Gyroscopic Monorail

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
Mechanical ENGINEERING
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Mechanical ENGINEERING

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Contents
Objective:....................................................................................................................................................3
Introduction:...............................................................................................................................................3
Historical background..................................................................................................................................6
OPERATIONS INVOLVED........................................................................................................................10
TURNING...............................................................................................................................................10
FACING..................................................................................................................................................10
DRILLING................................................................................................................................................10
THREAD CUTTING..................................................................................................................................11
FINE GRINDING......................................................................................................................................11
GAS CUTTING.........................................................................................................................................11
SHAPING................................................................................................................................................11
WELDING...............................................................................................................................................11
 DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the project report entitled “Project Name”

submitted is our original work and the report has not formed the
basis for the award of any degree, associate ship, fellowship or any
other similar title.

Signature:

Name:

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Date:
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “Project Name” is

the bona fide work carried out by students of “College Name” during
the year 2016 in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of the Degree of B. Tech. The report has not formed the basis for
the award previously of any degree, diploma, associate ship,
fellowship or any other similar title.

Signature of the guide:

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me great pleasure to express my gratitude and heart full

thanks to all those who are helping me in complete this project.

I want to thank to “guide name”, who has always

encouraged and help me in making this project. In addition to this, I
am grateful to other faculties too who made me in right direction
and gave me their precious time and expert guidance whenever
necessary through which I could achieve this extent.

At last but not the least I am feeling glad to say about my

family whose wishes are always with me, without which it was not
possible for me to reach this extent.

I hope my work is praised and my efforts render fruitful result.

THANK YOU

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Chapter 1
Objective of this project is to make a monorail which will be controlled by
gyroscope. Main advantage of monorail is that it works on single wheel so from
production point of view it will be very cost effective. It will need half no of
wheels to run also it will need only one line to move instead of two lines used in
conventional rails.
The gyro monorail, gyroscopic monorail, or gyro-stabilized monorail are terms
for a single rail land vehicle that uses the gyroscopic action of a spinning wheel
to overcome the inherent instability of balancing on top of a single rail. A
monorail is a railway in which the track consists of a single rail, typically
elevated. The dynamic stabilization of a mono rail or two wheeler automobile
requires that a torque acting on a car from an outside be neutralized by a torque
produce within the car by a gyroscope. The vehicle runs on a single
conventional rail, so that without the balancing system it would topple over. a
spinning wheel is mounted in a gimbals frame whose axis of rotation (the
precession axis) is perpendicular to the spin axis. The assembly is mounted on
the vehicle chassis such that, at equilibrium, the spin axis, precession axis and
vehicle roll axis are mutually perpendicular. The Sweeney-Ferreira Gyro-
Dynamics Monorail, like many other monorail concepts, never made it beyond
the test track.

Introduction:

Gyro-Dynamics Monorail
1960s proposal used gyroscopes to balance
another TMS Exclusive!
 The Gyro-Dynamic team of Ernest F. Swinney (driving), Harry Ferreira
and Louis E. Swinney in 1962

Above is a picture of the first gyroscopically-balanced in the United

States. Louis E. Swinney first thought about monorail concepts in 1948 and
later would build several prototypes to promote the concept. Believing that so-
called conventional monorails needed too much materials for a beam, as well as
cumbersome bogies, he thought that gyro-monorails could take transit one step
further into the future. Along with his partners, brotherErnest F.
Swinney and friend Harry Ferreira, designed and built a small backyard gyro-
monorail in 1962 to test the concept at 42nd and Metropolitan Avenue in
Kansas City, Kansas. It operated successfully for several years and was
demonstrated to the press on several occasions. The small, jet-age finned
vehicle traveled along a steel pipe supported on wooden pylons approximately
three feet above ground level. The Swinney-Ferreira team also developed a two-
wheeled car based on the same gyroscope technology.
 The 1909 Brennan Monorail

The Gyro-Dynamics prototype wasn't the first to use gyroscopes for

monorails. Louis Brennan's gyro-monorail system was successfully
demonstrated in 1909 at Gillingham, England (see History).

