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Radiocarbon chronology of terminal Pleistocene to middle Holocene human

occupation in the Middle Cauca Valley, Colombia

Article  in  Quaternary International · January 2015

DOI: 10.1016/j.quaint.2014.12.025

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 Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Quaternary International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/quaint

Radiocarbon chronology of terminal Pleistocene to middle Holocene

human occupation in the Middle Cauca Valley, Colombia
Ruth Dickau a, *, Francisco Javier Aceituno b, Nicola

s Loaiza b, c, Carlos Lo

pez d,
Martha Cano d, Leonor Herrera e, Carlos Restrepo f, Anthony J. Ranere c
a
Department of Archaeology, University of Exeter, Laver Bldg., North Park Rd., Exeter EX4 4QE, UK
b
Grupo Medioambiente y Sociedad, Laboratorio de Arqueología, Departamento de Antropología, Universidad de Antioquia, Calle 67 No 53-108, AA 1226
Medellin, Antioquia, Colombia
c
Department of Anthropology, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA 19122, USA
d
rica y Patrimonio Cultural, Facultad de Ciencias Ambientales, Universidad Tecnolo
Laboratorio de Ecología Histo
gica de Pereira, Pereira, Risaralda,
Colombia
e
Proyecto de Rescate Arqueolo
gico Aerocaf

e, Calle 8 # 5-04, Palestina, Caldas, Colombia
f
Manzana 47-Casa 14 Villa del Prado, Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Archaeological research over the past two decades in the Middle Cauca region of central Colombia has
Available online 6 January 2015 documented numerous preceramic sites dating from the terminal Pleistocene to middle Holocene, along
with substantial artifactual and archaeobotanical evidence for early plant use and food production. We
Keywords: present a radiocarbon chronology of 26 sites, including dates previously available only in unpublished
14
C dating reports, and 36 new AMS dates from 11 sites. This chronology solidly establishes the preceramic (before
Preceramic occupations
3600 14C BP) human occupation in the Middle Cauca. The earliest date clearly associated with cultural
Early Holocene
evidence of occupation is 10,619 ± 66 14C BP at the site of Cuba. Four sites show occupation before 10,000
Middle Holocene 14
Volcanism
C BP, but between 10,000 and 9000 14C BP, this number increases to eleven sites. Thereafter, despite
Colombia evidence of episodic volcanic activity, there is a relatively constant and continuous sequence of human
occupation in the region, although small localized population movements may have occurred. The
fertility of periodically renewed andisols likely attracted settlement and continued occupation of the
region by people practicing early plant cultivation, based on the archaeobotanical evidence for the early
adoption and use of domesticates.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
The Middle Cauca archaeological region is situated in the
Northern Andes of Colombia, extending from the Department of
Caldas in the north to the Department of Valle de Cauca in the
south, with the Cauca River as its central axis (Fig. 1). Geographi-
cally, it is a very heterogeneous region that includes the lowlands of
the Cauca River valley, the eastern slopes of the Cordillera
* Corresponding author. Present address: HD Analytical Solutions, Inc., 952 Ox-
ford St. W., London, Ontario N6H 1V3, Canada.
E-mail addresses: rdickau@gmail.com (R. Dickau), csfjace@antares.udea.edu.co
(F.J. Aceituno), nloaiza@temple.edu (N. Loaiza), cel@utp.edu.co (C. Lo
pez),
mcano@utp.edu.co (M. Cano), arqueopalestina@gmail.com (L. Herrera),
arqueologocarlos@hotmail.com (C. Restrepo), ranere@temple.edu (A.J. Ranere).
Occidental, and the western slopes of the Cordillera Central (locally
known as the Macizo Volca
nico). The Calima Valley is also
considered part of the Middle Cauca archaeological region even
though it sits on the western slope of the Cordillera Occidental. In
this paper, we focus on the eastern part of the Middle Cauca, in the
piedmont between the Cauca River and the highlands of the
Cordillera Central, where recent archaeological investigations have
concentrated.
Over the past two decades, numerous preceramic sites dating
from the terminal Pleistocene to the middle Holocene have been
identified through archaeological research in the Middle Cauca
region (e.g. INTEGRAL, 1997; Patin~ o et al., 1997; Rojas and Tabares,
2000; Tabares and Rojas, 2000; Rodríguez, 2002; Cano, 2004, 2008;
Tabares, 2004; Cardale de Schrimpff et al., 2005; Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007; Restrepo, 2012, 2013a,b). We use the term

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.12.025
1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.
44 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54

Fig. 1. Map of the Middle Cauca region showing site locations.

preceramic to refer to all cultural periods prior to the appearance of
the first ceramics in the Middle Cauca region around 3600 14C BP
(Bray, 1989; Bruhns, 1994; Cano, 1995, 2004; Patin ~ o, 1996;
INTEGRAL, 1997; Restrepo, 2006, 2012; Jaramillo, 2008; Herrera
et al., 2011). Lithic assemblages remained remarkably similar
from ca. 10,000e3600 14C BP (hereafter BP; calibrated dates given
as cal B.C. or cal A.D.) (INTEGRAL, 1997; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007).
These preceramic assemblages consist of simple stone tools on
flakes, flaked and/or polished stone hoes (azadas), handstones, and
milling stone bases. Bifacial projectile points and formal tools are
rare (but see Bruhns, 1976; INTEGRAL, 1997; Herrera et al., 2011;

pez and Cano, 2012; Restrepo, 2012). The large number of plant
Lo
processing tools points to an early focus on plants that is not shared
with patterns witnessed in the neighboring Middle Magdalena
Valley and the Bogota
Plateau (Correal and Van der Hammen, 1977;
Correal, 1986; Nieuwenhuis, 2002; Lo
pez, 2008a,b; Lo

