SECTION

GAMMA RAY
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS...............................................................................................i,
ii
BASIC
PHYSICS............................................................................................................1

The Atomic
Nucleus..............................................................................................1

Alpha
Decay..........................................................................................................2

Beta
Decay.............................................................................................................2

Gamma
Decay........................................................................................................4

Gamma Interaction With

Matter............................................................................7

Pair
Production...........................................................................................7

Compton (Incoherent)
Scattering................................................................8

Photoelectric
Effect.....................................................................................9
GAMMA RAY
TOOLS.................................................................................................10

Natural Gamma Ray Tools...................................................................................10

Radioactivity Of Different Formations....................................................12

Volume Of
Shale.......................................................................................12

Spectral Gamma Ray

Tools..................................................................................13

Decay
Sequence........................................................................................13

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Energy
Spectrum......................................................................................14

• Potassium.......................................................................................1
4

• Uranium.........................................................................................15

• Thorium.........................................................................................1
6
CALIBRATION.............................................................................................................1
7

Calibration Of The Natural Gamma Ray Tool.....................................................17

Calibration Of The Spectral Gamma

Tool............................................................19

Compensated Spectral Natural Gamma Tool

(CSNG)..............................20

• Gain
Compensation..........................................................................20

• Shop
Calibration...............................................................................20

Spectral Gamma Ray Tool

(SGR).............................................................23

• Gain
Compensation..........................................................................23

• Calibration........................................................................................
24
SPECTRAL GAMMA REAL TIME
COMPUTATION.............................................26
STATISTICAL FLUCTUATION AND BED RESOLUTION...................................28

Depth Of
Investigation..........................................................................................28
SCINTILLATION
DETECTORS................................................................................29

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The Scintillating
Crystal.......................................................................................30

The Photomultiplier Tube

(PMT).........................................................................31
BOREHOLE
EFFECTS................................................................................................31

Natural Gamma
Tools...........................................................................................33

Spectral Gamma
Tools...........................................................................................34
GEOLOGICAL
CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................35

Uranium.................................................................................................................
35

Thorium.................................................................................................................
36

Potassium..............................................................................................................
36

Spectral Log
Example...........................................................................................37
REFERENCES................................................................................................................
38

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BASIC PHYSICS
The Atomic Nucleus
The basic building blocks of the atomic structure are the proton, neutron and electron.
Each of these particles differs in the basic properties of charge and mass.

In the normal, stable atom, these are bound together into a hole that is electrically neutral.
The neutrons and protons are joined to form the nucleus of the atom. The atomic
number of the atom, the number of protons in the nucleus, is represented by the symbol
Z. The number Z also represents the total number of electrons of the atom that
determines its atomic and molecular properties. Atoms with the same atomic number
often have markedly different nuclear characteristics because there can be different
numbers of neutrons associated with a fixed number of protons.

The total number of nucleons (protons and neutrons) in the nucleus is called the mass
number, A. Nuclides having the same atomic number but different mass numbers, are
called isotopes. Different isotopes of an element are chemically identical and can be
distinguished by their different atomic weights or nuclear properties.

An isotope is identified by naming the element and following that name with the number of
the isotope. There is a more formal notation that sets the mass number (A) as a
superscripted number in front of the symbol for the element and the atomic number (Z) as
a subscripted number in front of the symbol. For any element (listed below as X), this
formal notation is shown as:

A
Z
X
As an example, the most common isotope of potassium has twenty neutrons and nineteen
protons and is represented as follows:

39
19
K or Potassium-39

The only radioactive isotope of potassium has twenty-one neutrons and nineteen protons.
This element is represented as:

40
19 K or Potassium-40

The formal notation is used in formulas and in series descriptions, while the other notation
is used in text material.

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Alpha Decay
Certain radioactive nuclei, those for which Z > 82, spontaneously decay into a daughter
nucleus (usually in an excited state) and a helium nucleus (24He). This helium nucleus
consists of two protons and two neutrons that is called an alpha (α) particle. Since the
alpha particle has a very stable configuration of nucleons, it is perhaps not surprising that
such a group of particles might exist within the parent nucleus prior to alpha decay. The
laws of conservation of charge and of nucleons require that:

6-1. Z
A
P→ ZA−−24D + α
Where P and D are the parent and daughter nuclei, respectively. As an example of
equation 1, part of the decay sequence for Thorium-232 going to stable Lead-208 involves
the decay of Bismuth-212 by alpha emission to Thallium-208 according to the equation:

83 Bi→ 81Tl +α
212 208
6-2.

• Bi = Bismuth (parent)

• Tl = Thallium (daughter)

Beta Decay
Beta decay may be defined as that radioactive decay process in which the charge of a
nucleus is changed without a change in the number of nucleons. There are three types of
beta decay. Two of these involve the emission of Beta particles. A ß- particle is an
electron emitted from an unstable nucleus when one of its neutrons' changes into a proton.
The positron, ß+ (discovered in 1932) is emitted from an unstable nucleus when one of its
protons' changes into a neutron. Except for its positive charge, a positron is identical to
an electron. When a positron and an electron meet, they annihilate and their masses
convert into two γ rays. A parent to daughter representation of beta-electron decay
obeys.*

*NOTE: In all the beta decay equations, the emitted neutrino is omitted since its existence is not
important (at this level) in understanding gamma spectroscopy theory.

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6-3. Beta-electron decay:

A
Z P→ Z+A1 D + β −
An example of this decay is found again in the decay sequence for Thorium-232. The
Thallium-208 produced from the alpha decay depicted in(equation 6-2) next Beta decays
according to:

6-4.
208
81Ti → 208
82 Pb + β−

• Pb = lead (daughter)

The parent to daughter representation of beta-positron decay, in a similar fashion, obeys

the transformation.
+
6-5. Beta-positron decay:
A
Z P → Z−A1 D + β
An example of this decay is shown in the transformation of unstable Nitrogen-12 to
Carbon-12.
+
6-6.
12
7 N → 126 C + β
The third type of beta decay is electron capture. In electron capture, an atomic orbital
electron combines with a proton of the nucleus to change it into a neutron. Again the
number of nucleons is unchanged, but a proton is converted into a neutron, as in ß+ decay.
No charged particle is emitted in the decay by electron capture. A parent to daughter
transformation for electron capture takes the form of:
−
6-7. Electron capture: β capture + AZ P → Z−A1 D
An example of electron capture is observed in the transformation of radioactive
Potassium-40 to Argon-40.