Gyro-Dynamic's proposal solved balance issues of Brennan system.

The Gyro-Dynamics monorail improved on Brennan's design by adding a

patented counter-weight system that could shift from side to side above the rail.
That weight would counter any side-load issues where passengers or freight
might be heavy to one side. Gyroscopes would also be mounted in a way that
bank could be controlled to varying degrees, depending on whatever speed the
train was running at while negotiating a turn.
 Back-up side wheels ready to grab beam when powered down.

Even though gyroscopes would continue spinning for several hours after a
power failure and continue to balance the train, the Gyro-Dynamics Monorail
design did have back-up wheels ready extend from the vehicle and grab the
sides of the track's support beam. This side-wheel system could also engage the
beam when monorail trains were powered down for maintenance or storage.

Bogie sketch from Gyro-Dynamics brochure.

Double-flanged wheels, similar to those on Wuppertal's suspended monorail,

would ride upon a curved-top steel rail. Several different switch designs were
developed for the system. Swinney maintained that the simplicity of the
guideway would make switches, as well as normal guideways, very economic to
build. Aesthetics would also be better with gyro-monorail's demure guideway.
Train style in this rendering dates the art to the sixties, but some think the
gyro-monorail concept is still valid

The Swinney-Ferreira Gyro-Dynamics Monorail, like many other monorail

concepts, never made it beyond the test track. However, the gyro-monorail
concept still enjoys support. In fact, The Monorail Society found out about the
Swinney-Ferreira system from a strong believer, Wes Neal. Neal was a
financial supporter for the Swinney-Ferreira's system, and at the time even
provided a back yard for one of the prototype test tracks. He tells us that the
original vehicle is still intact. Perhaps it's waiting to be showcased in a
future Monorail Museum. Wes today owns and operates the Boulevard Drive In
Theatre in Kansas City, Kansas, which has operated continuously since1950.
Wes still believes the gyro-monorail could be further developed and hopes that
someone will do so at some point. Our thanks to Mr. Neal for sharing this
unique chapter in monorail history!
Chapter 2
Historical background

Brennan's monorail

Harmsworth Popular Science(c.1913, Vol.3, p.1684):A picture digram ... Inset

from following page:Mr Louis Brennan and his invention

The image in the leader section depicts the 22 tonne (unladen weight) prototype
vehicle developed by Louis Philip Brennan CB.[2] Brennan filed his first
monorail patent in 1903.

His first demonstration model was just a 2 ft 6in by 12 inch (762 mm by 300
mm) box containing the balancing system. However, this was sufficient for the
Army Council to recommend a sum of £10,000 for the development of a full
size vehicle. This was vetoed by their Financial Department. However, the
Army found £2000 from various sources to fund Brennan's work.

Within this budget Brennan produced a larger model, 6 ft (1.83m) long by 1 ft

6in (0.46m) wide, kept in balance by two 5 inch (127 mm) diameter gyroscope
rotors. This model is still in existence in the London Science Museum. The
track for the vehicle was laid in the grounds of Brennan's house in Gillingham,
Kent. It consisted of ordinary gas piping laid on wooden sleepers, with a fifty-
foot wire rope bridge, sharp corners and slopes up to one in five.
Brennan's 1909 Patent Pneumatic Servo

Brennan's reduced scale railway largely vindicated the War Department's initial
enthusiasm. However, the election in 1906 of a Liberal government, with
policies of financial retrenchment, effectively stopped the funding from the
Army. However, the India Office voted an advance of £6000 in 1907 to develop
the monorail for the North West Frontier region, and a further £5000 was
advanced by the Durbar of Kashmirin 1908. This money was almost spent by
January 1909, when the India Office advanced a further £2000.

On 15 October 1909, the railcar ran under its own power for the first time,
carrying 32 people around the factory. The vehicle was 40 ft (12.2m) long and
10 ft (3m) wide, and with a 20 hp (15 kW) petrol engine, had a speed of 22 mph
(35 km/h). The transmission was electric, with the petrol engine driving a
generator, and electric motors located on both bogies. This generator also
supplied power to the gyro motors and the air compressor. The balancing
system used a pneumatic servo, rather than the friction wheels used in the
earlier model.