pez and Cano,
2012).
The importance of plant resources during the preceramic period
has been confirmed through the recovery of archaeobotanical evi-
dence of economic plants, including several domesticates, by
7000 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007, 2015; Aceituno and Lalinde,
2011; Aceituno et al., 2013). The presence of domesticates in-
dicates the early adoption of plant cultivation and horticultural
practices in the region, reflecting patterns observed elsewhere in
 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
the humid lowland Neotropics (Piperno and Pearsall, 1998;
Piperno, 2011). The Cauca Valley appears to have been an impor-
tant route of early crop dispersals between Central and South
America during the early to middle Holocene (Aceituno and Loaiza,
2014).
This paper presents a radiocarbon chronology of the preceramic
period in the Middle Cauca region, from the terminal Pleistocene to
the middle Holocene, based on sites excavated between the Cauca
River and the Cordillera Central. This chronology forms an essential
foundation from which to investigate changes in settlement pat-
terns and subsistence strategies during this critical period,
including the potential impacts of volcanism and other environ-
mental factors. As this is the first work that comprehensively in-
tegrates early sites located in the Middle Cauca, the analysis
presented below is based primarily on the location of sites and
radiocarbon dates.
2. Regional setting and environment
The Middle Cauca region encompasses the terrain drained by
the middle course of the Cauca River from the city of Manizales in
the north to the city of Cali in the south, between the Cordillera
Occidental and Cordillera Central of the Northern Andes. Within
this larger region, the majority of preceramic archaeological sites
have been found in the piedmont zone extending from the Cauca
River floodplain at ~900 m asl (meters above sea level) to the base
of the Central Cordillera at ~2100 m asl, within southern Caldas
Department, eastern Risaralda Department, and northern Quindío
Department (Fig. 1). This area lays in the shadow the highest
mountains in the Northern Andes: the snow-covered volcanic
peaks of Ruíz, Huila, Tolima, Quindío, and Santa Isabel of the Central
Cordillera, which rise over 5000 m asl.
The geology of the western slopes of the Central Cordillera is
primarily the result of volcanic activity and subsequent erosion
over the past four million years. Intense tectonic and volcanic
activity during the Paleogene and Neogene melted massive
alpine ice sheets, creating enormous mudflows and sedimenta-
tion in the Cauca valley (Tilst, 2006), including the large Pereir-
aeArmenia volcanoclastic fan (Guarín et al., 2004; Guarín, 2008).
Around 20,000 years ago, volcanic activity changed to principally
explosive eruptions that produced large amounts of ash. In at
least five to seven mega-events (averaging one every 3000e4000
years), the whole region was covered by volcanic ash falls of
more than one meter thick (Tilst, 2006). More recent eruptions
during the early and middle Holocene (10,000e3600 BP)
continued to deposit thick ash layers in parts of the region (Herd,
1982; Thouret et al., 1985, 1995; Me
ndez, 1997; Orozco, 2001;
Me
ndez et al., 2002). Because of the amount of volcanic ash
accumulated in the Middle Cauca over the last 10,000 years, early
preceramic deposits are usually deeply buried (~70e160 cm)
(Orozco, 2001; Tilst, 2006). Compacted ash created the present-
day rounded relief of the foothills, dissected by small rivers and
streams eroding through the soft sediments. Surface soils are
mainly well-drained, deep andisols that are moderately eroded.
They are acidic (pH 5.2e6.1), but fertile, supporting extensive
modern cultivation of coffee and other crops (Guhl, 1975;
INTEGRAL, 1997; IGAC, 1998). In some regions, the volcanic
sediments have weathered to a red clay, which overlies sand-
stones, clays, marls, and conglomerates from the Neogene
mudflows (Acevedo, 1964). Floodplains are a mix of fluvial and
colluvial volcanic sediments.
45
The region receives 1000e3000 mm of rain annually with two
periods of drier weather in JanuaryeFebruary and JulyeAugust.
Due to prevailing winds, weather patterns, and topography, the
highest rainfall occurs along the piedmont where the most of the
archaeological sites are located (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007); be-
tween 1200 and 1600 m asl, annual rainfall is 2500e3000 mm
(Oster, 1979). Temperatures average 18e24
C with little seasonal
variation. The natural vegetation for the region in the absence of
human interference would be premontane wet forest in the
piedmont and tropical dry (deciduous) forest in the lower eleva-
tions along the Cauca River (Holdridge, 1967; Espinal, 1990; IGAC,
1998). The vertical distribution of life zones would have had an
impact on resource accessibility, especially during the climatic
instability of the PleistoceneeHolocene transition (Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007).
Pollen column samples from the premontane sites of El
Jazmín, Campoalegre, and Guayabito suggest that during the
terminal Pleistocene (>10,000 BP), the climate was cooler and
drier than today, based on high frequencies of Podocarpus,
Junglans nigra, Quercus, Alnus, and Cyathacea (Jaramillo and
Mejía, 2000a, 2000b; Aceituno, 2001). The transition to the
early Holocene (10,000e7500 BP) was marked by an increase in
pollen taxa indicative of warmer temperatures and higher hu-
midity. By 9000 BP, climatic conditions were relatively similar to
the present, although altitudinal vegetation zones were
100e200 m lower (Salomons, 1989:166) indicating slightly
cooler conditions. At the super-regional scale, the beginning of
the early Holocene was characterized by an increase in tem-
perature and humidity (Melief, 1985, 1989; Marchant et al.,
2002). Paleoclimatic evidence from the Parque de los Nevados
shows that the start of the middle Holocene (7500e6500 BP)
marked a warmer period with higher temperatures than today
(Melief, 1985; Salomons, 1989; Thouret et al., 1995). This
warmer period, known as the hypsithermal or Holocene Cli-
matic Optimum, has also been documented in palaeoclimatic
records from other parts of the country (Kuhry et al., 1983;
Hooghiemstra and van der Hammen, 1993; Thouret et al.,
1995; Berrío et al., 2001; Marchant et al., 2001). Around
6200e6000 BP, changes in vegetation biomes indicates that
there was a short period of cooling known as the Santa Isabel
(Melief, 1985; Salomons, 1989; Thouret et al., 1995), which
continued until 5000 BP (Marchant et al., 2001). Between 4000
and 3000 BP, there was a shift to wetter climatic conditions
which continued until 1000 BP. Between 1000 and 500 BP there
was a drier period in the region (Marchant et al., 2001).
3. Radiocarbon chronology of the Middle Cauca region
We describe 26 sites with dated preceramic deposits from the
Middle Cauca region (Fig. 1). Many of these sites also have significant
ceramic occupations (post 3600 BP), but these occupations are not
discussed in this paper. In order to examine the preceramic history,
particularly with regards to settlement patterns, landscape in-
teractions, and resource use, we compiled radiocarbon dates from
previously published literature, professional consulting reports, and
unpublished manuscripts (Table 1). Dates from unknown prove-
nience, or those for which we could not track down the original
citation were not included. We also present 36 new AMS dates ob-
tained during our recent excavations in the region (in bold in Table 1).
Calibrations are calculated to two sigma using Calib 7.0 (Struiver et al.,
2005).
46 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54

