ‘ust be reduced with increasing distance. Con- Grete can withstand higher vibration levels at higher frequencies, because at low frequencies sgreater deflections will be induced in the struc ture. This is of particular concern for structural walls of freshly poured concrete. Vibration fre- quencies decrease as the distance from the blast increases because there is an attenuation of frequency with distance. The result of this fre- 4queney attenuation is that, at equal curing times, higher vibration levels ate permitted at closer distances as shown by the two series of lines marked ‘a’ and °b’ on Fig. 10.18. In critical conditions it is recommended that vibration measurements and strength tests be conducted 10 confirm the performance of the conerete and the relationships given in Fig. 10.18.‘Bearing surface improvement and rock reinforcement 305 ‘Table 104 Ilustration of maximum particle velociy stance criteria for blasting near uncured concrete Tinefrom Nonstructural fll Siructoal walls, Botching —andmass concrete sirutral (hows). ‘mons fins) concrete slabs ‘ml ins) 100 (3) 4, 30) 4, 25 () 4, 6 (0.25) ae 40 (1.5) a 25) 4 15 (3) 4, 50@) 4 200 @) 4, Bs) a, ‘over 200 375 (15) & 250 (10) r= dane fetr to seco for requeacy avenaaton = l0when dance S020 13m (Os0508) 0 Swhenastanc 1503009 (30 0 120, 07 when eiaree 201080 m (150025000, Zoibuthen disnces over 30m Cover 2500), 10.3.6 Non-explosive excavation Where an excavation must be made to close dimensional tolerances, ot where vibration levels must be restricted to very low levels, it may be appropriate to use non-explosive ‘excavation ‘methods rather than blesting, Three common methods are impact hammers, hydraulic splitters, and expansion compounds. Of these three, im- pact hammers are the most efficient and in some circomstances can be more economical than blasting. However, the disadvantages of this method are that the hammer is mounted on an ‘excavator boom, and space is required to accom- rmodate the excavator. Another disadvantage is the loud and continual noise generated during its operation. Excavation with both hydraulic splitters and expansion agents involves drilling closely spaced holes (about 150 to 200 mm, or 6 ta 8in spacing) along the required excavation line and then applying a high internal pressure to the bore holes. In the case of the hydraulic splitter the internal pressure is developed by a wedge that is pushed by hydraulics between two tapered platens. In the case of expansive cement, the pressure is developed when the cement is mixed with water and confined in a borehole. This pressure is sufficient to generate fractures that will form preferentially between the drill holes that act as stress concentrators. These methods produce the best results in massive rock or con- ‘rete; in fractured rock it can be difficult to con- tuol the direction of the cracks, The advantages of hydraulic splitters and expansion agents are lack of noise and vibration, fand the precise control over exeavation limits, ‘The disadvantages are that both these methods are slow and costly and are not suitable for the ‘excavation of large volumes of rock. Most expan- sion agents roquite a period of about 5 to 12 hours to break the rock, 10.4 Bearing surface improvement and rock reinforcement Prior to construction of a footing it may be nec- ‘essary to take stops, depending on the geological and geometrical conditions at the site, to prepare 1 suitable bearing surface, and reinforce the foundation rock. The purpose of this work would bee to ensure that the rock has adequate bearing capacity, and that there is no excessive movement (of weathering of the foundation rock during the dlosign life of the structure. In addition to stabil- iation work carried out at the time of construc- tion, remedial work may also be necessary during the structure's service life. Remedial work is most ‘often requited in climates where the rock is sub- jected to frequent freeze/thaw cycles or heavy precipitation, or where the rock is susceptible 10 ‘weathering Figure 10.19 shows examples of a variety of surface preparation and reinforcement measures that may be applicable on rock construction projects (Wyllie, 1979, 1991; Cheng, 1987; Romana and Izquierdo, 1967; FHWA, 1982). In Fig. 10.19 the footing is located on a bench cut into a steep rock face. The rock contains a set of joints that dip out of the slope face at an angle of about 30" and there is a potential for sliding failures on these surfaces. The rock also contains 2 fault that is parallel to the major joint set. and ‘weathering ofthe broken rock below the fault has formed a cavity in the rock face. In the bearing306 Construction methods Figure 10.19 Surface preparation and reinforcement of rock foundation 1. Trim blast ocreate level bearing surface 6, Tensioned rock enchors ta reinforce rest of 2. Loose ané broken rock leaned from bearing foundation surface. 7. Tensioned, multi-strnd anchors installed to prevent 3, Lean coneretefilin seam of weak rock shea failure on fault cipping out of slope face. 4 Shoterete with drain oes to contrl rock 8. Concrete buttress to support cavity ‘weathering and frost action 9. Drain hoe 1o prevent buld up of water pressure ‘5, Pinsto prevent loosening and movement of jointed behind buttress. reekBearing surface iraprovement and rock reinforcement 307 area there is @ seam of crushed and sheared rock that dips at an angle of about 65° into the face. ‘The block formed by the intersection of the faut and the seam of sheared rock will be potentially tunstabie under the loads applied by the structure. ‘The following is a brief description of the stabili- zation work illustrated in Fig. 10.19; design pro- cedures for the work illustrated in Fig, 10.19 are provided in Chapters 5, 6 and 9. 10.4.1 Trim blasting (1) ‘The formation of a planar, level bearing surface may required controlled blasting or a non-explo- sive excavation method. Where possible, the bearing surface should be at right angles to the direction of the, applied load so there is no ten- dency of the footing to slide. Also, there should ‘be no irregular protrusions or cavities so that the bearing pressure will be uniform across the full ‘area of the footing, and there will be no stress ‘concentrations induced in the footing. 10.4.2 Surface preparation (2) Following excavation of the rock, the bearing surface should be cleaned thoroughly ofallbroken, loose and weathered rock using high-pressure air ‘of water hoses, Note that levelling of the base of a blasted excavation with a dozer will rarely pro- duce an adequate structural bearing surface. If there are any cavities in the surface they will be filled with broken rock that cannot be compacted by a dozer because the bearing pressure of the tracks is very low. 10.4.3 Dental concrete (3) [Ifthe bearing surface is intersected by a seam of. crushed or faulted rock, this can be sub-excavated to a depth equal to at least twice its width and thea back filed with lean concrete. This proce- dure will probably be satisfactory where the fault width is not more then about one quarter to one third of the footing widch. If the fault width is ‘greater than one third of the footing width, the ‘design bearing pressure should be reduced ac- ‘cordingly, and a more extensive dental concreting programme may be required. 