−
6-8. β capture + 19
40
K → 40
18 Ar

• K = Potassium

• Ar = Argon

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Gamma Decay
When a nucleus decays from a parent to daughter, the daughter is often left in one of a
number of possible excited states. An excited state is not stable. The nucleus will
therefore spontaneously drop to a lower energy excited state or the lowest energy ground
state by emitting photons. A photon emitted from a nucleus in an excited state is called a
gamma ray (γ). Gamma ray photons represent the highest energy portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum (which includes X-rays and visible light). See Table 1.
Referring to any parent to daughter decay (equation 6-1,6-3, 6-5, 6-7) and ignoring the
emitted or capturing particles in the reactions, a general expression can be written:

6-9. P → D*
Here, the asterisk (*) denotes an excited state. For gamma emission,

6-10. D* → D ' +γ
Table 1 Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Here the prime ( ′ ) denotes a lower excited state or ground state. Only those nuclear
transitions that obey the conservation laws are permitted. In the downward transition
from an upper nuclear energy state EU to a lower state EL, the emitted gamma ray
(ignoring any recoil effect) has the energy:

6-11. E
γ
= hf = Eu − EL

Here h = Planck's constant = 6.626 x 10-34 J/Hz

f = frequency

EU = nuclear energy of the upper state

EL = nuclear energy of the lower state

A simple practical example of our theoretical analysis is exemplified by the decay of

Potassium-40. From equation 6-8, Potassium-40 captures an electron and becomes
Argon-40. The disintegration scheme is shown below.

40
19 K
Beta Beta
Electron Capture Electron Emision
11% 89%

40 40
18 Ar* EU =1.46 MeV 20 Ca (ground state)

E =1.46 Mev
40 EL =0 (ground state)
18
Ar

FIG: 1 Potassium Decay

From the above, figure Potassium-40 beta electron decays to Calcium-40 89% of the time
with no gamma emission (Calcium-40 is a stable element in its ground state). But 11% of
the time Potassium-40 captures an electron to become Argon-40 in its excited state.

From equation 6-10, Argon-40 will de-excite itself by emitting a gamma ray whose energy
(given by equation 6-11) is 1.46 MeV (1460 KeV).

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A more complex scheme is demonstrated by the decay of Thallium-208 to Lead-208 by

beta-electron emission (equation 6-4).

208
81 Ti

c
c (not all states included)
b b 3.198 MeV
a a 2.614 Mev

E =2.614 Mev
208
82 Pb 0 (ground state)

FIG: 2 Thallium Decay

The above figure shows Thallium-208 decaying to three of the excited states of Lead-208
(there are actually more than just three excited states). ß-a′ ß-b′ ß-c′ represent the emitted
beta electron particles that cause the decay to the corresponding excited states (a, b and
c). Notice that the de-excitation of lead-208 from the excited state "a" to the ground state
produces a 2614 KeV gamma ray.

The traditional unit of measurement of atomic energy (nuclear energy) is the electron volt
(eV), which is defined as the kinetic energy gained by an electron when it is accelerated
through a potential of one volt. The commonly used multiples of this unit are kiloelectron
volts, keV, and Megaelectron volts, MeV. These represent multiples of 1,000 and
1,000,000 electron volts, respectively. Therefore, a gamma ray with an energy of 1 MeV
would have the same striking power as an electron accelerated through a 1,000,000 volt
potential.

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Gamma Interaction With Matter

After their creation, the gamma ray photons can interact with matter in different ways. In
the discussion to follow it is important to remember the dual nature of these photons.
Gamma rays, as all photons, travel and interact as waves and particles. Three of the ways
in which gamma rays interact with matter are:

• Pair Production

• Compton Scattering

• Photoelectric Effect

PAIR PRODUCTION
Pair production serves to decrease the number of high energy gamma rays coming from
the formation. Pair Production can only occur when the energy of the gamma ray is in
excess of 1.02 MeV (this is twice the rest mass of an electron or positron). In this case,
the gamma ray photon passing near the nucleus of an atom vanishes. In its place, an
electron and a positron appear, as shown in figure 3. Pair production (which cannot take
place in a vacuum) obeys Einstein’s well know equation showing the convertibility of pure
energy to matter E = M 0 c 2 ′ with E=photon energy. It should be noted that pair
production is of little use in the evaluation of a formation.

Electron
e

Incident Photon e+
High Energy
Positron

FIG: 3 Pair Production

NOTE: For a more complete analysis of gamma interaction (including Rayleigh Scattering), refer to the
“Density theory” section of this Manual.

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COMPTON (INCOHERENT) SCATTERING

The most important interaction to the bulk density measurement is called Compton
Scattering. Compton Scattering is classified as incoherent scattering. Incoherent
scattering involves a photon scattering off one electron at a time. In Compton Scattering
the incident photon energy is assumed to be much greater than the binding energy of the
electron. For this case the electron can be considered essentially free (i.e. not bound to
the nucleus). In compton interaction the photon collides with an outer (weakly bounded)
electron of an atom. Here the incident photon transfers some of its energy to the electron,
which it knocks out of the atom. The scattered photon now has less energy and has likely
been deflected along a different path. See figure 4.

This scattering process will be repeated over and over (down scattering) as the gamma ray
passes through the material, until the gamma ray has lost enough energy that it can be
photoelectrically absorbed (i.e. less than about 100 keV). Since the gamma ray will
undergo more collisions per unit distance in a high-density material than in a low-density
material, the average distance travelled by a gamma ray (proportional to count rate)
depends on the density of the material.