The gyros were located in the cab, although Brennan planned to re-site them
under the floor of the vehicle before displaying the vehicle in public, but the
unveiling of Scherl's machine forced him to bring forward the first public
demonstration to 10 November 1909. There was insufficient time to re-position
the gyros before the monorail's public debut.

The real public debut for Brennan's monorail was the Japan-British Exhibition
at the White City, London in 1910. The monorail car carried 50 passengers at a
time around a circular track at 20 mph. Passengers included Winston Churchill,
who showed considerable enthusiasm. Interest was such that children's
clockwork monorail toys, single-wheeled and gyro-stabilised, were produced in
England and Germany.[3][4] Although a viable means of transport, the
monorail failed to attract further investment. Of the two vehicles built, one was
sold as scrap, and the other was used as a park shelter until 1930.

Scherl's car

Just as Brennan completed testing his vehicle, August Scherl, a German

publisher and philanthropist, announced a public demonstration of the gyro
monorail which he had developed in Germany. The demonstration was to take
place on Wednesday 10 November 1909 at the Berlin Zoological Gardens.

Scherl's Monorail Car

Scherl's machine,[5] also a full size vehicle, was somewhat smaller than
Brennan's, with a length of only 17 ft (5.2m). It could accommodate four
passengers on a pair of transverse bench seats. The gyros were located under the
seats, and had vertical axes, while Brennan used a pair of horizontal axis gyros.
The servomechanism was hydraulic, and propulsion electric. Strictly speaking,
August Scherl merely provided the financial backing. The righting mechanism
was invented by Paul Fröhlich, and the car designed by Emil Falcke.

Although well received and performing perfectly during its public

demonstrations, the car failed to attract significant financial support, and Scherl
wrote off his investment in it.
Shilovsky's work

Following the failure of Brennan and Scherl to attract the necessary investment,
the practical development of the gyro-monorail after 1910 continued with the
work of Pyotr Shilovsky,[6] a Russian aristocrat residing in London. His
balancing system was based on slightly different principles to those of Brennan
and Scherl, and permitted the use of a smaller, more slowly spinning gyroscope.
After developing a model gyro monorail in 1911, he designed a gyro car which
was built by Wolseley Motors Limited and tested on the streets of London in
1913. Since it used a single gyro, rather than the counter-rotating pair favoured
by Brennan and Scherl, it exhibited asymmetry in its behavior, and became
unstable during sharp left hand turns. It attracted interest but no serious funding.
Chapter 3
Gyroscope Principles

Rigidity is the ability of a freely rotating mass to

maintain its plane of spin when any external force is
applied to it.

First Law of Gyroscopes

If a rotating wheel is so maintained as to be free to move about any axis

passing through its centre of mass, its spin axis will remain fixed in space.

Second Law of Gyroscopes

When a torque acts on a spinning mass with an axis perpendicular to that of

spin, then the latter will process about an axis perpendicular to both
aforementioned axes, at an angular velocity.

Project modules

 Module 1: Designing and item selection

 Module 2: Item purchasing or crafting
 Module 3: Fabrication or assembling
 Module 4: Testing, rework or repairing
 Module 6: Documentation.
Finished projects images:
Parts used:

1 inch aluminum angel frame 9C12 inch

Gyro wheel 10mm thickness 4.5 inch diameter

 12V DC motor 10000 RPM

12V DC gear motor 100RPM

12V Batteries 6 PCS

1inch roller 4 pcs for movement

SPDT switch 2pcs

OPERATIONS INVOLVED

1. Turning (facing, plain turning, step turning , threading etc)

2. Facing (flat surface)
3. Drilling
4. Gas cutting (flat plate, cylindrical rods)
5. Shaping
6. Welding
7. Tapping
8. Thread cutting

TURNING

Turning is the operation of reducing a cylindrical surface by removing material

from the outside diameter of a work piece. It is done by rotating the work piece
about the lathe axis and feeding the tool parallel to the lathe axis. Due to this
operation screw rod and head are done by the turning operation to get the
required shape.