Table 1
Preceramic radiocarbon dates from the Middle Cauca region.
14
Site Block Quad. Level Lab code C Date Calibrated d13C Method Sample References
(depth cm) date type
Yrs BC (2s)

El Mirador Monitoreo 117 C3 (100e110) AA102509 9663 ± 83 10,757e11,220 24.0 AMS Charcoal Herrera et al., 2011
El Recreo Cancha C-15 (several) (109e147) Beta-285871 8550 ± 60 9446e9657 25.5 Cnvtl. charcoal Herrera et al., 2011
El Recreo Cancha C-15 C1-21/C2-21 (150) Beta-290954 8470 ± 40 9439e9533 25.9 AMS Charcoal Herrera et al., 2011
El Recreo Cancha C-15 Feature D-18 (171e211) Beta-283582 8030 ± 80 8635e9126 26.1 Cnvtl. Charcoal Herrera et al., 2011
El Perro Cut 10 Pit (123e143) Beta-317784 6990 ± 30 7795e7937 27.5 Cnvtl. Charcoal Herrera et al., 2011
Campoalegre 1 N/A Beta-87730 7600 ± 90 8202e8535 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
Campoalegre 1 N/A Beta-87729 4270 ± 70 4581e5038 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
Los Arrayanes 1 N/A (66e77) Beta-104559 6520 ± 90 7272e7570 25.0 AMS Charcoal Rodríguez, 1997: 94
El Antojo 1 N/A 17 Beta-93154 8380 ± 90 9136e9532 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
Invías 3 1 7 (45e50) AA98950 9155 ± 57 10,224e10,492 ¡26.3 AMS Charcoal
Invías 3 1 8 (50e55) AA98951 9451 ± 58 10,520e11,069 ¡28.8 AMS Charcoal
La Selva 1 1 7 (55e60) AA98942 8712 ± 60 9545e9892 ¡26.2 AMS Charcoal
La Selva 1 1 8 (60e65) AA98943 8674 ± 61 9533e9886 ¡26.7 AMS Charcoal
La Selva LS12 N/A 8e9 (60e70) Beta-87189 7685 ± 110 8208e8262 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal INCIVA, 1995e1996
La Selva 1 1 9 (65e70) AA98944 8704 ± 56 9544e9887 ¡25.9 AMS Charcoal
*La Selva 1 2 10 (70e75) AA98945 553 ± 37 515e645 ¡25.7 AMS Charcoal
La Selva LS11 N/A 10e11 (70e80) Beta-87188 9490 ± 110 10,505e11,170 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal INCIVA,1995e1996
La Selva 1 C1 (floor) 12 (80e85) Ua-24499 8680 ± 60 9535e9886 26.7 AMS Charcoal/ Aceituno y
sediment Loaiza, 2007
*La Selva LS8 N/A 13 (80e90) Beta-87508 5825 ± 70 6454e6789 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal INCIVA, 1995e1996
El Jazmín 3 B1 12 (80e85) Ua-24494 4715 ± 45 5321e5583 27.4 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007
El Jazmín 3 A1eB1 14 (90e96) Ua-24495 5625 ± 50 6302e6496 28.5 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007
El Jazmín N/A N/A 16, Strat V Beta-95602 7590 ± 60 8219e8541 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
El Jazmín 3 C1 17 (105e110) AA98946 7528 ± 51 8203e8414 ¡27.3 AMS Charcoal
El Jazmín 3 Floor 18 (112e117) Ua-24496 7080 ± 50 7796e8000 28.3 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007
El Jazmín 3 D1 19 (115e120) AA98947 8660 ± 55 9528e9856 ¡26.9 AMS Charcoal
El Jazmín N/A N/A 21, Strat VI Beta-95061 9020 ± 60 9919e10,271 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
El Jazmín 3 D1 21 (125e130) Ua-24497 10,120 ± 70 11,396e12,027 26.5 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007
Guayabito N/A N/A 8, Strat III Beta-95063 4180 ± 70 4526e4854 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
Guayabito N/A N/A Strat V Beta-95064 7990 ± 100 8589e9125 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal INTEGRAL, 1997
La Pochola 1 (Pit) 1 7 (55e60) Ua-24498 8095 ± 55 8777e9248 27.5 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Loaiza, 2007
La Pochola 1 B2 8 (50e55) AA98943 5922 ± 51 6650e6884 ¡25.1 AMS Charcoal
La Pochola 1 B1 12 (70e75) LTL4221A 6743 ± 45 7515e7674 23.5 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Lalinde, 2011
La Pochola 1 A4/B4 15 (85e90) LTL4222A 6903 ± 45 7659e7842 23.8 AMS Charcoal Aceituno and
Lalinde, 2011
La Pochola 1 B1/B2 17 (95e100) LTL5436A 9047 ± 45 10,159e10,269 26.1 AMS Charcoal Aceituno, 2010
La Pochola 1 A3/B3 18 (100e105) LTL4223A 9312 ± 55 10,297e10,668 26.8 AMS Charcoal Aceituno, 2010
La Pochola 1 B4 20 (110e115) AA98952 13,098 ± 75 15,384e15,980 ¡25.0 AMS Charcoal
La Pochola 1 B3/B4 21 (115e120) LTL4224A 13,540 ± 60 16,092e16,549 22.0 AMS Charcoal Aceituno, 2010
San Germ
an 1 1 9 (75e80) CSIC1987 8136 ± 65 8790e9089 25.9 Cnvtl. Charcoal Aceituno y
Loaiza, 2007
La Romelia 2 B 8 (90e100) Beta-325215 7630 ± 40 8375e8536 25.0 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
La Chillona 1 A 7 (80e90) Beta-325216 8200 ± 40 9027e9277 26.6 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
UTP Bosque 1 B1 20 (95e100) AA98954 4393 ± 44 4852e5269 ¡26.1 AMS Charcoal
Deportes
La Montan ~ ita 1 A 13 (70e80) Beta- 151344 7300 ± 70 6355e6021 28.2 AMS Charcoal CISAN, 2001
La Montan ~ ita 2 A 7 (90e100) Beta-325214 9230 ± 50 10,251e10,544 25.7 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
Nuevo Sol I D (70e80) Beta-306257 8740 ± 50 9556e9901 25.6 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
Cuba Exc-1998 several (45e55) Beta-123078 4220 ± 180 4289e5306 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal Cano, 2004
Cuba 20 11 (50e55) AA102505 7007 ± 53 7713e7945 ¡26.0 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 18 13 (60e65) AA102502 5780 ± 49 6448e6714 ¡26.6 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 11 15 (70e75) AA102501 7014 ± 63 7704e7955 ¡26.8 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 19 16 (75e80) AA102503 5844 ± 50 6504e6776 ¡25.9 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 20 19 (90e95) AA102497 6990 ± 57 7697e7936 ¡25.7 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 22 20 (95e100) AA103316 7466 ± 43 8192e8372 ¡25.4 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 19 21 (100e105) AA102500 5863 ± 55 6505e6795 ¡25.2 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 17 21 (100e105) AA102499 7001 ± 53 7707e7939 ¡22.7 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 19 28 (135e140) AA102504 5911 ± 49 6638e6880 ¡26.6 AMS Charcoal
Cuba U1-1998 350-352E 27e28 (130e140) Beta-121972 9730 ± 100 10,746e11,320 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal Cano, 2004
Cuba 10E 28 (135e140) AA102496 9826 ± 63 11,137e11,395 ¡26.4 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 20 31 (152) AA102498 7032 ± 54 7738e7962 ¡24.4 AMS Charcoal
Cuba 10E 33 (160e163) AA102510 10619 ± 66 12,424e12,708 ¡29.7 AMS Charcoal
*Cuba 10 (164) AA102508 6460 ± 51 7271e7457 ¡25.6 AMS Sediment
UTP Jardín 1 B2 12 (110e120) AA98955 9284 ± 58 10,270e10,649 ¡25.2 AMS Charcoal