When the photon energy decreases to a sufficient level, such that the electron binding
energy can not be ignored, binding-energy correction must be applied to the Compton
interaction to obtain an accurate incoherent scattering across section. It should here be
noted that if the energy to be imparted to the electron is not greater than the binding
energy, compton scattering will not occur. Compton interaction is the dominant effect for
gamma rays with energies between 100 keV to 10 MeV.

Scattered
Photon

Incident Photon e
Compton
Recoil
Electron

FIG: 4 The Compton effect

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PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect becomes important when the gamma ray energy is only slightly
greater than the binding energy of the electrons. For most rocks, this occurs at energies
below about 100 keV. In the photoelectric effect one gamma ray photon is absorbed by
one electron. In the process, all of the energy of the gamma ray is transferred to the
electron, which then has enough energy to overcome the binding energy of the nucleus
and escape. This interaction is shown below.

Electron e

Incident Photon

FIG: 5 The Photoelectric Effect

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GAMMA RAY TOOLS

Natural formation gamma radiation comes from radioactive isotopes of uranium, thorium
and potassium.* To record this radiation, there are presently two types of gamma ray
tools in use:

1. The gross (simple) gamma tool that is usually referred to as a natural gamma tool.
The gross gamma tool records the total gamma activity in the wellbore without regard
to the source,

2. The spectral gamma ray tool is a spectral analyzer that identifies the source and
gives the contribution (concentration) of each of the elements (potassium, uranium and
thorium) to the overall spectrum (count rate).

Natural Gamma Ray Tools

This simple gamma tool consists of a detector and a counter. The detector is usually a
scintillation type that outputs a discrete electrical pulse for each gamma ray detected.
Although the height of the pulses is proportional to incident gamma energy, the basic
gamma tool does not sort the pulses, it merely counts those above some discrimination
level. Therefore the processed information is merely the count rate (counts/second) per
depth sample. In order to output a standard result log, independent of tool systems, a unit
of measurement called the API is used.**

*NOTE: The specifics of the decay sequences will be discussed in the Spectral Gamma Ray section.

**NOTE: See Calibration Section for definition of API.

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The basic gamma ray log is effective in distinguishing permeable zones by virtue of the
fact that radioactive elements can be highly concentrated in the shale, which are
impermeable and much less concentrated in sands and carbonates, which are generally
permeable. Figure (6) shows some typical responses in different lithologies. The next
section will explain the origin of the radioactivity of different earth formations.

FIG: 6 Gamma Ray Response In Typical Formations

RADIOACTIVITY OF DIFFERENT FORMATIONS

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A major portion of the earth's radioactive potassium and uranium-thorium series elements
was originally contained in igneous rocks. Igneous rocks generally consist of quartz,
feldspars, micas and minor accessory minerals.

Quartz crystals have a strong well-ordered structure. This tends to eliminate any
impurities from the quartz structure. Since sandstone’s are created from the erosion of
quartz, they generally exhibit low radioactivity’s.

Feldspars and micas contain a large portion of the earth's potassium fraction. This mineral
group decomposes at a relatively rapid rate into the clay minerals. Clays have small
individual particle size and a relatively open lattice structure that is characterized by
weaker bonding. This open structure encourages the inclusion of impurities. During
deposition, clays absorb heavy radioactive elements that are practically impossible to leach
out. Since shales are composed of small clay particles, shales tend to be considerably
higher in radioactivity than most common formations.

Carbonate rocks were developed from calcareous marine life skeletal matter. Since little
radioactivity is present in living organisms, carbonate rocks are generally low in
radioactivity.

Dolomite is formed from a chemical reaction between limestone and dissolved magnesium
in migrating ground waters. This process is called dolomitization. Since ground waters
contain dissolved radioactive isotopes, in the process of dolomitization some isotopes may
be deposited. For this reason, dolomite has a small but higher amount of natural radiation
with it than do limestones and may be radioactive, especially in vuggy and/or fractured
intervals.

VOLUME OF SHALE
Because thorium, potassium and (to a lesser degree) uranium is largely concentrated in
clay minerals, the GR log can be used to estimate the shale content (Vsh) of a zone.
Basically, the procedure is a matter of estimating the clean zone and 100% shale zone on
the log and interpolating between the two to determine Vsh in a partially shale interval.
This is not a very precise technique, so other shale indicators are used as well (the spectral
gamma ray provides better estimates of Vsh).

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Spectral Gamma Ray Tools

The basic construction of a Spectral Gamma Ray Tool is essentially the same as the simple
gamma tool. Although, the detector must be of the scintillation type to output voltage
pulses proportional to gamma energy. Unlike the natural gamma tool, each pulse detected
is now placed (counted) in a channel representing a certain energy level. There is at least
256 channels (corresponding to a spectrum utilizing an 8 bit analog to digital converter, 28
= 256 possible states or channels). To fully understand the usefulness of this spectral
analyzer we need to elaborate more on the decay scheme and energy spectrum associated
with formation radiation.

DECAY SEQUENCE
Natural formation radiation is due primarily to radioactive isotopes of uranium (Uranium-
238), thorium (Thorium-232) and potassium (Potassium-40). These isotopes can be put
into two categories: series and non-series. Uranium and thorium are in the series
category, while potassium is part of the non-series group. The series isotopes, which all
have high atomic numbers (Z = 81 to 92), are sets of isotopes that are found together, and
which decay in sequence from one to another until reaching stable isotopes of lead. The
non-series radioisotopes occur separately and decay directly to stable isotopes. Figure 7
shows the decay sequence for potassium, uranium and thorium.

FIG: 7 Decay Sequence

Notice the decay scheme shows potassium decaying non serially to argon by electron
capture, while the series isotopes (uranium and thorium) decay to stable isotopes of lead
(lead-206 and lead-208 respectively) by repeated alpha and beta-electron emission.