FACING

Machining the end of the work piece to produce flat surface is called facing.
Due to this, the plate can get flat surface have done by the facing operation.
DRILLING

Drilling is the operation of producing cylindrical hole in work piece. It is done

by rotating the cutting edge of the cutter known as drill bit. In this Project the
jig plates require holes for locating indexing plate and screw rod, drill bush
assembly. These holes are done by conventional vertical drilling machine.

THREAD CUTTING

Thread cutting is the operation of forming external thread of required diameter

of rod by using a multipoint tool is called thread. This process is used in screw
clamp to done on the rod which is used for the movement of the movable plate

FINE GRINDING

It is nothing but the grinding process, which is done as smooth with fine grains.
This is done as the each plate and base plate for good surface finish. It is done
by conventional grinding machine.

GAS CUTTING

It is used to break are cut the plates. In this project it is used to cut the raw
materials such as plates. This done by gas cutting machine.

SHAPING

Shaping operation is used to reduce the dimensions of the plates. In this project
the plates are in need of shaping process. It is done by shaping machine.

WELDING
It is the process, which is used to join two, is more similar materials as well as
dissimilar materials. In this project it is used to join the jig plate one to another.
This is done by arc welding machine.

‘Aluminum

Aluminum or aluminum (in North American English) is a chemical element in

the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white,
soft, nonmagnetic, ductile metal. Aluminum is the third most abundant element
in the Earth's crust (after oxygen and silicon) and its most abundant metal.
Aluminum makes up about 8% of the crust by mass, though it is less common in
the mantle below. Aluminum metal is so chemically reactive that native
specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is
found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminum is
bauxite.
Aluminum is remarkable for the metal's low density and its ability to resist
corrosion through the phenomenon of passivation. Aluminum and its alloys are
vital to the aerospace industry and important in transportation and structures,
such as building facades and window frames. The oxides and sulfates are the
most useful compounds of aluminum.
Despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses
aluminum salts metabolically, but aluminum is well tolerated by plants and
animals.[8] Because of their abundance, the potential for a biological role is of
continuing interest and studies continue
Physical
Aluminum is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile, and malleable metal
with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface
roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. A fresh film of
aluminum serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an
excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radiation. The
yield strength of pure aluminum is 7–11 MPa, while aluminum alloys have
yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. [9] Aluminum has about one-
third the density and stiffness of steel. It is easily machined, cast, drawn and
extruded.
Aluminum atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure.
Aluminum has a stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2.[10]
Aluminum is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the
conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of
copper's density. Aluminum is capable of superconductivity, with a
superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 kelvin and a critical magnetic field
of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).

Chemical
Corrosion resistance can be excellent because a thin surface layer of aluminum
oxide forms when the bare metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further
oxidation,[12] in a process termed passivation. The strongest aluminum alloys are
less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper.[9] This
corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the
presence of dissimilar metals.
In highly acidic solutions, aluminum reacts with water to form hydrogen, and in
highly alkaline ones to form aluminates— protective passivation under these
conditions is negligible. Primarily because it is corroded by dissolved chlorides,
such as common sodium chloride, household plumbing is never made from
aluminum.[13]
However, because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminum is one of the
few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an
important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminum mirror finish has the
highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3,000–
10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly
outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 nm (near IR) by silver,
gold, and copper.[14]
Aluminum is oxidized by water at temperatures below 280 °C to produce
hydrogen, aluminum hydroxide and heat:
2 Al + 6 H2O → 2 Al(OH)3 + 3 H2
This conversion is of interest for the production of hydrogen. However,
commercial application of this fact has challenges in circumventing the
passivating oxide layer, which inhibits the reaction, and in storing the energy
required to regenerate the aluminum metal.

Cast iron

Cast iron is iron or a ferrous alloy which has been heated until it liquifies, and
is then poured into a mould to solidify. It is usually made from pig iron. The
alloy constituents affect its colour when fractured: white cast iron has carbide
impurities which allow cracks to pass straight through. Grey cast iron has
graphite flakes which deflect a passing crack and initiate countless new cracks
as the material breaks.