10.4.4 Shoterete (4) ‘Shotereteis pneumatically applied, fine-aggregate mortar (less than 13mm or 1/2in aggregate size) that is usually placed in a 75 to LOOmm (3 t0 4 in) thick layer (ACI, 1983). When applied on surface ‘excavations, the primary functions of shoterete are to prevent loosening and weathering of the ‘surface rock; negligible support of the overall slope is provided. The effectiveness of shotcrete ‘depends to a large degree on the condition of the rock surface to which itis applied. The surface should be free of organic matter, soil and broken rock, and should also be damp to ensure good adhesion between the shotcrete and the rock. ‘The shoterete applications shown in Fig. 10.19 ‘will prevent the seepage of run-off, water under the footing, and wil also prevent lodscning of the rock along the crest of the bench, git which the footing is located. It is important, that there be drain holes through the shoterete to prevent build up of water pressures; the drain holes are ‘usually about 0.5m long onl to 2ni‘centres. Tn massive rock the drain holes should be drilled before the shoterete is applied s0 that the holes ‘can be located to intersect fractures along which ‘seepage water is flowing. The holes are tem- poravily plugged with rags or wooden plugs while the shoterete is applied. For all permanent applications, shotcrete should be reinforeed to reduce the risk of erack- ing and spalling. The two most common types of reinforcement are welded wire mesh and stee! fibres. Wire mesh is the more common reinforce- ment method but steelfibre reinforcement is ‘gaining acceptance because of the reduced instal- lation time and, on irregular rock surfaces, the final product is superior. Wire mesh reinforcing Wire mesh is usually fabricated from 3.5mm (0.13 in or 10 geuge) diameter wire on minimum 100mm (4in) centres and is attached to the rock surface with threaded pins, complete with a nut308 Construction methods and washer. The pins are grouted into holes dled inthe rock on about | to 2m @ to 64) centres, and located at low points to hold the mesh close to the rock face so thatthe mesh will be encased entirely in shotcrete, Wire mesh can only be used on reasonably uniform surfaces because its sifnes preventsit from being attached dlosely to irregular surfaces. It is usually not acceptable to use the more flexible chain link mesi because the 0 mm (2) opening size is 100 small for complete penetration of the aggregate, with the result that voids may be formed behind the mesh. An alternative method of instaling imesh is 10 place it between two layers of shot. crete, with the fist layer creating a smoother surface to which the mesh can be attached closely. Steere reinforcing ‘The instalation of mesh to reinforce shotrete is time consuming and labour intensive. In com- parison, shoterete containing stel fibres as the reinforcement medium can be applied ina single pass on izepular surfaces and the extra cost of the fbres is more than compensated for by the saving in installation time over mesh. Widely Used fibres are manufactured ffom high-strength carbon steel with dimensions of 30 0 38mm (1.2 to 1.5in) long and 0.5mm (0.02%) equivalent iameter. Thefibresare deformed orhave eimped aT eee! Descrmation ends to resist pullout and their principal function is to increase significantly the tensile and post= crack strength of the shotcrete compared to non- reinforced shoterete (Fig. 10.20), Shoterete prop- erties are specified 2s follows: 1. Compressive strength — usually about 20MPa (2900 p.s..) at 3 days and 30MPa (4350 p.s.i.) at 7 days; >. Firstcrack flexural strength ~ (4.5MPa or'650 psi. at7 days); Toughness index which determines the post: crack strength. The procedure for the caleu- lating toughness indices fe and 1 is shown on Fig. 10.20; toughness indices of 1, = 4 and ‘ho = 6 are suitable for most applications. Shoterete is tested by cutting samples from a 0.6m (24in) square by 0.1m (4in) tick test panel that is shot atthe same time and with the same mix and pump as the production shotcrete. The samples are tested ina compression machine to determine the compressive strength. and in bending to determine the flexural srength and the fs and fp indices (ASTM, 1985) Steel‘ibre reinforced shotcrete can be applied using standard shotcrete equipment, although the ‘wear to the pump and hose is somewhat ereater than when used to place non-fre mix. Pumping Of steL-fbre mix requires thatthe fibres be uni- Toughness Indices ders Figure 10.20 Losdideformation characteristics of eesl-Aibre feinforeed shoterete 1, Without bres. 1% vol fibres 29% vol. fbr. 2 3 18 396 v0 bres.Bearing surface improvement and rock reinforcement 309 EEE eee eee eer Hee Ge eee caesar formly distributed inthe shoterete mix to avoid balling that would block the pump or produce a pattally reinforced product. The usval procedure isto acd the fibres in the ready-mix plant, either to wet mix in a mixer truck, o€ (0 dry mix which is packaged in Lm bags. 'A further advance in shoterete technology is the use of s miccoslica additive which is added to the mix a5 a patal zeplacement forthe cement (USBM, 1984). Silica fume isan ultra-fine powder with « particle size approximtely equal to that Of cigarette smoke. When added t0 shoteete, Silica fume reduces cebound. allows thicknesses of up 0 half a mete tobe applied in a single pose, and covers surfaces on which there is running water, There i also an facrease in the long-term Strength in most cases. ‘Typical shotcrete mixes for wet and dry pro- cesses are shown in Table 10.5. The wet mix is sed where the shoterete can be supplied to the site in ready-mix tucks, while dry mix supplied in bags (Li eapasity) and the water is added at the nozzle under the control of the nozzeman. ‘When using dry mix, better results are achieved if the mix is premoisturzed to about 4% water content before itis placed in the pump, 10.4.5 Pins (5) Where there is @ possibilty of blocks siding on fractures dipping out of the slope face, the slope can be stabilized with pins installed at the toe of “able 10.5 Typical shoterete mix designs (Wood, 1959) the blocks. The function of the pins is to prevent movement of blocks on the fece because progres- sive loosening and loss of interlock on the frac- tures surfaces could resultin a much lager failure. ‘The required size of pin to support a block, which depends upon the block dimensions, and the ip and shear strength properties ofthe sliding plane, ‘can be determined by limit equilibrium methods (See Chapter 6). In these calculations it ean be assumed that the pin supplies a resisting force. ‘acting up the sliding plane, that is equal to the shear strength of the steel. The working strength ofstee!inshear is about 25% of the yield strength. ‘The pins comprise a row of steeb-reinforcing bars fully grouted into holes drilled to a depth of about 0.3 10 0.6m (I to 2ft). The diameter of the bars may range fom about 25 fo SOmm (1 to 2in) and the spacing depends on the support force required. The bars are fully encased in concrete, both to protect the steel from corrosion. and to provide support that will prevent any movement Df the block, Pins are usually only used to support blocks up to about 2m (6ft) thick; itis more efficient to support larger blocks with tensioned rock bolts which provide both a resisting force ‘and normal force on the sliding plane. 10.4.6 Rock bolts (6) “The rock bolts shown in Fig, 10.19 are installed just below the erest of the bench on which the Footing is located. The function of these bolts is to Components Bry mx hg? (/f®) (by wt) —Werrmix kl (bf) (9% by wt) Cement +20 26) 18S 460 29) 186 Ses fume additive 4202.6) 19 209 7 Blended aggregate 1735 (108) 764 1735 (108) 703 Steel bres 3GO 26 BON 24 ‘Aceclerator Bes) oe BOs os Super-plasiczer — Required Water Controlled at 160 (10) 65 ‘nozale Total EZ 100 2469 100 el EE “orvolome equivalent.810 Construction methods prevent loosening and movement of the rock in this area which is both highly stressed, and sus- ceptible to relaxation because of its proximity 10 the vertical face, Movement of the rock in this area could result in loss of support along the outer edge of the footing. ‘These bolts could be either tensioned or un- tensioned depending on the geological conditions. If the rock contains sets of fractures dipping ‘out of the face and there has already been some ‘movement on these fractures, tensioned bolts would probably be required to increase the shear strength of the surface. However, if the rock is generally massive and undisturbed, the installa- tion of untensioned, fully grouted bolts to mi mize long-term loosening of the rock may be satisfactory. Details of design and installation procedures for rock bolts are given in Chapter 9. 