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ENERGY SPECTRUM

• POTASSIUM
There are three natural isotopes of potassium: Potassium-39, Potassium-40 and
Potassium-41. Their respective proportions in the earth are 93.10%, 0.0199% and 6.88%.
Potassium-40 with a half life of 1.3 x 109 years is the only radioactive isotope. It can
decay (Figure 1) by electron capture to argon-40 according to equation 6-8. Argon-40,
being in an excited state, de-excites itself by emitting a gamma ray according to equation
6-10. The emitted gamma ray has an energy of 1.46 MeV. This is the only gamma
emitted. Since potassium-40 decays into a stable isotope, there are no radioactive decay
products. The energy spectrum for pure potassium is shown in Figure 8. The vertical line
is the ideal case whereas the "mountain range" is the actual spectrum showing the effect of
detector crystal resolution (the line becomes a peak) and Compton down scattering (the
higher low energy portion). It should be mentioned that in the wellbore, a majority of the
gamma rays coming from the formation have under gone many Compton interactions and
have been degraded to energies of 50 to 200 KeV.

FIG: 8 Potassium Spectrum

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• URANIUM
There are three natural isotopes of uranium and all are radioactive; Uranium-234,
Uranium-235 and Uranium-238. Their respective proportions in the earth are 0.0057%,
0.72% and 99.27%, respectively. Their half-lives are 2.5 x 105 years, 7.1 x 108 years and
4.4 x 109 years, respectively. Uranium and most of its daughter isotopes emit gamma rays
of not one, but several different energy levels. Most of the radioactivity actually measured
by conventional gamma ray tools come not from uranium itself, but from the decay of one
of its daughters, Bismuth-214 to Polonium-214 by beta-electron. The excited polonium
nucleus emits gamma rays at over 50 distinct energy levels ranging from 63 KeV to 3.07
MeV. A very noticeable peak in this range is at 1.76 MeV. The spectrum for pure
uranium is shown below:

FIG: 9 Uranium Spectrum

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• THORIUM
There is only one long-lived thorium isotope: Thorium-232. Other thorium isotopes
(Thorium-234 and Thorium-230) are found in nature as daughter elements of Uranium-
238. Thorium-232 has a half life of 1.4 x 1010 years and is most easily detected indirectly
by the gamma rays emitted during the decay of one of its daughters, Thallium-208 to
Lead-208 (Equation 6-4). The excited lead nucleus emits a number of distinct energy
gamma rays. The most noticeable energy level (i.e. peak) occurs at 2.614 MeV. The
spectrum for pure thorium is shown in the Figure below:

FIG: 10 Thorium Spectrum

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CALIBRATION
Calibration Of The Natural Gamma Ray Tool
One of the problems of gamma ray logging has always been the choice of a standard
calibration system, since all logging companies use detectors of different sizes and shapes
encased in tool housing of varying characteristics. On very old logs, the scales were
calibrated in micrograms of radium per ton of formation. For many reasons, this was
found to be an unsatisfactory calibration standard for gamma ray logs. In 1956 an
American Petroleum Institute sub-committee was appointed for the purpose of designing a
calibration system (and units) that would be an acceptable standard throughout the
industry.

It was decided to use a pit, with a bed of radioactive concrete situated between two zones
of low radioactivity (concrete without the radioactive elements), and to define the API
Gamma Ray unit as 1/200 of the difference in log reading between the "hot" zone and the
"cool" zone. The test pit was constructed at the University of Houston. It presently
consists of an "artificial shale" 8-ft thick and sandwiched between neat Portland cement.

4 Feet
Gamma Ray

5-1/2" J55 Casing

Neat Portland Cement

200 Uranium 13 ppm

API
Units 24 Feet Thorium 24 ppm
Potassium 4%

Neat Portland Cement

FIG: 11 API Test Pit

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The artificial shale is actually cement mixed with 13 ppm uranium, 24 ppm thorium and
4% potassium. The API standard defines the difference in radioactivity between the neat
cement and the radioactive cement mixture as 200 API units. Any logging service
company may place its tool in this pit to make a calibration. In doing so, a sensitivity
factor, G', would be computed from the definition:

[Tool Response (Hot) - Tool Response (Cool)] G' = 200 API

or

200 API
6-12. G '=
Tool Response (hot) - Tool Response (cool)

Here, Tool Response is usually in CPS, and Hot and Cool refer to the radioactive and
non-radioactive zones respectively.

Once calibrated in the test pit, the tool's log response is now given by:

GRLog = G' (Tool Response)

And is independent of the type of tool and other instrumental factors, and thus satisfies the
purpose of a standard calibration. Of course, in actuality not every gamma tool
manufactured is calibrated in this test pit. The test is usually reserved for a particular type
of "standard tool". Once calibrated in the pit, this standard tool is used to "calibrate" a
radioactive source. This actually means we just record the API value of this source at a
certain distance as seen by the standard tool. This source is then used for shop/field
calibration of all tools manufactured "identically" to the standard tool. This radioactive
source is usually a Ra -226 test pill or a thorium -232 sleeve. With this calibration source,
field calibration of all natural gamma tools involves determining a gain factor from:

Calibrator value in API (as recorded by standard tool)

6-13. G =
Calibrator value in field tool units

Since the calibrator value was established by the standard tool calibrated in the API test
pit, the calculated G (which is proportional to G') enables all field tools to give standard
results (logs) in API units. Thus the modified log response is:

G R Log = G (Field Tool Response)

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Calibration Of The Spectral Gamma Tool

The calibrations associated with the Spectral Gamma Tool are more complex than the
Gross Gamma Tool.* This is due to the fact that each detected gamma must be placed in
an appropriate channel based on its energy (voltage level). The channels and
corresponding energies are directly proportional (i.e. the higher the channel value, the
higher the energy it represents). A shop (or field) calibration is used to define the width
(in channels) of certain computation "windows". Each spectral computation window
(from 3 up) consists of a certain number of channels. The total gamma count within each
window is found by summing the total gamma count in the corresponding channels. Each
window, while representing a specific channel range, also represents a specific energy
range.

To insure that all of the detected gamma’s is counted in the appropriate channels involves
some gain control, (usually automatic) that takes into account the temperature effect (and
any other miscellaneous drift) on the detector system. This temperature effect causes the
voltage pulse height of the PMT (Photo Multiplier Tube) to change identical gamma
inputs. Therefore, to insure correct computed results:

1. The detector gain must be constantly monitored and adjusted.

2. Shop calibrations must be performed to set window boundaries.

To achieve this end, we will discuss two methods of calibrations; one used by the
Compensated Spectral Natural Gamma Tool (CSNG) and the other utilized by the
Spectral Gamma Ray Tool (SGR).