Carbon (C) and silicon (Si) are the main alloying elements, with the amount
ranging from 2.1–4 wt% and 1–3 wt%, respectively. Iron alloys with less
carbon content are known as steel. While this technically makes these base
alloys ternary Fe–C–Si alloys, the principle of cast iron solidification is
understood from the binary iron–carbon phase diagram. Since the compositions
of most cast irons are around the eutectic point of the iron–carbon system, the
melting temperatures closely correlate, usually ranging from 1,150 to 1,200 °C
(2,100 to 2,190 °F), which is about 300 °C (572 °F) lower than the melting
point of pure iron.

Cast iron tends to be brittle, except for malleable cast irons. With its relatively
low melting point, good fluidity, castability, excellent machinability, resistance
to deformation and wear resistance, cast irons have become an engineering
material with a wide range of applications and are used in pipes, machines and
automotive industry parts, such as cylinder heads (declining usage), cylinder
blocks and gearbox cases (declining usage). It is resistant to destruction and
weakening by oxidation (rust).

The earliest cast iron artefacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered
by archaeologists in what is now Jiangsu in China. Cast iron was used in ancient
China for warfare, agriculture, and architecture.[1] During the 15th century, cast
iron became utilized for artillery in Burgundy, France, and in England during
the Reformation.[2] The first cast iron bridge was built during the 1770s by
Abraham Darby III, and is known as The Iron Bridge. Cast iron is also used in
the construction of buildings.

Production

Cast iron is made by re-melting pig iron, often along with substantial quantities
of scrap iron, scrap steel, lime stone, carbon (coke) and taking various steps to
remove undesirable contaminants. Phosphorus and sulfur may be burnt out of
the molten iron, but this also burns out the carbon, which must be replaced.
Depending on the application, carbon and silicon content are adjusted to the
desired levels, which may be anywhere from 2–3.5% and 1–3%, respectively.
Other elements are then added to the melt before the final form is produced by
casting.

Iron is sometimes melted in a special type of blast furnace known as a cupola,

but more often melted in electric induction furnaces or electric arc furnaces.
[citation needed]
After melting is complete, the molten iron is poured into a holding
furnace or ladle.

Types

Alloying elements

Iron-cementite meta-stable diagram.

Cast iron's properties are changed by adding various alloying elements, or

alloyants. Next to carbon, silicon is the most important alloyant because it
forces carbon out of solution. Instead the carbon forms graphite which results in
a softer iron, reduces shrinkage, lowers strength, and decreases density. Sulfur,
when present, forms iron sulfide, which prevents the formation of graphite and
increases hardness. The problem with sulfur is that it makes molten cast iron
viscous, which causes short run defects. To counter the effects of sulfur,
manganese is added because the two form into manganese sulfide instead of
iron sulfide. The manganese sulfide is lighter than the melt so it tends to float
out of the melt and into the slag. The amount of manganese required to
neutralize sulfur is 1.7 × sulfur content + 0.3%. If more than this amount of
manganese is added, then manganese carbide forms, which increases hardness
and chilling, except in grey iron, where up to 1% of manganese increases
strength and density.[3]
Nickel is one of the most common alloying elements because it refines the
pearlite and graphite structure, improves toughness, and evens out hardness
differences between section thicknesses. Chromium is added in small amounts
to the ladle to reduce free graphite, produce chill, and because it is a powerful
carbide stabilizer; nickel is often added in conjunction. A small amount of tin
can be added as a substitute for 0.5% chromium. Copper is added in the ladle or
in the furnace, on the order of 0.5–2.5%, to decrease chill, refine graphite, and
increase fluidity. Molybdenum is added on the order of 0.3–1% to increase chill
and refine the graphite and pearlite structure; it is often added in conjunction
with nickel, copper, and chromium to form high strength irons. Titanium is
added as a degasser and deoxidizer, but it also increases fluidity. 0.15–0.5%
vanadium is added to cast iron to stabilize cementite, increase hardness, and
increase resistance to wear and heat. 0.1–0.3% zirconium helps to form
graphite, deoxidize, and increase fluidity.[3]