nico
Bota
La Mikela E2 4 (35e40) AA98936 3746 ± 49 3930e4247 ¡26.2 AMS Charcoal
La Mikela 0N1W 8 (60e65) AA98937 4794 ± 45 5331e5605 ¡26.8 AMS Charcoal
 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54 47

Table 1 (continued )
14
Site Block Quad. Level Lab code C Date Calibrated d13C Method Sample References
(depth cm) date type
Yrs BC (2s)

La Mikela 0N1W (70e80) Beta-145285 5850 ± 50 6508e6783 25.0 Cnvtl. Charcoal Cano, 2004
La Mikela E 9 (70e80) AA98938 7208 ± 58 7943e8164 ¡27.2 AMS Charcoal
La Mikela 1N1W 14 (90e95) AA98939 10,376 ± 70 11,990e12,525 ¡26.4 AMS Charcoal
*La Mikela E2 22 (105e110) AA98940 2582 ± 40 2499e2772 ¡26.1 AMS Charcoal
*La Mikela E (100e110) AA103318 3886 ± 39 4160e4420 ¡28.6 AMS Charcoal
*La Mikela 0N2W 29 Beta-181065 4270 ± 40 4654e4917 26.0 AMS Charcoal
La Trinidad I 1 B 7 (75e85) LTL4267A 9542 ± 50 10,699e11,096 22.9 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
La Trinidad II 2 A 8 (90e100) LTL4845A 9333 ± 65 10,298e10,708 22.9 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
El Guatín 1 3 (45e50) AA102607 5517 ± 49 6213e6407 ¡29.6 AMS Charcoal
El Guatín 1 A 8 (90e100) Beta-325213 10,130 ± 50 11,408e12,023 25.9 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
Genova 1 7 (75e85) Beta-325217 9230 ± 40 10,261e10,510 25.7 AMS Charcoal Restrepo, 2013a
Salento 24 10 Beta-146612 7400 ± 70 8046e8364 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal Rojas and
Tabares, 2000
Salento 24 15 Beta-146613 9680 ± 100 10,733e11,245 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal Rojas and
Tabares, 2000
Salento 21 N/A Beta-146609 8430 ± 100 9135e9552 N/A Cnvtl. Charcoal Rojas and
Tabares, 2000
Chaguala road cut (190e220) AA103317 7427 ± 40 8178e8343 ¡24.7 AMS Charcoal

Notes: Samples in bold are new unpublished dates from the Middle Cauca Archaeology Project. Samples marked with an asterisk (*) are rejected dates (see text).
“Cnvtl.” ¼ Conventional date, “AMS” ¼ Accelerated Mass Spectrometry date. Calibrations calculated to 2s using Calib 7.0 (Struiver et al., 2005).