*NOTE: All Spectral Gamma Tools output a gross gamma curve calibrated like the natural gamma
tool for comparison purposes. This section deals with the calibrations associated with the
elemental analysis feature.

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COMPENSATED SPECTRAL NATURAL GAMMA TOOL

(CSNG)

• GAIN COMPENSATION
Since the CSNG-A measures the energies of individual gamma rays, the gain of the
detector must be held constant. This is accomplished by using an alpha-gamma ray
coincidence technique. Near the main gamma ray detector is a much smaller detector that
contains an embedded Americium-241 source. When Americium-241 decays to Np-237
by alpha emissions a 60 keV gamma ray and the high energy alpha particles are emitted
essentially simultaneously.

The alpha particle is detected with near 100% efficiency in the smaller alpha detector,
whereas most of the 60 keV gamma rays escape. About 20% of these gamma rays are
detected in the main gamma detector, since these gamma rays are coincident with the
alpha particles, the stabilizer gamma rays can be spectrally separated from formation
gamma’s with better than 99% efficiency.

The peak value of the gamma stabilization spectrum is constantly monitored and the
electrical bias on the detector adjusted to keep the peak at the same channel value (channel
47) that corresponds to 60 keV. See figure 12 (a)

• SHOP CALIBRATION
The primary calibration standards for all CSNG tools are the "KUT" (Potassium, Uranium,
Thorium) calibration tanks, in the Nuclear Test Facility at HLS Headquarters in Houston,
Texas. From this primary calibration, sensitivity coefficients are calculated and stored in
software for all CSNG tools of identical design. Shop calibrations and field checks are
performed in the districts and on location with the use of a Thorium-232 sleeve. This
sleeve is wrapped, at the proper location, around the tool detector housing.

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During shop calibrations, window boundaries are determined in channel ranges for fixed
energy ranges. The energy range of each window is fixed in the software, but the
corresponding channel range varies slightly for each tool. Each window has an upper and
lower energy value defining its width. The corresponding upper and lower channel values
are computed from the linear expression:

. 6- Channel Value = R (Energy Value) + B

14.

R = slope
B = offset
Therefore, for any window whose width is defined by the upper and lower energy values,
E'U and E'L respectively, the corresponding channel range width is given by:*
CHANNEL U = R (E'U) + B
CHANNEL L = R (E'L) + B
Each window can be represented graphically as shown in figure 12 (b).

STABILIZER SPECTRUM CHANNEL RANGE VS ENERGY RANGE

(a) (b)

FIG: 12

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 GAMMA RAY THEORY

*NOTE: The prime denotes that these are not the same energy values associated with gamma decay
discussed in a previous section.

The gain (R) and offset (B) is determined during shop calibration for a low and high
spectrum (i.e., two slopes and two offsets are calculated). The thorium sleeve provides
the necessary four energy values (peaks). The Figure below shows the four centroids
(peaks) used during calibration, along with the measured channels in which each centroid
appears (for this particular tool).

FIG: 13 CSNG Cal Peaks

From the measured channels for the high spectrum above, the gain and offset are
computed from the linear simultaneous equations.

215 Ch = R (2.614 MeV) + B

50 Ch = R (0.583 MeV) + B

Solving for R and B we obtain

R = 81.2 ch/MeV or .0812 ch/KeV

B = 2.7 channels

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All CSNG tools have window 1 energy range from 2.480 MeV to 2.919 MeV. Using the
gain and offset determined above, the corresponding channel range for this particular tool
is defined by:
Ch
Channel U = 81.2 (2.919 MeV) + 2.7 Ch = 240 Ch
MeV

Ch
Channel L = 81.2 (2.480 MeV) + 2.7 Ch = 204 Ch
MeV

Therefore:

Window 1 = 2.480 MeV > 2.919 MeV

= Channel 204 > Channel 240

SPECTRAL GAMMA RAY TOOL (SGR)

• GAIN COMPENSATION
Unlike the CSNG, the SGR contains no internal stabilization source, so gain control is
maintained by constantly readjusting the window boundaries based on the measured
channel of the formation potassium peak. The below figure shows how this peak varies
with time (temperature).

FIG: 14 SGR Peak

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During logging a 256 channel spectrum is accumulated continuously over five-minutes

periods. At the end of each period the formation potassium peak (centroid) is found and
the measured channel is used to compute a new gain factor (R). The window boundaries
are then readjusted using the new gain factor. This gain factor is computed from our
linear expression (Equation 6-14) with the known energy level for potassium (see Figure
8) and assuming a zero offset.

Channel Value = R(Energy)

6-15. R = Channel Value / Energy

or, for potassium:

Channel Value Measured Potassium Channel
6-16. R(K) = =
Energy 1.460 MeV

The choice of potassium as the stabilization source is obviously due to its great abundance
as compared to uranium or thorium (i.e. it has the greatest likelihood of being present).

• CALIBRATION
The primary calibration standards for all SGR tools are three different simulated formation
tanks. Each tank consists of a 6-inch, waterfilled borehole in a single-activity formation of
potassium, uranium or thorium.

The tanks are used with the "standard" SGR tool to establish the computation coefficients,
and window limits (in energy) stored in the software to be used by all tools manufactured
identically (within close tolerances) to this "standard" tool.

In the field, a thorium calibrator is used to establish the window limits (in channels) that
are used for field checks and a gross gamma gain factor. The 2.614 MeV peak is used in
equation (6-15). See Figure below.

FIG: 15 Thorium Peak

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Using Equation 6-15 we can obtain a gain factor for this particular tool,
216 Ch
R= = 82.6 Ch/MeV
2.614 MeV

All SGR tools have the thorium window from 2.30 MeV to 2.80 MeV. From the gain
factor calculated above, the corresponding channel range for this particular tool is
determined from:
Ch
Channel U = 82.6 (2.80 MeV) = 231 Ch
MeV

Ch
Channel L = 82.6 (2.30 MeV) = 190 Ch
MeV

Therefore:

Thorium Window = 2.30 MeV > 2.80 MeV

= Channel 190 > Channel 231

For the gross gamma gain factor, a Ra-226 calibrator is used and counts are measured in
the gross gamma window. The gain factor is computed from Equation (6-13).