10.4.7 Tensioned rock anchors (7) ‘The tensioned rock anchors shown in Fig. 10.19 are installed to prevent a slding-type failure of the wedge of rock formed by the intersection ‘of the fault dipping out ofthe slope face, and the subvertical seam of fractured rock. Because of the high probability of movement of this wedge under the applied structural loads, it would be nevessary that the anchors be installed and ten- sioned prior to construction of the footing, This procedure would prestress the foundation by providing normal and shear stresses on the po- tential sliding plane and prevent movement when the structural load is applied. A very important aspect of the design of these anchors isthe deter- mination of the length required to ensure that anchored below the depth of the deepest I failure plane. This would require both ‘careful mapping of the rock face and a vertical iamond drill hole to identify all possible faults ‘with this orientation, 10.4.8 Concrete buttress (8) ‘The concrete buttress shown in Fig. 10.19 has been constructed to fil a cavity in the rock face that has developed as the result of weathering of the fractured rock below the fault plane. The Dbuttress fulfils two functions: fist to retain and protect the area of weak rock, and second to support the overhang. The loads on the buttress are low so it is not necessary that the concrete be reinforced. However, in order that the but- tress prevent relaxation of the rock, it should be founded on a clean rock surface and anchored to the base using stel pins to prevent sliding. Also, the top should be poured so that it is in continu ‘ous contact with the underside of the overhang, In order to meet this second requirement, it may be necessary to place the last pour through a hole drilled downwards into the cavity from the rock face, and use a non-shrink agent in the pour. 10.4.9 Drain holes (9) It is possible that ground water seepage will be concentrated at the fault one and the underlying area of fractured rock. If this is the case, drain holes would be requited through the buttress to ensure that water pressures do not build up be- hind the concrete. It is usual for the drain hole to be eased with a perforated plastic pipe to prevent it from caving. The orientation and position of the drain holes should be selected so that they inter- sect the major fractures that are carrying the water. Since most intact rock has essentially zero permeability, holes which do not intersect frac- tures will not be effective drains. For the condi- tions shown in Fig, 10.19, drain holes inclined at the same angle as the fault would produce limited Grainage compared to the flatter hole shown Which intersects « number of these fractures. 10.5 Contracts and specifications ‘The success of @ construction project can often Gepend as much on the contract and specifica- tions that define the work, as on the design of the project itself. The importance of contracts is, first, that they define the work to be performed and, second, that they are legal documents that prescribe the rights and responsibilities of the ‘owner and the contractor. The contract must also ‘comply with all laws which may be applicable toContracts and specifications 811 EE the contract. While most construction contracts have the same basie format, every project requires fa sot of documents that specifically addresses the particular conditions of the work. Some of the Basic decisions that are required in prepering the documents are the type of contract, je, unit for fixedsprice contracts, whether bids will be ‘open to all contractors or only to selected con Tractors (prequalification), and whether method br end-product specifications will be prepased. ‘This seation discusses these aspects of contract specifeations with particular reference ‘0 proj- ets involving rock excavation, Also, the dis- ussion is mainly directed to North American ‘contracting practices (Berman and Crossland, $0725 Crimmins etal, 1972). 10.5.1 Components of contract documents Contract documents usually consist of the follow- ing principal components (Merit, 1976) 1. Advertisement for bids; 21 Information to bidders; 3, Proposal form: “&. Contract-agreement form; 5, Bond forms} 6. General provisions; 7, Special provisions; 8, Technical specifications. ‘All these items, apart from the last two, will ‘generally have similar formats regardless of the Construction project and the type of contract. ‘Asa guideline in preparing contracts, most government agencies, utilities and corporations fave drawa wp standard documents which they have found to be applicable to the type of work jn which they are involved. The following is @ Summary of the items that are included in the general and special provisions, and the technical specifications. (@) General and special provisions ‘The general provisions set out the sights and responsibilities of the parties to the contract (owner and contractor) and the surety, the re- quirements governing their business and legal relationships, and the authority of the engineer. Where the general conditions are standard docu ments that ere published by the contracting agency, and itis necessary to make modifications, additions or deletions to suit the requirements Of the project, these items constitute the special provisions. ‘Particular items that are usually included in the general provisions are: 1. Definitions and abbreviations of terms'vsed in the specifications. 2, Bidding requirements which include prequa- tiscation, delivery of proposal, bonding and, for public agencies, 2 noncollusion affidavit. Prequalification is documentary evidence of capability and financial standing, or particular ‘Gxperience in a portion of the work such as socketed piers or high-tension anchor. 3. Contract and subcontract procedure which includes award and execution of the contract, requirements for contract bond, submission ff progress schedule, recourse. for failure to execute the contract, and provisions for subletting contracts. 