3.1. El Mirador (AP 11) (1575 m asl, >2000 m2)
El Mirador is located in the Municipality of Palestina, Depart-
ment of Caldas, on the northern-most summit in a range of hills
rising above the Chinchina
River valley. To the north and south,
these hills are bordered by tributaries of the Sirena creek. Several
stone hoes (azadas) were found during surface collecting. During
excavation, an anthrosol was identified 2.5 m below surface, con-
taining charcoal, broken (split) stones, a grinding stone, and unused
flakes. A chert projectile point was recovered from the erosional
surface of the anthrosol during post-construction survey (Herrera
et al., 2009, 2011). An AMS assay on charcoal dates the anthrosol
to 9663 ± 83 BP.
3.2. El Recreo Cancha (AP 39) (1585 m asl, 2500 m2)
This site is located on a flattened hilltop in the same range of
hills as the El Mirador site, approximately 1 km to the south. Pre-
ceramic deposits at the site are represented by a sequence of
anthrosols, beginning >1.5 m deep. Horizon Ab6, associated with a
date of 8470 ± 40 BP, contained small amounts of lithic material
and organic matter. Artifact density increases in Horizon Ab5,
associated with a date of 8550 ± 60 BP, and then decreases in Ho-
rizon Ab4, dating to 8030 ± 80 BP. The majority of lithics recovered
from these levels are split stones, but there are also fragments of
tools, debitage, hoes, milling stone bases, cobble handstones, and a
fragment of a quartz projectile point (Herrera et al., 2011). Among
the macrobotanical remains identified were seeds from a type of
soursop or guana
bana (Annona sp.), blackberry or mora (Rubus sp.),
legume (Fabaceae), avocado (Persea americana), palm (Arecaceae)
wood, and a small unidentified tuber or root (Morcote et al., 2010).
3.3. El Perro (AP 107) (1570 m asl, 15 m2)
El Perro is located on a ridge that descends east from El Recreo
Cancha site located some 150 m upslope. The ridge has been greatly
impacted by recent tectonic activity, along with modern agricul-
tural and construction activities, so that the remnants of an iden-
tified anthrosol are limited to a small undisturbed area. The original
extent of this anthrosol, buried under 1 m of volcanic ash, may have
been much greater, given that the terrace is ~2700 m2. Within the
remaining anthrosol, excavations uncovered a pit feature filled with
charcoal, a sample of which dated to 6990 ± 30 BP. Directly above
the pit was a concentration of coarse broken or crushed stone
(sandstone and quartz), and a hoe and lithic debitage were recov-
ered nearby (Herrera and Moreno, 2011:10e15).
3.4. Campoalegre (1400 m asl)
The site of Campoalegre is located in the municipality of
Chinchina
, Department of Caldas, on a mid-level terrace east of the
Campoalegre River. The preceramic deposits are represented by
Strata IV, dated to 4270 ± 70 BP, and Strata IVa, dated to
7600 ± 90 BP. In both layers, the lithic assemblage is composed of
handstones, hoes, and flake tools (INTEGRAL, 1997:30e33).
3.5. Los Arrayanes (2400 m asl)
Los Arrayanes is the highest altitude site discussed in this paper,
located in the municipality of Villamaría, Department of Caldas, on
a colluvial terrace of the Cordillera Central. Initial occupation of the
site is represented by preceramic lithic assemblage recovered
121e189 cm b.s., which is similar to other sites in the region and
includes handstones, edge-ground cobbles, anvils, grinding bases,
flakes, scrapers, and a fragment of hoe (Rodríguez, 1997:116e119).
After a period of abandonment (112e121 cm b.s.), the site was
reoccupied, based on material recovered between 112 and 60 cm
b.s. A date of 6520 ± 90 BP was obtained from Horizon Ab3
(90e60 cm) associated with the end of this occupation. A third
preceramic occupation was identified in the upper levels of the site
(Rodríguez, 1997).
3.6. El Antojo (1440 m asl, 1200 m2)
El Antojo, located on top of a hill on the west side of the Cam-
poalegre River, includes an unprecedented quartz workshop
(INTEGRAL, 1997). This site appears to be the source of the few
quartz artifacts found at nearby sites like El Jazmín and San Germa
n
(Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Along with significant amounts of
quartz debitage, a quartz bifacially-flaked preform was recovered,
along with a notched hoe similar to those found at other sites in the
region (Tabares, 2004). A date of 8380 ± 90 BP on charcoal was
48 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
obtained from Level 17 (INTEGRAL, 1997), but initial occupation of
the site occurred earlier, based on cultural material recovered in
levels below this date. Despite the presence of the hoe, this site
appears to have primarily been a workshop, rather than a domestic
campsite like the majority of other sites.
3.7. Invías 3 (1582 m asl, 650 m2)
This site is located on top of a hill on the west side of the
Campoalegre River, approximately 300 m west of the site of El
Antojo. Much of the original extent of the site has been disturbed by
modern construction, but within a small undisturbed area, exca-
vation revealed a stratified preceramic deposit 30e60 cm below
surface, containing handstones, two milling stone bases, one hoe,
irregular cores, and flakes, including quartz flakes. Two AMS dates
from Invías 3 show an intensive early Holocene occupation, be-
tween 9451 ± 58 BP (Level 8) and 9155 ± 57 BP (Level 7).
3.8. La Selva (1600 m asl, 10,000 m2)
This site is located on a high terrace of colluvial deposits on the
eastern slope of the Mil Ochenta ridge, just north of the town of
Marsella in the Department of Risaralda, with a broad view of the
Cauca River valley (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Excavations
recovered buried preceramic levels containing handstones, milling
stone bases, hoes, and debitage, primarily of basalt with some
andesite. Despite its location near the El Antojo quartz workshop,
no quartz artifacts were recovered.
Initial dating of the site in 1995 indicated occupation between
9500 and 7700 BP (INCIVA, 1995e1996; Aceituno and Loaiza,
2007). However, there was evidence of stratigraphic disturbance
in the lowest levels, where a date of 5825 ± 70 BP (Level 13) was
obtained below dates of 8680 ± 60 BP (Level 12) and 9490 ± 110 BP
(Level 10e11). This earlier date was therefore rejected. Level 8e9
dated to 7685 ± 110 BP. We obtained four new AMS dates in 2013 on
charcoal. Three of these cluster tightly around 8700 BP (Level 7,
8712 ± 60 BP; Level 8, 8674 ± 61 BP; Level 9, 8704 ± 56 BP) and are
generally within the range expected based on stratigraphy. How-
ever, a new charcoal sample from Level 10 yielded a very late date of
553 ± 37 BP and again indicates some sort of disturbance or
modern intrusion, and is therefore rejected. Despite the apparent
stratigraphic disturbance, all dates taken together show that the
most intense period of occupation of the site occurred between
8700 and 7700 BP with a likely initial occupation by 9500 BP.
Recent starch analysis of tool residues show the use of Dioscorea sp.,
Phaseolus sp., and cf. Manihot sp. by 8700 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza,
2014), supporting Aceituno and Loaiza's (2007) original interpre-
tation of the site as a residential campsite.
3.9. El Jazmín (1650 m asl, 2000 m2)
The site is located on a hill just east of the San Eugenio River
(INTEGRAL, 1997; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007) approximately 4 km
north of the town of Santa Rosa de Cabal, Department of Risaralda.
Excavations uncovered a stratified preceramic deposit 70e140 cm
below surface, which contained handstones, grinding stone bases,
notched hoes, flake tools, and debitage. This deposit dated from
10,120 ± 70 BP to 4715 ± 45 BP, based on six original radiocarbon
dates (Rodríguez, 2002; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Two new AMS
dates obtained for El Jazmín e 8660 ± 55 BP from Level 19 and
7528 ± 51 BP from Level 17 e fit reasonably well with the original
chronology. There may have been some slight mixing within Levels
16e18, but the dates from these levels are all within 500 years of
each other. In general, the chronological sequence is consistent
with the site stratigraphy. The dates and associated cultural
material indicate several major phases of occupation: initial colo-
nization from 10,120 ± 70 BP to 8660 ± 55 BP, an intensive period of
occupation from 7590 ± 60 to 7080 ± 50 BP based on the density of
cultural material, and a later phase from 5625 ± 50 to 4715 ± 45 BP.
Pollen analysis at the site shows forest disturbance by 7000 BP, and
the presence of Zea mays and Xanthosoma sp. between 7000 and
5000 BP. Starch grains from tools confirm the availability of maize
by 7000 BP, and show that Manihot sp., Dioscorea sp., and Phaseolus
sp. were used even earlier, by 7600 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014).
3.10. Guayabito (1623 m asl, 820 m2)
This site is situated on a small colluvial terrace overlooking the
San Eugenio River, approximately 200 m south of El Jazmín. The
preceramic deposits were divided into three Strata: III, IV, and V.
Stratum III, dating to 4180 ± 80 BP, shows the most intense occu-
pation of the site, with an artifact assemblage of grinding stones,
hoes, and flakes. Pollen of Zea and Manihot were identified in this
level (Aceituno, 2002). Stratum V produced a charcoal date of
7990 þ 100 BP but this stratum and stratum VI above it contained
no lithic artifacts (INTEGRAL, 1997).
3.11. La Pochola (1677 m asl, 1500 m2)
La Pochola is located on a rounded terrace of fluvial-volcanic
origin west of the San Eugenio River, 1.4 km southwest of El Jaz-
mín and Guayabito. The original excavations of the site recovered a
preceramic lithic assemblage composed of handstones, grinding
bases, flaked tools and debitage from levels (18e7) dating between
9312 ± 55 BP and 6743 ± 45 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007;
Aceituno, 2010; Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011). A date of
13,540 ± 60 BP was obtained from Level 21, but was not associated
with any cultural material and is therefore presumably before
initial occupation of the site (Aceituno, 2010). A date from Level 7 of
8095 ± 55 BP was out of stratigraphic sequence; however, it was
associated with a pit feature and therefore represents a disturbed
context.
Two new dates were obtained from La Pochola to supplement
the previous five from the original excavation. The first date of
13,098 ± 75 BP (Level 20) is consistent with the previously early
date obtained from Level 21 just below, and likewise was not
associated with cultural material. The second new date,
5922 ± 51 BP (Level 8), extends the known preceramic occupation
of the site and is consistent with late preceramic dates from other
sites in the region, such as El Jazmín, La Mikela, and Cuba. The
distribution of dates and cultural material suggests that there were
at least two major phases of occupation: initial colonization of the
site 9312 ± 55 BP to 9047 ± 45 BP, and a second, more intensive
occupation (based on artifact density) 8095 ± 55 BP to 5922 ± 51 BP
(Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). This pattern of settlement is similar to
that of nearby El Jazmín (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007). Starch anal-
ysis of preceramic tools at the site shows the presence of Phaseolus
sp., Dioscorea sp., and Z. mays by 6700 BP (Aceituno and Lalinde,
2011; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014).