Field checks are performed with a doughnut-shaped fixture with known amounts of
thorium, potassium and uranium. By estimating the specific concentrations, the checks
verify the response of the Spectral Gamma tool over the entire formation spectrum.
During the field checks, a peak search routine is performed for potassium. Once found, a
new gain factor (R) is computed from (Equation 6-16). This gain factor is used to
establish the initial windows for logging. At all other times (during logging) the windows
are computed from the downhole formation potassium peaks.

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 GAMMA RAY THEORY

SPECTRAL GAMMA REAL TIME COMPUTATION

For any Spectral Gamma tool (SGR or CSNG), the measured count rate in any one of the
windows is related to the elemental concentrations by the general expression:

6-17. C = aTh MTh + aU MU + aK MK

Here C = measured count rate in window in cps

MTh = elemental concentration of thorium in ppm

MU = elemental concentration of uranium in ppm

MK = elemental concentration of potassium in %

aTh = sensitivity coefficient for the element thorium (in CPS/ppm)

aU = sensitivity coefficient for the element uranium (in CPS/ppm)

aK = sensitivity coefficient for the element potassium (in CPS/%)

For n windows the above equation must be expanded to:

C1 = a1Th MTh + a1U MU + a1K MK

C2 = a2Th MTh + a2U MU + a2K MK

6-18.
C3 = a3Th MTh + a3U MU + a3K MK

Cn = anTh MTh + anU MU + anK MK

Notice that any one of the Equations (18) above can be written as:

3
6-19. C = ∑ a ij M j
j=1

Here i = the window index

j = the elemental concentration index (1 = Th; 2 = U; 3 = K)

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Matrix algebra provides a neat compact way of writing our system of simultaneous linear
equations (Equation 18).

6-20. [C] = [A] [M]

where

[A] is a n x 3 sensitivity matrix with elements' aij. The elements of [A] are computed from
the primary calibration and stored in software. Although it may appear rather complicated
to solve for the unknown concentrations (MTh, MU, Mk), the complexity of the solution is
reduced somewhat by considering down scattering effects. Compton down scattering
states that gamma’s emitted at one energy level can be degraded to lower levels by
Compton scattering. This implies that a "narrow" window around the main thorium peak
at 2.614 MeV would not receive any potassium gamma’s, since these have an initial
energy of 1.460 MeV and cannot gain energy. The gamma’s from potassium can be
expected in a window around 1.460 MeV (the extent being a function of crystal
resolution) and any lower energy window. Because of Compton down scattering, some of
the coefficients of the potassium terms (aik), can be taken to be zero. Down scattering
effects in all lower energy windows are incorporated in the values for the coefficients.

In real time processing for the elemental concentration, the SGR with only three windows
uses a stripping algorithm while the CSNG with 13 windows uses a weighted least square
technique.

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STATISTICAL FLUCTUATIONS AND BED

RESOLUTION
Nuclear logs never repeat exactly. Some of the small wiggles on the logs are statistical
variations (fluctuations) that do not represent true lithology variations. When reading any
gamma log, averaging the results over a 3-4 foot interval is advisable. When the bed is
less than 3 ft thick, the peak reading should be taken.

The source of statistical fluctuation is the random nature of nuclear events. The number
of gamma rays counted in any time interval will differ from that counted in a successive,
but identical time interval, even though the detector is stationary. The amount of the
difference will decrease if the time interval is increased to obtain more counts. A measure
of the percentage fluctuation is given by:

100
6-21. %f =
N
Here N is the average number of counts in the measuring interval. Notice as N goes to
infinity, the percentage fluctuation goes to zero.

Typical shales usually show a count rate around 300 cps while that of carbonates and
clean sands can be about 50 cps (for a natural gamma tool). Using equation (21) with an
averaging time of 2 sec we can get the percentage fluctuations,

100
Typical shale: %f= = 4%
300(2)

100
Carbonates or Clean Sands: %f= = 10%
50(2)
We see that the log can be expected to show a 4% fluctuation around the mean reading in
shales and up to 10% either side of the mean in clean sands or carbonates. Absolute
magnitudes will be in the range + (5 - 10) API units in typical shales and + (2 - 4) API
units in clean formations.

Depth Of Investigation
About 90% of the measured gamma rays recorded from a borehole tool originate within
the first six inches of the formation being investigated. Generally, the accepted depth of
investigation for any gamma tool is about one foot from the borehole wall. The effect of
introducing additional media, such as cement and casing, only reduces the total quality of
gamma rays otherwise available for measurement. In general, this does not distract from
the useful information provided by the gamma ray measurement.

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SCINTILLATION DETECTORS
To detect gamma rays, most gamma tools use scintillation type detectors. Figure (16)
shows the basic components of a typical scintillation counter (detector). A scintillating
transparent crystal, normally sodium iodide, is optically coupled to a photomultiplier tube.
The crystal will give off a minute burst of light when struck by a gamma ray. The photon
energy (light) strikes a photo-sensitive surface or cathode causing electron emission. The
electrons so produced are accelerated to an anode which upon impact, releases additional
electrons that are directed to another anode.

Optical Grease Coupling

Scintillation Crystal
Photons Pre-Amp

- + High Voltage
- e- e- e
P e- e- e e-
e- e- High Vacuum
e- e- e-
e- e-

Photocathode Dynodes
Radiation
e- Electrons
Glass Tube
Cathode P Protons

Photomultiplier Tube

FIG: 16 Scintillation Detector

Those anodes are called Dynodes and they are supplied with progressively higher voltages
by an internal or external resistor divider chain. There are several stages of such
multiplication that finally yield a sufficiently high flow of electrons to be measured and
recorded as an indication of the incident gamma ray radiation. Proper manipulation of this
electronic signal results in a voltage signal that is nearly proportional to the energy
deposited in the crystal by the detected photon. Let's take a more in depth look at the two
components of a scintillation detector - the scintillation crystal and the photomultiplier
tube.