In malleable iron melts, bismuth is added, on the scale of 0.002–0.01%, to

increase how much silicon can be added. In white iron, boron is added to aid in
the production of malleable iron; it also reduces the coarsening effect of
bismuth.[3]

Grey cast iron

Main article: Grey iron

Grey cast iron is characterised by its graphitic microstructure, which causes

fractures of the material to have a grey appearance. It is the most commonly
used cast iron and the most widely used cast material based on weight. Most
cast irons have a chemical composition of 2.5–4.0% carbon, 1–3% silicon, and
the remainder iron. Grey cast iron has less tensile strength and shock resistance
than steel, but its compressive strength is comparable to low- and medium-
carbon steel.

White cast iron

White cast iron displays white fractured surface due to the presence of
cementite. With a lower silicon content (graphitizing agent) and faster cooling
rate, the carbon in white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as the metastable
phase cementite, Fe3C, rather than graphite. The cementite which precipitates
from the melt forms as relatively large particles, usually in a eutectic mixture,
where the other phase is austenite (which on cooling might transform to
martensite). These eutectic carbides are much too large to provide precipitation
hardening (as in some steels, where cementite precipitates might inhibit plastic
deformation by impeding the movement of dislocations through the ferrite
matrix). Rather, they increase the bulk hardness of the cast iron simply by virtue
of their own very high hardness and their substantial volume fraction, such that
the bulk hardness can be approximated by a rule of mixtures. In any case, they
offer hardness at the expense of toughness. Since carbide makes up a large
fraction of the material, white cast iron could reasonably be classified as a
cermet. White iron is too brittle for use in many structural components, but with
good hardness and abrasion resistance and relatively low cost, it finds use in
such applications as the wear surfaces (impeller and volute) of slurry pumps,
shell liners and lifter bars in ball mills and autogenous grinding mills, balls and
rings in coal pulverisers, and the teeth of a backhoe's digging bucket (although
cast medium-carbon martensitic steel is more common for this application).

It is difficult to cool thick castings fast enough to solidify the melt as white cast
iron all the way through. However, rapid cooling can be used to solidify a shell
of white cast iron, after which the remainder cools more slowly to form a core
of grey cast iron. The resulting casting, called a chilled casting, has the benefits
of a hard surface and a somewhat tougher interior.

High-chromium white iron alloys allow massive castings (for example, a 10-
tonne impeller) to be sand cast, i.e., a high cooling rate is not required, as well
as providing impressive abrasion resistance.[citation needed]
These high-chromium
alloys attribute their superior hardness to the presence of chromium carbides.
The main form of these carbides are the eutectic or primary M 7C3 carbides,
where "M" represents iron or chromium and can vary depending on the alloy's
composition. The eutectic carbides form as bundles of hollow hexagonal rods
and grow perpendicular to the hexagonal basal plane. The hardness of these
carbides are within the range of 1500-1800HV[4]

Malleable cast iron

Main article: Malleable iron

Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat treated at about
900 °C (1,650 °F). Graphite separates out much more slowly in this case, so that
surface tension has time to form it into spheroidal particles rather than flakes.
Due to their lower aspect ratio, spheroids are relatively short and far from one
another, and have a lower cross section vis-a-vis a propagating crack or phonon.
They also have blunt boundaries, as opposed to flakes, which alleviates the
stress concentration problems faced by grey cast iron. In general, the properties
of malleable cast iron are more like those of mild steel. There is a limit to how
large a part can be cast in malleable iron, since it is made from white cast iron.

Ductile cast iron

Main article: Ductile cast iron

A more recent development is nodular or ductile cast iron. Tiny amounts of
magnesium or cerium added to these alloys slow down the growth of graphite
precipitates by bonding to the edges of the graphite planes. Along with careful
control of other elements and timing, this allows the carbon to separate as
spheroidal particles as the material solidifies. The properties are similar to
malleable iron, but parts can be cast with larger sections.