n (1649 m asl, 800 m2)
3.12. San Germa
The site of San Germa
n is located on a hilltop of fluvial-volcanic
origin west of the San Eugenio River, less than 1 km south of La
Pochola. Excavation yielded a localized concentration of artifacts,
including grinding tools, debitage, and a few flaked tools, from a
25 cm thick preceramic deposit. A single radiocarbon date of
8136 ± 65 BP on charcoal was obtained from this deposit (Aceituno
and Loaiza, 2007, 2014).
 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
3.13. La Romelia (1480 m.s.n.m. 1500 m2)
La Romelia is located in the municipality of Dosquebradas, on
the slope of a terrace located between two flattened hilltops east of
La Chillona Creek. During excavations, the preceramic occupation of
the site was identified 50e130 cm below surface, containing lithic
material and charcoal. In Horizon Ap (Levels 7e9), a paleosol was
detected which yielded a large amount of lithic tools, debitage, and
charcoal. Within this paleosol, a charcoal sample from Level 8
(90e100 cm) was dated to 7630 ± 40 BP (Restrepo, 2008, 2013a).
3.14. La Chillona (1550 m asl, 350 m2)
La Chillona is located on the northern edge of a terrace of vol-
canic origin overlooking La Chillona Creek, approximately 500 m
east of La Romelia. Excavation recovered a significant assemblage of
lithic material 5e70 cm deep, including tabular milling stone bases,
debitage, and rounded stones. A carbon sample from just below the
preceramic deposit at 80 cm dated to 8200 ± 40 BP, representing
the initial occupation of the site (Restrepo, 2008, 2013a).
3.15. UTP Bosque Deportes (66PER016) (1470 m asl, ~3000 m2)
This site, located in a forested area north of the main sports field
of the Universidad Tecnolo
gica de Pereira (UTP), is situated on a
northern remnant of the PereiraeArmenia geologic fan. The site
was discovered during an archaeological survey within the campus
when cultural materials, including edge-ground cobbles indicative
of preceramic occupation, were recovered eroding out of a cut bank
and in modern pit disturbances. Excavations of a small test unit
revealed preceramic lithics and charcoal in stratigraphic levels
between 55 and 120 cm b.s. A carbon sample associated with a
cobble tool at 96 cm dated to 4393 ± 44 BP, showing the site was
occupied near the end of the preceramic period.
~ ita (1230 m asl, 120 m2)
3.16. La Montan
La Montan ~ ita is located in the Condina District of the city of
Pereira, in the barrio of Cuba, on the shoulder of a terrace near the
top of a large hill bounded to the south by the Naranjal stream.
Modern construction activity uncovered an accumulation of lithic
fragments, remnants of a preceramic campsite. Excavations recov-
ered additional lithics, as well as an avocado (P. americana) pit. A
charcoal sample from 90 to 100 cm b.s. showed that the site was
occupied by at least 9230 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2013a). A second date
of 7300 ± 70 BP from 70 to 80 cm b.s. in a nearby unit shows
continued human activity at the site (CISAN, 2001).
3.17. Nuevo Sol (1291 m asl, 900 m2)
This site is located on the Nuevo Sol coffee farm, east of the