4, Scope of work is a description of the work to tbe performed, aad such items a8 work space available for equipment and materials, final site clean up, and maintenance of traffic where equired. Also, « limit is set on the deviation ff actual quantities from estimated quantities ‘without change in the contract price (see Section 10.5.3) 5, Control of work which includes the authority ff the engineer, the plans, specifications and Working drawings. Also included are proce- ‘dures for inspection and testing of the work, handling of defective work, contractor's claims for change otders, and final acceptance of the completed work. 6. Legal and public relations covers ail provisions for legal relations between the contractor and ‘owner and between the contractor and the general publi. Also covered are liability and nsurance provisions, and compliance with ‘applicable laws such as public safety, explo~ ‘gies and blasting, accident prevention, public312. Construction methods safety, public utilities and pollution abatement, 7. Prosecution and progress includes provisions for commencement and completion of the work, suspension of the work, unavoidable delays, default of the contract, liquidated damages and extension of time. 8. Measurement and payment includes provi- sions for measurement of quantities, scope ff payment, payment for changes in plans, procedures for partial and final payment, termination of contractor's responsibility, and guarantee against defective work () Technical specifications These give details of the general and special conditions effecting the performance of the work, materials to be used, construction details, measurement of quantities under the scheduled items of work, and the method of payment for these items 10.5.2 Types of contract Factors for consideration in the selection of the ‘most appropriate type of contract for a project are the certainty with which site conditions and {quantities can be defined, the required flexibility in the construction work, and the time available to prepare and negotiate a contract, Fundamental to the selection of the appropriate type of con- tract is determining how the risk should be shared between the owner and the contractor; this depends on the uncertainties that may be en ‘countered during the course of the work. The basic contract types are unit-prce and lump-sum, ‘with various types of negotiated contracts that may be used under special circumstances. The following are descriptions of common types of ‘contract and the conditions in which they may be applicable (2) Unit-price contract “This isthe most common type of contract for rock excavation work, and is used when it is not poss- ible to delineate on the drawings the exact quan- tities tobe included in the contract. The terms of this contract provide that the owner will pay to the contractor a specified amount of money for ‘each unit of work completed. The units of work ‘may be any items whose quantities can be deter- ‘mined such as cubic metres of rock, lineal metre ‘of rock bolt, or cubic metres of grout. Payments are usually made by the owner at specified inter- vals during construction, with the amount of each payment depending on the value of the work ‘completed during the prior time period. (©) Lump-sum contract If the owner knows exactly the quantities of work to be accomplished, and these quantities can be shown accurately on the drawings, a lump-sum contract can be let. Payments are usually made on ‘a monthly basis with the amount of each payment ‘depending on the value of work completed in the prior time period. Note that a lump sum contract fan be let, with a portion of the work such ss grouting, awarded on a unit-price basis, () Cost-plus-a-fixed-fr-contract Where a contractor has a particular skill required for the project, a costreimbursement type con- tract may be negotiated, the most common of Which is the cost-plus-2-fxed-fee type. Under the terms ofthis contract, the owner agrees to pay the contractor specified costs, usually on-site costs incurred by the contractor in carrying out the work, plus an additional fee. The fee is « profit: plus management fee to reimburse the contractor for the costs incurred at the head office resulting {rom the construction ofthe project. Itemscovered by the fee include, but are not limited to, salaries, rent, axes, and interest on money borrowed (0 finance the project. In order to negotiate a fed fee on a project, it is necessary that the scope of work be clearly efined and the required completion date estab lished, The terms of the contract must also set fut the methods for control and approval of expenditures, and procedures for establishing actual costs. However, in an emergency situation where the scope of work is not clearly defined. the contract may be negotiated with a fee that is ‘a percentage ofthe cost. The disadvantage of this Contract is that there i no incentive for the con-Contracts and specifications 318 tuactor to control costs because the fee increases with che construction cost. In circumstances where the scope of the work can be established as the project progresses, the previously negotiated costeplus contract can be converted to lump-sum (oF fxed-fee contract. This will provide the owner with some protection against overruns. (a) Target-price contract (shared-savings provisions) ‘This type of contract, which is used where there is uncertainty regarding site conditions or work procedures, provides some protection for the ‘owner against overruns by giving the contractor fan incentive to control costs. ‘The contractor agrees to a target price which is made up of the actual cost of deing the work plus a variable fee for head-office expenses and profit. The fee varies according to whether the final costs is over or under the target estimate cost. That is if the cost is greater than the target, the fee is reduced, and if the actual cost i less than the target the fee is increased. ‘Despite the incentives to control costs provided by the variable fee, i is still advisable to include ‘an upset price on the contract. Ifthe contractor is receiving a minimal fee for the work, there may be little incentive for timely completion of the Project. In fact, the final cost of doing the work may bear little relation to the target price. 10.5.3 Rock excavation and reinforcement specifications ‘The specifications for projects involving rock excavation and reinforcement must include provisions for the uncertainties inherent in these projects. Typical of the uncertainties in the geo- technical espects of a project are the depth to bed rock, ground water inflow quantities, and the presence of seams of weak of fractured rock. It is unlikely that 2 representative sampling of these conditions will be provided by surface ‘mapping and some investigative drilling. Some of the methods which ean be used to address these uncertainties in the contract are discussed ia this section () Geotechnical data The technical specifications for a rock excava- tion project should include a geotechnical report describing the geology, ground water and mate~ rial properties of the site. The information is sometimes divided into factual data and inter- pretative data as follows. Factual data comprises mapping results, drill logs and the results of in sitw and laboracory tests, with no projections or imerpretation of the data. Interpretative data may show such information as projection of data between dill holes. possible ground water inflow rates, stable slope angles of excavations and the support methods that may be required. The purpose of providing two sets of data is to dif- ferentiate clearly between data that has been verified, and interpretations of this data based fon judgement and previous experience at this and similar sites. The reports should clearly state the limitations ofthe data provided. For example. freezing temperetures and heavy rain may change ‘conditions from those described in the report. and interpolations of data between drill holes may be incorrect. () Definition of rock and soit ‘The ratio of excavation cosis of rock and soil may vary from as low 25 2 for bulk excavation. to as high as 15 for sites with small rack quantities to be excavated to tight tolerances. It is usual practice 10 pay unit rates for excavation quantities and this requires that the contract contains a definition of the rock and soil for payment purposes. This can readily be accomplished at sites where over burden (Soil) overlies sound bed rock and the boundary between the two meterials can be deter- ‘mined by mapping, drilling and geophysics. How- fever, where there is a continuous gradation between ‘rock’ and ‘soil’, or the boundary is highly irregular, itis often difficult to draw up an ‘unambiguous definition that clearly distinguishes ‘between the two materials ‘The ease with which rock can be excavated depends on both the strength ofthe intact material land the degree of fracturing, so both these prop- ‘erties should be incorporated in any definitions ‘of materials that are included in the contract.814 Construction methods aa T 7 sok Frat spacing () ork oe v0, 1 i sean BLAST TO FRACTURE BLAST TOLOOSEN ee L ain ‘oor 07 10 (45) 045) 0 100 (480) (04500) Pointed loa strength l (MPa) esi) Figure 10.21 Possible excavation methods related to strength and degree of facturing of rock (maui from USNavy. 