Table of comparative qualities of cast irons

Comparative qualities of cast irons[5]

Yield
Nominal Form Hardnes
strengt Tensile Elongatio
compositio and s
Name h [ksi strengt n [% (in Uses
n [% by conditio [Brinell
(0.2% h [ksi] 2 inches)]
weight] n scale]
offset)]

Engine
cylinder
Grey blocks,
C 3.4,
cast iron flywheels,
Si 1.8, Cast — 50 0.5 260
(ASTM gearbox
Mn 0.5
A48) cases,
machine-
tool bases

C 3.4,
White Cast (as Bearing
Si 0.7, — 25 0 450
cast iron cast) surfaces
Mn 0.6

Malleabl C 2.5, Cast 33 52 12 130 Axle

e iron Si 1.0, (annealed bearings,
(ASTM track
 wheels,
automotive
A47) Mn 0.55 )
crankshaft
s

C 3.4,
Ductile Gears,
P 0.1,
or camshafts,
Mn 0.4, Cast 53 70 18 170
nodular crankshaft
Ni 1.0,
iron s
Mg 0.06

Ductile
or cast
nodular (quench
— 108 135 5 310 —
iron tempered
(ASTM )
A339)

C 2.7,
High
Si 0.6,
Ni-hard strength
Mn 0.5, Sand-cast — 55 — 550
type 2 application
Ni 4.5,
s
Cr 2.0

C 3.0,
Si 2.0, Resistance
Ni-resist
Mn 1.0, Cast — 27 2 140 to heat and
type 2
Ni 20.0, corrosion
Cr 2.5

History

Cast iron artifact dated from 5th century BC found in Jiangsu, China.
Cast iron drain, waste and vent piping

Cast iron plate on grand piano

The earliest cast iron artifacts date to the 5th century BC, and were discovered
by archaeologists in what is now modern Luhe County, Jiangsu in China. This
is based on an analysis of the artifact's microstructures. [1] Because cast iron is
comparatively brittle, it is not suitable for purposes where a sharp edge or
flexibility is required. It is strong under compression, but not under tension.
Cast iron was invented in China in the 5th century BC and poured into moulds
to make ploughshares and pots as well as weapons and pagodas. [6] Although
steel was more desirable, cast iron was cheaper and thus was more commonly
used for implements in ancient China, while wrought iron or steel was used for
weapons.[1]

In the west, where it did not become available until the 15th century, its earliest
uses included cannon and shot. Henry VIII initiated the casting of cannon in
England. Soon, English iron workers using blast furnaces developed the
technique of producing cast iron cannons, which, while heavier than the
prevailing bronze cannons, were much cheaper and enabled England to arm her
navy better. The technology of cast iron was transferred from China. Al-Qazvini
in the 13th century and other travellers subsequently noted an iron industry in
the Alburz Mountains to the south of the Caspian Sea. This is close to the silk
route, so that the use of technology derived from China is conceivable.[7] The
ironmasters of the Weald continued producing cast irons until the 1760s and
armament was one of the main uses of irons after the Restoration.

Cast iron pots were made at many English blast furnaces at the time. In 1707,
Abraham Darby patented a method of making pots (and kettles) thinner and
hence cheaper than his rivals could. This meant that his Coalbrookdale furnaces
became dominant as suppliers of pots, an activity in which they were joined in
the 1720s and 1730s by a small number of other coke-fired blast furnaces.

The development of the steam engine by Thomas Newcomen provided further

market for cast iron, since cast iron was considerably cheaper than the brass of
which the engine cylinders were originally made. John Wilkinson was a great
exponent of cast iron, who, amongst other things, cast the cylinders for many of
James Watt's improved steam engines until the establishment of the Soho
Foundry in 1795.

Cast-iron bridges

See also: The Iron Bridge

The use of cast iron for structural purposes began in the late 1770s, when
Abraham Darby III built the Iron Bridge, although short beams had already
been used, such as in the blast furnaces at Coalbrookdale. Other inventions
followed, including one patented by Thomas Paine. Cast iron bridges became
commonplace as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace. Thomas Telford
adopted the material for his bridge upstream at Buildwas, and then for a canal
trough aqueduct at Longdon-on-Tern on the Shrewsbury Canal.