highway. It is situated on the edge of a hilltop terrace
Pereira-Alcala
bounded by an intermittent stream. Removal of 50 cm of topsoil by
construction equipment revealed a lithic scatter in the southeast
part of the terrace. Subsequent archaeological excavation uncov-
ered preceramic lithic material and charcoal below this exposed
surface. A charcoal sample from Level 7 (70e80 cm below the
exposed surface) dated to 8740 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2013a).
3.18. Cuba (66PER001) (1280 m asl, 10,000 m2)
Cuba is located on a low terrace of eroded volcanic ash deposits,
at the juncture of two small streams, Cundina and El Oso, within the
city limits of Pereira. It was first identified and excavated in
1998e2001 by Cano (Cano, 1998, 2001, 2004, 2008; Cano et al.,
49
2001, 2013), with new excavations conducted in 2012. Preceramic
deposits occur 50e170 cm below surface, with a lithic assemblage
that includes handstones, milling stone bases, hoes, flake tools,
irregular cores, bipolar cores, debitage, hammerstones, and a
number of pebble and cobble manuports. An anthrosol was clearly
visible at the base of the main excavation block around 160e165 cm
below surface. A date of 9730 ± 100 BP in 2001 from the original
excavations and two new dates of 10,619 ± 66 and 9826 ± 63 BP
associated with this anthrosol confirm the early occupation of the
site. This anthrosol appears to be very localized, as no dates of
similar antiquity were found in any of the other test pits excavated
several meters away. A fourth date of 6460 ± 51 BP at 164 cm b.s.
within the anthrosol is too young, likely due to the fact that it was a
date on sediment rather than charcoal and is therefore rejected.
The next occupation of the site occurred between 7000 and
5780 BP based on a series of nine new dates, and was spatially more
widespread. However, several of these dates are out of sequence, or
are too young, suggesting they may have been affected by distur-
bance or bioturbation. During this second occupation, the tight
clustering of dates across significant depths (up to 100 cm) suggests
that either deposition events (e.g. ashfall or fluvial) occurred
regularly and frequently, or this zone experienced significant
amounts of post-depositional mixing. A date of 4220 ± 180 BP
marks the end of the preceramic period at the site.