1982) Figure 10.21 shows an approximate relationship between the method of excavation — digging, ripping or blasting ~ and the material properties 8% defined by the strength of the intact rock and the fracture frequency (see Section 4.3.1) ‘The boundaries shown on this chart depend, of course, on the excavation equipment used’ by the contractor, snd some calibration in local conditions will be required before it can be used with confidence to define materials for payment purposes. ‘An alternative material classification, that ‘defines the material according to the equipment ‘with which it can be excavated, has been drawn up by the US Bureau of Reclamation. This classi- fication, which is given in full below, can be used as a guideline in preparing a classification to suit local conditions“Except as otherwise provided in these speci- ‘ications, material excavated will be measured ‘and clasified in excavation, to the lines shown ‘on the drawings or as provided in these speci- fications, and will be classified for payment as follows: ork excavation, For purposes of clasiication ‘of excavation, rock is defined as sound and solid masses, layers. or ledges of mineral matter in place and of such hardness and texture that itt 1. Cannot be effectively loosened or broken down by ripping in a single pass with a late model teactor-mounted ripper equipped with one digging point of standard manu- facrurer’s design adequately sized for tase with and propelled by a crawler type tractor rated between 210- and 240-net flywheel horsepower, operating in low ‘ear, oF 2, In areas where it is impractical to classify by use of a ripper described above, rock. excavation is defined as sound material of such hardness and texture that it cannot be loosened and broken down by a 6-pound drifting pick. The drifting pick shall be class D, Federal Specification GGG-H- 505d, with handle not Jess than 34 inches in length, All boulders or detached pieces of solid rock more than 1 cubic yard in volume will be classified as rock excavation. Commen excavation. Common excavation includes all material other than rock excava- tion, All boulders or detached pieces of solid rock less than 1 cubic yard in volume will be classified as common excavation.” (© Risk (On most projects involving rock excavation there is likely to be some uncertainty as to the condi- tions that wil be encountered; a single continuous fracture may cause fallure ofa slope designed at a steep angle, or a zone of faulted rock may be encountered in the bearing area of a foundation. Contracts and specifications 315 {tis usually considered that itis beneficial, to both the cost and progress ofthe project, that there is an apportionment of risk between the owner and the contractor for these uncertainties. ‘The sharing of risk is most conveniently ace commodated by the type of contract that is used fon the project. For example, in circumstances ‘where there is uncertainty as to the conditions that may be encountered, the contractors will submit high bids if they have to assume all the risk for consteuction costs regardless of the con= ditions encountered, However, if the owner is ptepared to cover some of the risk by paying specified unit prices for items for which the quan- tities are uncertain, the total cost ofthe project is likely to be lower. For example, the documents may simply state that a foundation excavation shall have certain minimum dimensions and con- sist of ‘sound rock’, for which @ lump-sum pay ment will be made. In these circumstances, the contractor assumes all the risk and his bid must cover contingencies for such factorsas dewatering. slope support and improvement of the rock if it hhas inadequate bearing capacity.” However, if ‘unit prices are paid for approved quantities ofall these items, the total contract price is likely to be lower because the contractors have greater asurance that they will be paid for the work performed, (@) Dispute Review Board Tn order to reduce the often lengthy and costly resolution of construction claims in the courts. there is increasing support for an alternative method using a Dispute Review Board (Coffee, 1988; Stanfey, 1989). The Board is usuelly com- posed of three members, one chosen by the ‘owner, one by the contractor and a third who chairs the group, by the to members themselves. ‘The Board meets at the site once every three months approximately, and also receives copies fof progress reports in order to stay informed about the job and areas of potential dispute. Figure 10.22 shows the mechanism for resolu- tion of a dispute involving the DRB, together with the maximum times permitted for each of the activites. The operation and functions of the316 Construction methods aia aa ra |Sising ie methods mt) ati oe Ree ovoasice Owner, Paeet] Bee os eee ee Se oe . eS ale ee ee sem Sot CEE ime) mea ede ea Eee Eee sc msiag ea Tee EE ee [TAoecison or event—e Aatvy Maximum tine permiteg (Specteatin,cen be shee) Figure 10.22 Process for resolution of construction disputes involving a disputes review board, DRB (Stemey. 1989). Board are defined inthe contract documents, The objective of this process is 10 resolve disputes as they oceur, when the facts and the personnel involved are readily available. Furthermore, the ‘work continues while the dispute is resolved. so. the schedule is maintained. the joh is completed ‘nd final payment made promptly. (6) Variation in quantities It fs rarely possible to define precisely in the contract the quantities of all items on the project. Quantities that are often difficult to define are rock and common excavation quantities, rock bolt lengths. and shoterete and grouting volumes. While the use of @ unit-price contract allows fienibility in payment for actual quantities itis also desirable to have a mechanism for protection against ‘unbalanced’ bids ‘An unbalanced bid is @ high unit price with a substantial profit margin that is bid for an item that only has a small quantity in the contract ‘Therefore, the price of this item will not signi- ficantly effect the total bid price. However, if uring construction the actual quantity of this unit becomes much greater than that originally esti- mated. there may be substantial increases in the overall project cost. Protection against un- balanced bids can be provided by including @ clause in the contract that requires that the unit prices be renegotiated if the actual quantity differs from the estimated quantity by more than say 20%. This clause will also protect the con tractor in the event that the actual quantity is substantially Jess than the estimate and the bid price is insufficient to cover the mobilization casts. (£) Prequalification On rock excavation projects it may be desirable to have the work performed by a contractor who is experienced, for example, in presplit blasting ‘and control of ground vibrations. This may be achieved by including in the bidding requirements fa clause specifying that the contractor supplies documentary evidence of previous experience in this