It was followed by the Chirk Aqueduct and the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, both of
which remain in use following the recent restorations. Cast iron beam bridges
were used widely by the early railways, such as the Water Street Bridge at the
Manchester terminus of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. Problems arose
when a new bridge carrying the Chester and Holyhead Railway across the River
Dee in Chester collapsed in May 1847, less than a year after it was opened. The
Dee bridge disaster was caused by excessive loading at the centre of the beam
by a passing train, and many similar bridges had to be demolished and rebuilt,
often in wrought iron. The bridge had been erroneously designed, being trussed
with wrought iron straps, which were wrongly thought to reinforce the structure.
The centres of the beams were put into bending, with the lower edge in tension,
where cast iron, like masonry, is very weak.

The best way of using cast iron for bridge construction was by using arches, so
that all the material is in compression. Cast iron, again like masonry, is very
strong in compression. Wrought iron, like most other kinds of iron and indeed
like most metals in general, is strong in tension, and also tough – resistant to
fracturing. The relationship between wrought iron and cast iron, for structural
purposes, may be thought of as analogous to the relationship between wood and
stone.

Nevertheless, cast iron continued to be used in inappropriate structural ways,

until the Tay Rail Bridge disaster of 1879 cast serious doubt on the use of the
material. Crucial lugs for holding tie bars and struts in the Tay Bridge had been
cast integral with the columns and they failed in the early stages of the accident.
In addition, the bolt holes were also cast and not drilled, so that all the tension
from the tie bars was placed on a corner, rather than being spread over the
length of the hole. The replacement bridge was built in wrought iron and steel.

Further bridge collapses occurred, however, culminating in the Norwood

Junction rail accident of 1891. Thousands of cast iron rail underbridges were
eventually replaced by steel equivalents.

Original Tay Bridge from the north

Fallen Tay Bridge from the north

Iron Bridge over the River Severn at Coalbrookdale, England

The Eglinton Tournament Bridge, North Ayrshire, Scotland, built from

cast iron
Buildings

Main article: Cast-iron architecture

Cast iron columns enabled architects to build tall buildings without the
enormously thick walls required to construct masonry buildings of any height.
Such flexibility allowed tall buildings to have large windows. In urban centres
like SoHo-Cast Iron Historic District in New York City, manufacturing
buildings and early department stores were built with cast iron columns to allow
daylight to enter. Slender cast iron columns could also support the weight that
would otherwise require thick masonry columns or piers, opening up floor
spaces in factories, and sight lines in churches and auditoriums. The historic
Iron Building in Watervliet, New York, is a cast iron building.

Textile mills

Another important use was in textile mills. The air in the mills contained
flammable fibres from the cotton, hemp, or wool being spun. As a result, textile
mills had an alarming propensity to burn down. The solution was to build them
completely of non-combustible materials, and it was found convenient to
provide the building with an iron frame, largely of cast iron, replacing
flammable wood. The first such building was at Ditherington in Shrewsbury,
Shropshire. Many other warehouses were built using cast iron columns and
beams, although faulty designs, flawed beams or overloading sometimes caused
building collapses and structural failures.

During the Industrial Revolution, cast iron was also widely used for frame and
other fixed parts of machinery, including spinning and later weaving machines
in textile mills. Cast iron became widely used, and many towns had foundries
producing industrial and agricultural machinery.
 Chapter 4

References

1. Jump up^ Spilhaus, Athelstan; Spilhaus, Kathleen (1989). Mechanical Toys.

New York: Crown Publishers. pp. 45–46. ISBN 0-517-56966-3. Ely Cycle Co.
2. Jump up^ GB 25732
3. Jump up^ "The Scherl Gyroscopic Monorail Car". Scientific American.
January 22, 1910.
4 .Jump up^ "The Schilowski Gyroscopic Monorail System". The Engineer.
January 23, 1913.
5. Jump up^ Hamill, P.A. (December 1972). et al.. "Comments on a Gyro-
Stabilised Monorail Proposal". LTR-CS-77 (Canada: Control Systems
Laboratory).