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The Scintillating Crystal

The operation of the scintillation detector depends on the fact that certain materials, called
phosphors, emit visible light when struck by particles (e.g. photons). The mechanism by
which this happens is a well understood quantum phenomenon that involves pair
production, Compton scattering and photoelectric effects. As a photon enters the crystal
it produces electrons and positrons by the above interactions. These particles excite the
crystal into generating flashes of light (scintillation’s). The sum of the intensity of these
scintillation’s is related to the energy deposited in the crystal by the bombarding photons.
The light flashes fall on the photocathode surface of a photomultiplier tube, liberating
electrons via the photoelectric effect. The tube amplifies the electronic charge and
provides a voltage signal strong enough to be analyzed.

In the logging industry, inorganic scintillators (phosphors) are employed. In these types of
scintillators, the scintillation process depends on the energy states determined by the
crystalline lattice of some materials classified as insulators or semiconductors. The "Band
Theory" approach states that in these crystals, the electrons have available only discrete
bands of energy (i.e. they can occupy only discrete energy levels). The lower band, called
the valence band represents those electrons bound to form the lattice, whereas the
conduction band represents those with sufficient energy to be free to migrate throughout.
Intermediate levels are called the forbidden gap where electrons are never found in the
pure crystal. The electrons and positrons generated by the incident photon excite the
crystal valence electrons into the conduction band by electrostatic interactions. The return
of the electrons back to the valance band results in the emission of photons. See Figure
(17) below.

For pure crystals, the process is inefficient and usually results in higher energy photon's
emission (invisible light). To increase the probability of visible light emission during the
de-excitation, small amounts of impurities are added. These impurities, called activators,
modify the energy band structure creating states within the forbidden gap through which
the electron can de-excite with lower energy involved and therefore longer wavelength. If
the activator is properly chosen, the energetic transition can be in the visible range.

Conductive Band

Forbidden Gap
e- Photon

Valence Band

FIG: 17 Band Theory

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The most widely applied scintillators is alkali halide crystals (NaI, CsI, LiI) of which
sodium iodide is the favorite. Common activators are Thallium (Tl), Sodium (Na) and
Europium (Eu). Today, a suitable cylindrical shape scintillator compatible with
commercial photomultipliers is found mostly in the NaI(Tl) style. The Compensated
Spectral Natural Gamma (CSNG) uses a NaI (T1) detector. The Spectral Gamma Ray
tool (SGR) uses a CsI(Na) crystal because of its high density.

The Photomultiplier Tube (PMT)

The two major elements of the PMT are the photocathode and the electron-multiplier
structure (Dynodes) (see Figure 16). The photocathode can be made sensitive to almost
any region of the electromagnetic spectrum. For logging tools we are interested in having
PMs with peak sensitivities around 400 nano-meters (10-9 m) (blue) to match the emission
spectra of the NaI (T1) scintillation crystals. The electron multiplying network (through
the process of secondary emission) greatly increases the number of electrons with each
dynode stage. A typical scintillation pulse will give rise to 107 - 1010 electrons.

The output voltage pulse from the photomultiplier tube is very nearly proportional to the
energy of the photon that initiates scintillation in the crystal; then not only can photons be
detected with a scintillation detector, but also their energies can be measured.

BOREHOLE EFFECTS
All gamma tools (spectral and natural) are referenced to an arbitrary set of standard
borehole conditions. When non-standard conditions are encountered, the intensity as well
as the spectral shape changes due to variations in the scattering and absorption properties
of the borehole. Therefore, corrections need to be applied if we are to obtain useful and
quantitative formation data. In general, these corrections reflect variations in:

hole size

mud density

tool position

casing diameter

casing weight

cement thickness

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Figure (18) shows how the intensity (proportional to count rate) and shape of a high
energy spectrum is affected by changes in some of the variables above (i.e. hole size,
casing diameter, casing weight and cement thickness). All of the curves were normalized
(i.e. made to overlay) at the 1.460 MeV peak. A gain factor, N, is used in the
normalization such that the larger the N, the less intense the original 1.460 MeV peak.
Notice the appreciable separation in the curves on the lower end, due to Compton down
scattering effects.

Because of changes that occur in the total spectral shape over the entire energy spectrum,
along with the primary log for the apparent concentrations (K, U, Th), additional
borehole/formation information can be obtained from the more "sensitive" spectral Tools.*

FIG: 18 Gamma Ray Spectrum Versus Borehole Effects

*NOTE: We can obtain information on casing thickness or lithology using data from the
photoelectric energy portion of the gamma ray spectrum of the CSNG tool.

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Natural Gamma Tools

Charts are available for correcting the gamma tool for borehole effects. For a Natural
Gamma Tool, these charts are used to correct for the total count in the borehole, which
results in a corrected API gamma curve. For these basic tools, the simplest charts usually
provide corrections based on variations in hole diameter and mud density, for both
centralized and excentralized tools in the open hole. More sophisticated charts
simultaneously correct for variations in borehole diameter, casing diameter, mud weight,
cement weight, cement thickness and casing thickness (casing weight) for two, one or
zero strings of casing. Figure 19 shows on of these simple charts.

FIG: 19 Natural Gamma Borehole Correction Chart

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Spectral Gamma Tools

For Spectral Gamma tools, charts are designed to provide correction to the apparent
concentration of the elements, potassium, uranium and thorium. Figure (20) shows the
effects of hole size and mud density on the estimated concentrations. As is to be
expected, the denser the material in the borehole, the greater the magnitude of the applied
(positive) correction.

FIG: 20 SGR Borehole Correction Chart For A Centralized Tool

It should be mentioned that certain mud additives used to stabilize the mud system during
the drilling operations may cause erroneously high values for the apparent K.U.T.
concentrations in the formation. Bentonite is a clay mineral containing significant amounts
of thorium and uranium that is used as a gel-additive. Potassium salts such as potassium
chloride (KC1) is frequently used for clay stabilization of the mud system. The presence
of these radioactive elements causes an increase in the gamma radiation (count rate) in the
borehole. This effect can be eliminated by identifying and subtracting the borehole
contribution from the total signal.