work, and that the personnel with this experience will be working on the project. This process of prequalifcation may not be possible on projects for some government agencies who have to accept bids from all contractors. In these circumstances it may be necessary to prepare specifications that are somewhat more detailed than on contracts where only experienced con- tractors are invited to submit bids(=e: = ‘An additional type of prequalification involves only inviting selected contractors with particular experience. in cartain specialist operations, (0 fil on a project. For example, there are only 2 anited number of contractors experienced in the jnstalation of high-tension anchors, and only these contractors may be invited to submit bids for the work. However, in these circumstances the contractor may algo be given the responsi- fry of determining the anchor length and for Bunjeving the required load capacity, while the esigner only specifies the minimum working losd tnd the free stressing Tength. In this way the Contractor assumes some isk on the project in eturn for not having to bid on an open contract. ther specialist operations that may aot be put fut to open bidding are shotereting, grouting and high sealing, (g) End-productand method specifications {F factor to consider in the preparation of a con ‘act is the extent to which the methods tobe used by the contractor willbe prescribed in the doe rents, That is, whether ‘end-product or‘method” Specifications will be prepared. In most cases it iS preferable to prepare end-product specifications, Pirin specify the structure that is t0 be built $0 thot the construction methods and equipment that tre employed by the contractors are left to their iscretion. Method specifications would only be required where an unusual structure ist be built, gndlor where the contractors have litle exper nce in the required construction procedures Method specifications result in the majority of the risk being assumed by the designer and the owner. 10.6 References ‘ACI (1988) Specifention for Materials, Proporionin, “ant Applenton of Shoterce. ACI 5062-71, Revised 158. “Amorican Society of Civil Engineers (1989) Avoiding rend revolving Ceputesin underground construction. ASCE Techrical Committee on Contacting Prac ‘ees. Underground Technology Research Counc June. [ASTM (1985) Flexural Touginess and. Firs-ereck References 317 ‘Strength of Fiber-reinforced Concrete (Using Bear sn Thirt-point Loading). ASTM standards Vol, a.m, C 1018-86. ‘atkins, K. P. and Sowers, G. F. (1984) Tunneling “ier bulaing with thin rock cover. J. Georeh. Eng., ASCE, 10), 311-17. ‘anlan Eopeo (1978) Product Manuel, 34 edn, Ades ‘Copeo AB. Stockholm. Bosman, T. and Crossland, S. H. (1972) Construction Tpuslaess Handbook, MeGras-Hil, New York. Ch. 4, Boyles Bros Driling Co. (1989) Product data Chaps, (87) New development in seam treatment “aie Feisui arch Dam foundation. Proc. of Int Cont, Monteal, Int. Soe. of Rock Mechaniss, pp. 319-26. Coffee. J. D- (1988) Dispute review boards in ‘Washington State, Amer. Arbiration Assoc. Juv December. Crimi, Re, Samuels, R. and: Monahan, B. P. QTD) Consiuction Rock Work Guide. Wily: Inverslence, New York. Dowding, €. 1. (985) Blas Vibraion Montioring and ‘Control. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cis. ND pu font of Canada (1968) Controled Blesting ‘Wimington, Delaware. ‘Federal Highway Adminsteation (US) (1982) Tiebacks EEAWAL US Department of Transportation, Report No. FHWAIRD-82087. Federal Highway Administration (US) (1985) Rook ‘Blatng, FHWA, US Department of Transports ‘ton, Contract No, DTFH 61-83:C-00110. ederal Highwsy Admiistration (US) (1969) Rock “Saves: Desig, Excavation, Stabilization. FHWA, Us Department of Transportation Golder Associates (1989) Project Aes. ‘omphil, GB, (1981) Blasting Operations. MeGrav- ‘ill, New York. LLangefor, U. and Kitistromn, B. (1967) The Moder ‘eechnigue of Rock Blasting, Wily, New York. McGregor 967) The Dring of Rock. CR Books, ‘London. Mert 8. (4. (1916) Standard Handbook for Civil Fhsinces< MeCravetill, New York, Ch. 3 Conard, L- (1971) Blasting effects and thet control Tr open pit ving. Proc. Second Int. Conf. on ‘vaphay fa Open Pit Mining, Vancouver, AIME. New York, pp, 197-222 Oriad, Ly Lard Coulson, J. H. (1980) 7VA Blast "itvuion Crtera for Mass Concrete. Minimising Bcimental Construction Vibrations, ASCE. Preprint 80-175, pp. 103-23. Ror NE and leguierdo. F. A, (1987) Refaforse- ant of slopes under Deaia Case, Spain. Pros. of318 Construction methods Int. Conf., Montreal; Int. Soe. of Rock Mech pp. 485-8. Siskind, D. E., Stachura, V. J. and Raddiffe, K. . (1976) Noise and Vibrations in Residential Sructares from Quarry Production Blasting. US Bureau of ‘Mines, Report of Investigations 8168. Siskind, D.E., Stagg, M.S. Kopp.J. W. and Dowding, CHL, (1980) Sucre Response and Damage Pro- duced by Ground Viorations from Surface Blasting. [US Bureau of Mines, Report of Investigations 8507 Society of Mining Engineers (1973) Mining Engineering ‘Handbook, Vol. 1. SME of AIME, New York, chit Stagg, M. S., Siskind, D. E., Stevens, M. G. and ‘Dowding, C. H. (198) Effect of Repeated Blasting ‘on a Wood Frame House. US Bureau of Mines, ‘Report of Investigations 8896. Stanley. E. M. (1989) Dispute review boards, a beter way. Civil Engineerng ASCE, New York, December, pp. 58-60 ‘Tamrock (1983) Handbook of Underground Dring, “Taro Drills, Finland Us Bureau of Mines (1984) Selected Pnewmare Gunites for we in Underground Mines: a Comparative ‘Engineering Anayss. USBM, Dept ofthe Interior, Information circular 8984. ‘Us Department of Navy (1982) Design Manual 7.1, ‘soll Mechanics, NAVFAC DM-7.1, Alexanca, Virginia. ‘Wood, D. F. (1989) Shoteréte - ste! fibre reinforced vith slice fume adds. Tunnelling Assocation of Canada Newsletter, Apri ‘Wylie, D. C. (1979) Fractured bridge supports sia- ilied under trac. Railway Track and Siructares, uly. pp. 29-32, Wyllie, D.C. (1991) Rock slopes stabilization and pro tection measures, Jah Ann. M. AEG, Chicago, October.Analysis of structural geology data involves frst plotting poles representing the orientation of each Fracture. This plot will help identify fracture sets, for which both the average orientation and the scatter (dispersion) can be calculated. The second step in the analysis isto plot great circles representing the average orientation of each set, major fractures such as faults and the dip and dip Cirection of the cut face. Hland plotting of struc- tural data can be carried out om the stereonets provided in this Appendix. L.1 Plotting poles Poles can be plotted on the polar stereonet (Fig. 1.1) on which the dip direction is indicated on the periphery of the circle, and the dip is measured along radial ines with 2ero degrees atthe centre. Tt should be noted that the stereonet shown on ig. 1.1 is a lower hemisphere plot in which the ip-icection scale starts at the bottom of the circle and the north arrow corresponds with a dip direction of 180°, The reason for setting up the scale inthis manner is that if the field readings, a8 measured with a structural compass, are plotted directly on the stereonet, the poles are correctly positioned on a lower hemisphere plot. ‘The procedure for plotting poles is to lay a sheet of tracing paper on the printed polar net, and mark the north direction and each quadrant position around the edge of the outer circle. A. APPENDIX I ——_ Stereonets for hand plotting of structural geology data mark is then made representing a pole for each fracture. Poles for shallowly dipping fractures lie close to the centre of the circle, and poles of fie close tothe periphery of the circle. 1.2 Plotting great circles Great circles ste plotted on thezequitorial net Gigs, 12 and 1.3}, but they cangot be ploted Sirecty on tis net because the true dip can only be sealed off the horizontal scale ofthe net. The plotting procedure for great dreles consist of he following segs in which shallowly dipping planes plot close tothe periphery ofthe net, and steeply ping planes plot a large radius eices close 0 the conte. 1. Lay a pieoe of tracing paper on the net with & thud tock through the eentre point so that the tracing paper ean be rotated on the net. 2. Mark the north direction of the net on the tracing pape. 3, Locate tne dip direction of the plane on the feale around the reumference of the net and ‘on the tracing paper. Note that the dip direction scale on the equatorial nt for plotting great cries stars at the north Et the top of the etele and increases in @ Slockwise direction. 4, Rotate the tracing paper until the dip direction park coineldes with one ofthe horizontal axes820 Appendix 1 200 rT) 80 60 70, Figure L1 Polar equal area stereonet for posting poles (drawn by C. M, St Joba, Royal School of Mines, London} of the net, that is the 90° or 180° points on the dip-direction scale. ‘5. Locate the arc on the net corresponding to the dip of the fracture and trace this are on to the tracing paper. Note that a horizontal plane has 8 great circle at the circumference at the net and a vertical fracture is represented by a straight line passing through the centre of the . Rotate the tracing paper so that the two north points coincide and the great circle of the fracture is oriented correctly.Appendix I 321 209 0 aro} 00 on 10 160 190 rep 179 Figure 2 Equitorial equal area net fr ploting poles and great icles (drawn by C. M,Stohn, Royal School of Mines, Londen). 1, Locate the line of intersection between tio planes which is represeated by the point at ‘The intersection of two planes is a straight line which the two great circles intersect. which defines the direction in which a wedge, 2, Drawa line from the centre of the net through formed by these two planes, will slide. The pro- the point of intersection and extending to the ‘cedure for determining the crientation of the ine circumference of the net, of intersection between two planes ist 3, The trend of the ine of intersection is given by 1.3 Lines of intersectionAppendix 1 321 pee Gan 2 200 ano 200 eh 10 20 760 190160170 igure 1.2 Equitorial equal area net for plotting poles and great icles (drawn by C. M, John. Royal School of Mines, London) a eee karat 1. Locate the line of intersection between two planes which is represented by the point at ‘The intersection of two planes is a straight line __ which the two great circles intersect. ‘which defines the direction in which a wedge, 2, Draw aline from the centre of the net through formed by these {wo planes, will slide. The pro- the point of intersection and extending to the ‘cedure for determining the orientation of the ine circumference of the net. of intersection between two planes is: 3, The trend ofthe line of intersection i given by‘The two ‘Reld mapping sheets included in this ‘appendix (Figs I.1 and I1.2) have been developed by the Geological Society Working Party (1970) as deseribed in a paper entitled “The description fof rock masses for engineering purposes’ (see Chapter 4 references). ‘The procedures for collecting the geological data listed on these two forms are described in this book in Sections 2.2 (Orientation of fractures) APPENDIX IT Field mapping data sheets and 4.2 (Geological mapping). Section 2.2 defines the terms dip and dip direction, and Section 4.2 contains tables giving more detatis of the indices describing the fock mass. Section 4.2 also de- seribes methods of zoning of the rock mass into geotechnical units whose characteristics may be fonsidered uniform, and the observations and tests used to define the rock material and rockTJevew Catena sro Ceres [eto C] oe a ts a3] ara soe lee (21 a ~ ~eeulsEKG Eaves anveneauc woet20 OHS Ot Ts ronan peeImperial unit. LENGTH mile foot inch AREA ‘Square mile square foot square inch VOLUME cubic yard edie foot cic inch Imp. gallon pint US gallon ‘MASS. (200010) ton (22401), ip ‘ST unit bilometre millimetre millimetre square kilometre hectare hectare square metre square metre square millimetre cic metre ccubie metre lite cubic milimetre bie centimetre Titre cabiemetre cabiemetre lite Kilogram Asilogram ‘ST uxt, symbol APPENDIX IT ——— Conversion factors Conversion actor (imperial to 1) | mile = 1.609 km oot = 0.3048 Hoot = 308.80mm Linch 40mm 1 mile? = 290 km? I mile? = 259 0ha ‘acre = 0.4087be tre = 4047 m= He = 0.07290m Linch? = 645.2mm? Ly® = 0.7646? Lie = 0.00832" int 28321 Lin? = 16387 mm in? = 16.387em? int = 0.016391 1 gal=0,00856m" Ipl=4s461 1 pt = 0.5681 1S gal = 0.0038? 1US gal= 3.81 1 ton = 0.9072 tonne ton = 907.19 1016.1 kg kip = 453.59 eg ‘Conversion factor (SI 1 imperil) 6215 mile 2808 foot (0.013281 foot 1mm = 0.03937 inch em? = 0.3861 ie Tha= 0.003861 mile? tha= 24710 acre 1m? = 0.000247 1 sere I? = 10,7683 ¢2 5? 0.001 $50 inc? 1m 1m? = 1.30802 1 men = 61.024 10a em = 0.05102 in? 1 tre = 61.0213" 1m?= 220.0ga 1 iitre = 0,2200gal 1 tre = 1.2606 pe 1m? = 263.2 US gal 110.263 US st 1 tonne = 1.1023 109 kg = 0.01102 109 = 0.000986 ton 1g = 0,0022046 kipAppendix IM 327 Imperial uni ‘Stunt Sanit Conversian factor ‘Conversion Jaton symbol (Gi to imperial) pound ‘logram ke kg = 2.204615 ‘MASS DENSITY tonpercubieyard Kilogram per kg/m —Ltoniyd = 1186.49 kgm? 1 kg/m” = 0.000828 tony? ‘@2000%b) ‘ubie metre Ltonjs*= 1186Seie 1 vm= 0.8428 only? tonne percubie vm ton pereubieyard tony? = 1328,9kg/m* 1 kgim = 0.00075 toniyd @atoiby poundpercabicfoot kilogram per Kagem? 116K = 16.02kg/m? kgm? = 0.052 42Ib/R* subi metre tonne pereubie dm?” AMbif® = 0.016024 1m? = 62.421bif? poundpercubicinch gram percubie —_glem A gfem? = 0,036 13160? tonne percubie ~— Um" um? =0.036 131biin* metre FORCE ton force-20001 —_‘Kilonewton aN IRN = 0.1124tonf ton force-22401b ip free kilonewion ry ‘pound force newton N fonfift~2000 _kjlonewton Nim Ltontft =29.186kNim 1 kNim = 0.03436 toni fonfiN=22401——_permetre 0,0306tontit pound force pet foot netwonpermetre Nim IUbfft = 14.59N/m Nien = 0.06853 ott HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ‘centimetre per metrepersecond m/s ems = 0.01 m/s ‘mis = 100eenls tecond (ois) foot per year (lyr) metrepersecond m/s mis = 1.0346 > 10tyear foot persecond (U8) metrepersecond mis fos = 0.3048 is Ans = 3.28080 FLOWRATE ‘cubiefootperminate cubic metreper mls 1fC/min= 0,0004719 ms 11s = 2119.083 min second lie persecond Vs 1s = 2.1191 Fenn eubicfoot perseoond cubic metteper mk 115 = 0.02832m% Ams 35.3157 second lie persecond Us Lf4= 2832s TVs = 0.035318 illonperminute Hepersecond Us Lgalimin 0.075771 1s = 13.2gallnin PRESSURE, STRESS ton fore per square kilopascal Ps toatl =95.76kPa——_-1kPa = 0.01044 rontit? foot (200016) ton fore per square tonfif=107.3kP2 1 kPa= 0.00932 00 Toot (224016) pound fore: per pases Po tibet 47.88Pa tea 0.02089 big? ‘square foot {elopascal iP 1RPa = 20.89 fit?328 Appendix III * assuming 2 grav Imperial unit ‘Shon Poundforceper pascal square inch lopascal WEIGHT DENSITY" poundforeeper——kllonewion per ‘eubicfoot subie metre ENERGY foot be joules Slunit Conversion factor Conversion actor symbol imperial SI) (Sl imperial) Pa —_Libtlin? = 6895s 1 Pa = 0.000145 Db fin? kPa Libfin® = 6.8952 KPa = 0.1450%bffin? Nim? LIER = O.1S7RNim* Nim? = 67 ional acceleration of 9,807 mi? J ifelbe= 1.559 13 = 0.7376"‘Actve/pasive wedges 117 ‘Adit. see Tunnel ‘Aerial photographs 78 ‘Aliowable bearing pressures, see Bearing capacity 118 Anhydrite 5,71, 189 ‘Anisotropic rock 52,106 ‘Anode 271 ‘Artesian pressure 277 ‘Aéperities 60, 64, 88,209 ‘Atterurgliis 71 ‘ack analysis 4 Basalt 0.178, 25 Bastin lag 100 Beating e=peity 113,116,119 Spedding ormatons 123 boiling codes 116 oping ormations 12 ftactred rock 117 Esti formations. 