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GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Uranium
The average concentration of uranium in the Earth's crust is about 3 ppm. The original
sources, or parent rocks, are the silicic igneous rocks (granite, granodiorite, syenite,
rhyolite, etc.) in which uranium exists as a number of accessory minerals.

Uranium is water soluble in alkaline or oxidizing environments and less soluble in the
presence of organic matter and sulfides. Because of its water solubility, uranium can be a
very mobile element. Uranium is insoluble in acidic or reducing environments and can be
absorbed into iron compounds. Uranium will precipitate with variations in temperature,
pH, pressure and flow conditions.

Since it is water soluble, uranium is not found in surface rocks, especially carbonates, due
to leaching. Waters are oxidizing and often alkaline in these environments. Uranium rich
percolating waters may deposit uranium in permeable, reducing and/or acidic reservoirs.
This is especially true in the presence of organic matter or H 2 S .

Uranium can be present along paths of vertical water migration, i.e. along faults, in
unconformable layers and in fracture zones. This is because uranium salts, being soluble,
can be transported by liquid movement. This is especially true in deeper (reducing)
environments. Low uranium below an unconformity implies little fluid movement through
the bed since this zone leached at surface.

Uranium may appear at oil/water contacts, especially in high sulfur crudes since it
precipitates out of water in the presence of sulfur.

Trends toward increasing uranium at increasing depths may imply a trangressive sequence
since deeper waters tends to be more reducing (hence the uranium would precipitate out).
This is especially true when compared to thorium since thorium is stable with respect to
oxidation conditions.

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Thorium
The average concentration of thorium in the Earth's crust is about 12 ppm. The original
sources, or parent rocks, of thorium are, like uranium, the silicic igneous rocks in which it
exists as a number of minerals. Its average concentration in igneous rocks is 3.5 to 4
times that of uranium and the thorium/uranium ratio is quite constant. Thorium is
generally insoluble in water and is stable with respect to oxidation conditions. Because of
this, it can be present in all marine deposition environments. Thorium has a tendency to
concentrate in residual minerals such as bauxite and clay minerals. Significant
concentrations are also found in heavy minerals such as monazite.

Most clays seem to contain thorium. However, some montmorillonites have a low
thorium content. The amount of thorium fixed in clay minerals remains constant in spite
of thermal diagnoses. In shale series, this amount usually ranges from 8 to 20 ppm,
depending on the clay content.

Potassium
The average concentration of potassium in the Earth's crust is about 2.6%. The original
sources, or parent rocks, are chiefly the silicic igneous rocks where it is present as
potassium feldspars (orthoclase, microcline), micas (muscovite, biotite) and a number of
other minerals. The average K2O concentration of igneous rocks is equal to 3.13%
compared to 2.87% for sediments.

During the alteration process, feldspars and micas are largely destroyed. Depending upon
the degree of weathering, one of the following clay minerals may be produced; illite,
interlayered illite-montmorillonite, montmorillonite, chlorite and kaolinite. A small part of
the total potassium concentration enters into the formation of some of those minerals, but
the major part is dissolved by water. In arid regions, this large part tends to remain with
the products of alteration (residuals). In other regions, it is transported by rivers to the
sea.

In water, the potassium ion has a very weak ionic potential and can stay in real solution
under a wide range of pH. Generally, during transportation, most of the potassium is
absorbed by clays and extracted from the water by plants.

Thus, only a small part of the original potassium arrives at the sea, which has an average
potassium concentration of 380 ppm. One fraction of the potassium is dissolved in sea
water and extracted by organisms like algae. Another part reacts with clay minerals (e.g.
with kaolinite to give illite). At least several potassium minerals (e.g. sylvite, langbeinite,
kainite) can crystallize directly from sea-water brines to give potassium evaporates. These
minerals represent the maximum concentrations of potassium in rocks.

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A CSNG log example is shown in figure 21. The uranium, potassium and thorium
concentration are in tracks 2 and 3. Notice that the uranium and thorium concentrations
are in ppm while potassium is in percent (%). The selected ratio curve in track 4 is used
for casing thickness and lithology information.

FIG: 21 Spectral Log Example

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REFERENCES
1. Smith, Harry D., Nuclear Logging Lectures, (1981)

2. Bateman, Richard M., Open-Hole Log Analysis and Formation Evaluation, IHROL,
Boston, 1985

3. Gadeken, L.L., D.M. Arnold and H.D. Smith, Jr., "Applications of the Compensated
Spectral Natural Gamma Tool" SPWLA 25th Annual Symposium, Paper JJJ, June
1984

4. Interpretation of the Spectral Gamma Ray, Gearhart Publication, G-1963 6-86

5. Dewan, John T., Essentials of Modern Open-Hole Log Interpretation, Penn Well
Publishing Company, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 1983

6. Weidner, Richard T., Robert L. Sells, Elementary Modern Physics, Allyn and Bacon,
Inc., Boston, 1972

7. Perkins, Donald H., Introduction to High Energy Physics, Addison-Wesley Publishing

Company, Reading Mass, 1972

8. Sears, Francis W., Mark W. Zemansky and Hugh D. Young, University Physics,
Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Massachusetts, 1977

9. Knoll, Glenn F., Radiation Detection and Measurement, John Wiley and Sons, New
York, 1989

10. Log Interpretation, Volume 1 - Principles, Schlumberger Publication, C-11759

11. General Radiation and Gamma Ray, Gearhart Publication, WS-451-1-85

12. Smith, H.D., Jr., C.A. Robbins, D.M. Arnold, L.L. Gadeken and J.G. Deaton, "A
Multi-Function Compensated Spectral Natural Gamma Ray Logging System", SPE
58th Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, San Francisco, CA, Oct. 1983

13. Welex Log Interpretation Chart Book, Welex Publication, 1985

14. CSNG Interpretation, Welex Publication

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