126, Tnyeres formations 124 fecesed footing 120,122 en Spin ground 1 edge 122 ean capacity factors 20 Bearigsutace improvement 187, Sas. Bedding 23.78, 79,96 Bellseltsion 120,123, Bending falure 124 Bentonite 62.96, 126,192 socketed piers 215 Blasting 162,187, 189,295 burden 296 controled blasting 297 ‘damage 7,94, 297 ddmage thresholds 303 fee ace 296 round vibration contro! 299 Fovizontal surfaces 299 Tine deling 299 Index modulates 101108 prosheing 258 Sek acho damage 269 rock roctre mechanism 295 ‘Relegatance 302 Sant 299 Shin blesting 238,207 Craton reaueny 203 Viraton partie veloc 302 Vbrargnesmencuredeonercte ie Bietng mas 27g Boustesg equation Brocton esto est 5) Broce 6 Brags 1013 revrie | inure 13 Sirent 38 person bilge 238 pastiogratare Baling ces 16,122,160 Burgertvtnce 12.157 catete 61.9 Cael cibonace 5,189 Gaby daingy se Dring Extbonaton 6.7 Sathods 27 Cement ero mre ot gray 157 Cnantapforee 10,142,228 Geate sb Ghlonce 299,274 Ghlente 7 Christenson vel 2 hy oe 0,125 23 28 Gaysone 70 Gtelvage 24 Seal 20 Seite fray 5.47.39 Sskesion $9. 61,65, 102 rsmetes 10 sliding stability 150 ‘wedge 152 {Gonesionless soll 31 ‘Compressive trength of rock $2, 33,85, 19, 218.257 ssperities 61 fractured rock 56 fact rock 36 shotrete 308, concrete ‘lasting damage 303 buttress 310 Conglomerate 60 ‘Concligtion 136 Contracts, ‘lasting 314 components of Contract ‘documents 311 costPlusarFixed-Fee 312 {efinion of rock and sol 313 ‘igpute Review Board 315, fend product 311,317 factual data 313, {General and Special Provisions StL interpretative data 313 lump Sum 312 ‘measurement and payment 312 method specifications 311.317 prequalieation 316 ipping 31¢ Fee 315 rock exeavation and, ‘einforcement 313, target price 313 technial Specifeation 312 types of Contract 312 tiepice 312 ‘eration in quantities 316 conversion Factors 326 Core ‘orientation 90 photograph 90Index 931 ‘Dynamic compaction 126 Dywidag Threadbar 243,274 anhquake 143, 151,162,228 acoment analyis 185 faaltcisplacement 181 Inydrodyaamic force 162 peoudostaic analysis 151,163, 169, 178, 182 stability analysis 162 Escenticty 148 Elastic material 46 Eleetrolyte 271 Electromagnetic conductivity 126 Erosion 189 Expantion agents (ock breakage) 305 Exponential distribution 40,41 Factor of safety 5, 15,59, 19 "SDsiope 136 ibearingespacity 119 ereular fare 160 ‘design values 15,175,179 tembecment length 238 plana failure 149 Eoeketod pers 218 toppling fslure 159 spl 264 eee tare 189 are ype ‘eeu 34, 160 planar 34,37,147 sliing 17 toppling 34,37, 156-60 ‘wedge 24, 33,34, 35,37, 122, 153,314,234 Fault 1,23, 62,78, 7, 81,7 ibe glass bar 276 Field Mapping Data Sheet 323, Finite difference analysis 137 Finite element analysts 103,124 ‘yaamie 184 socketed piers 219 aajecks 108 Flexural strength 308 Flow net 1¢ Flyrock 270 Folation 24 Foundation failures 4, 166 Fracture characteristics 23 Saylight 25,37, 147,170, frequency 50 infling 81,86, 270 Fength 9 mean length 40 mean spacing 41 ‘Orientation 25 persistence 96 position 25 Foughnese 60,87, 8, 209 spacing 25, 40,50, 88 [rieion sngle 64,160,161 residual 63 rock ype. 59 ‘Siding ability 150 suesdstbaton 12 wedge I Friction cove 37 Goologiestructure 7 ‘Goologieal mapping 81 Geophysis 80,125 eseiviy survey Bt smiesurvey 81 Geiss 60 ‘Goodman, R.E. 37,142,155, 15, 18 Goodmanjack 47 Srente 70,72, 113 Great site oe Seregraphie projection Ground penetrating agar 126 rand Bir 19,15, 1888 Seon soloe 12 Spitters 12,168 weathering 12 rout 70,38, 57,189,190 entone 188196 Blank grouting 193 booting 192 beso 192,198 cnsctdation growing 8,190 tore groaiag 193 dating method 193 floes 198 frost 195 fe powers 193 tenting 20 sorting 199 oneterion 192 Fermesbiiy onto 191 Permeability crea 197 pressure 156 Sooreentl 191 Scena 153 Spiicontel 191 cost 82 Meoreomentratio 192,195 Groutgper ‘organic foam 191 Grouting procedures 196, ‘Gypsum 5, 69,71, 189) Hate 5,62 Hardness 86 Heat shenk tubing 275 Heave 70,7 Hoel. 124,264 Backanalyss 64 am foundation 170 eabiity analysis 16, 160 tensile strength 69 wedge fllure 153 Hoek-Brown strength criterea 58, 39,68, 119,123,161, Hoong Kong 120 Hyération 70,71, Hyéraulicjoek 108 Hyérauiespliter 305, Hysteresis 4 ite 70 Insina testing 77,101,180 Inelastic rock 136 Iesiliog 61,94 elasto-plastic 63 fnsitatest 110 sain hardening 63 in softening, 63 Intraplas N 251 Joint 24 Soin coughness coefficient 61,88 Tint set 79 Kaolinite 69,70 Karatie formation 4, 205,217 Key block theory 135 ‘Kinematicanalysis 35, Lande 78,79 Tenching 195 Teste 39, 069,71 126,328, 177,180,205 Limi egulibrim analysis 172 Limit sts 15.76 Line of meseton 33,321 Une mapping 87 ‘Loads sd ae shear 9 bridge 9 buliings 9| t Index 933 Cr ee re ee ceee eee ete Perera eee Sersitvty analysis Serpentine 71 Settlement 10,26, 113,116, 128 angular astortion 1 bridges 11,48 bullings 10,44 Compressible bed within stiff Formation 132 compresibie layer on rigid base Thi dams 12.44, elastic rock 129 homogeneous, sotropie rack 9 Inclined, variable thickness beds sliding 128 Silayeroverying compressible formation 132 time dependent 128, 136 shale 61,68, 71,113, 125,131, 189.217 Shope factor 100, setlement Shear modulus $0,102,135 Sheer strength, 70ck 43,58, 60,87, 93,101 fractured rock 64 fractures 59 sear strength, ste! 309 Shoterete 8, 70,307 iia fame 309 Steal fre reinforcing 208 sire mesh reinforcing 307 siltstone 6D Singapore 210 Sink ele 126, remedial measures 125 site selection 77 Sie effects 48,56 Slake durability 86 Shae 6 Sliding stability 153, 4782 169-175, 230,235 Socketed pier 4,213 age pre-oad 226 balled, uplift 227,228, condition of ‘end ofsorket 216 side wall 215, creep 217 fend bearing capacity 218 factor affecting load expaciyy favestga antic formation 217 lateral loads 228, TATPILE. 729,238 ‘oad capacity in compresion 2 ead transfer 207 pry eure 230,232 eeestod socket 21 rock layering 236 rock modulus 212 reak trongth 213 ‘emast 219 fend bearing 222 side wal resistance 221 Side wal shearfend bearing 2 sie wal roughness 209 Sdewall shear resistance 208, 218 socket geometry 211 focket stability 234 ‘imate resistance (lateral) 231 ‘plft loud 227.208, Soltable rock types 5 Solution cavities 180, 191 Sonic velocity 86 Sowers, G. F125, 126, 128 Spread footings 2.56 Shabiity offoundations 4,5. 147 Stoinlsspresivessingsteels 276 Standard deviation 40 Stereonet 87, 88,320-2 ‘Stereographic projection 27 coneour plot 30 equal area net 27 ‘equatorial net 29,222 feat cece 28,32, 319 polar net 29,322 pole 29 pele plat 29,319 sultness $0,103, 135,180 Seffnes ratio 183 Strain gauges 45 Strength testing sures distribution 137 ‘eventrcallyfoaded footings 143 laste sotopieroek 138 layered formations 142 finetoad 139 transversely isotropic rock M42 suress elie 70,94 Strike 26 Structral compass 27 Structural geology 23, 187.263, "319 Solphates 249 ‘Salphices TL Surface roughness 88,209 ‘Swelling 70,86 ‘ay 09,227 pressures 70 sylite 8 ‘Tarsand 7h “Tensile strength 68,125 fractured rock 264 ‘Tension foundations 3, 4.238 ‘Termination of faetures 40 ‘Terrestal phocograph 79 ‘Tereaghi, K. IT ‘Termaght correction 88 ‘Thermal éeformation 19 ‘Three dimensional stability analysis 155 ‘Time dependent properties 6 ‘Topping, ser Faitare type ‘Transmision tower 227,262 ‘Trend 27.33 ‘Tunnel 106,106, 10 Uniaxial compressive strength 45, 3 ‘V-notch weir 201 Vermicalite 70 VSL anchors 274 Weathering 5,42, 81.86 ‘decomposition 69 sintegration 6 freezelinaw action $ Wedge flute, see Failure type Wellsounder 96 Willams allthread-rod 243 Willams bar 253 Window mapping 87