nico (66PER090) (1460 m asl, ~10,000 m2)
3.19. UTP Jardín Bota
Like the UTP Bosque Deportes site to the north, this site is
located on a remnant of the PereiraeArmenia volcanoclastic fan
(Guarín et al., 2004), within the Botanical Garden of the UTP
campus. Archaeological materials including handstones, cores,
flakes, and ceramics were found eroding out of a cut bank during
survey, prompting the excavation of a 1  2 m unit to a depth of
120 cm b.s. (Cano et al., 2013). A preceramic occupation with lithic
material and charcoal was identified 70e130 cm b.s. A sample of
carbon from the B Horizon (110e120 cm b.s.), associated with lithic
artifacts and fire-cracked rock, was AMS dated to 9284 ± 58 BP.
3.20. La Mikela (66PER007) (1386 m asl, 9000 m2)
La Mikela is located on a terrace composed of volcanic ash de-
posits, 25 m above the Consota River, 300 m west of a salt spring,
southeast of the city of Pereira (Cano, 2001, 2004, 2008; Cano et al.,
2001, 2013). The preceramic levels occur 60e120 cm b.s., with an
artifact assemblage that includes handstones, milling stone bases,
hoes, irregular cores, bipolar cores, hammerstones, used flakes, and
cobble manuports. Three dates from below Level 14, including two
new AMS dates, are too young and are considered intrusive due to
bioturbation. Part of the site showed significant amounts of bio-
turbation, mostly from insects and roots. However, five dates on
charcoal from Level 14 (90e95 cm) to Level 4 (35e40 cm), including
four new AMS dates, are in stratigraphic order, and show that the
preceramic occupation of the site occurred from 10,376 ± 70 BP to
3746 ± 49 BP.
3.21. La Trinidad I and II (1417 m asl, 450 m2)
These sites, located near Barrio Montelíbano just south of the
city of Pereira, are located on a large elongated terrace with steep
slopes, bounded on one side by the headwaters of an intermittent
stream. At La Trinidad I on the northern side of the terrace, cultural
material including a hoe, flakes, and fire-cracked rocks were
recovered 50e160 cm. A charcoal sample from Level 7 (75e85 cm)
dated to 9542 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2010, 2013a). At La Trinidad II,
several meters away on the south side of the terrace, a date of
50 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

Mikela, AA98936
Guayabito, Beta-95063
Cuba, Beta-123078
Campoalegre, Beta-87729
Bosque Deportes, AA98954
Jazmín, Ua24494
Mikela, AA98937
Guatín, AA102607
Jazmín, Ua-24495
Cuba, AA102502
Selva, Beta-87508
Cuba, AA102503
Mikela, Beta-145285
Cuba, AA102500
Cuba, AA102504
Pochola, AA98943
Site, Lab No.

Arrayanes, Beta-104559
Pochola, LTL4221A
Pochola, LTL4222A
Cuba, AA102497
Perro, Beta-317784
Cuba, AA102499
Cuba, AA102505
Cuba, AA102501
Cuba, AA102498
Jazmín, Ua-24496
Mikela, AA98938
Montañita, N/A
Salento 24, Beta-146612
Chaguala, AA103317
Cuba, AA103316
Jazmín, AA98946
Jazmín, Beta-95602
Campoalegre, Beta-87730
Romelia, Beta-325215
Selva, Beta-87189

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

Years Uncal BP

11000 10000 9000 8000 7000

Guayabito, Beta-95064
Recreo Cancha, Beta-283582
Pochola, Ua-24498
San Germán, CSIC1987
Chillona, Beta-325216
Antojo, Beta-93154
Salento 21, Beta-146609
Recreo Cancha, Beta-290954
Recreo Cancha, Beta-285871
Jazmín, AA98947
Selva, AA98943
Selva, Ua-24499
Selva, AA98944
Selva, AA98942
Nuevo Sol, Beta-306257
Site, Lab No.

Jazmín, Beta-95061
Pochola, LTL5436A
Invias 3, AA98950
Genova, Beta-325217
Montañita, Beta-325214
Jardin Botanico, AA98955
Pochola, LTL4223A
Trinidad II, LTL4845A
Invias 3, AA98951
Selva, Beta-87188
Trinidad I, LTL4267A
Mirador, AA102509
Salento 24, Beta-146613
Cuba, Beta-121972
Cuba, AA102496
Jazmín, Ua-24497
Guatín, Beta-325213
Mikela, AA98939
Cuba, AA102510

11000 10000 9000 8000 7000

Years Uncal BP

Fig. 2. a: Graph of the uncalibrated preceramic radiocarbon dates from archaeological sites and volcanic activity in the Middle Cauca region, 7800e3000 BP. b: Graph of the
uncalibrated preceramic radiocarbon dates from archaeological sites and volcanic activity in the Middle Cauca region, 11,000e7800 BP. Uncalibrated archaeological dates with their
error ranges (horizontal black lines) are arranged in chronological order and identified by their site and radiocarbon laboratory code. Vertical grey lines represent dated volcanic
events and grey shading represents error ranges of these events, or broad ranges of activity. Volcanic activity summarized from Herd (1982), Me
ndez (1997), Me
ndez et al. (2002),
Orozco (2001), Thouret et al. (1985, 1995), and the Smithsonian Inst. (2013). See Table 2.
 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54
9333 ± 65 BP was obtained on a charcoal sample from 90 to 100 cm
b.s., associated with lithic material (Restrepo, 2010, 2013a).
3.22. El Guatín (1440 m asl, 450 m2)
This site is located southeast of Pereira, in the Vereda Guayabal
District, on the side of a small terrace on the east bank of the
Condina creek. The elongated terrace is bordered to the north and
south by patches of forest, steep slopes, and small waterways that
converge in front of the terrace and flow into the Condina creek. As
such, the campsite was strategically situated for collecting natural
resources (Restrepo, 2013a). Excavations in the central part of the
terrace recovered cultural material between 45 and 100 cm b.s. In
Level 8 (90e100 cm b.s.), at the bottom of the preceramic occu-
pation ending at Horizon Ab, a sample of charcoal dated to
10,130 ± 50 BP (Restrepo, 2013a). A new AMS date on a sample of
charcoal from Level 3 (45e50 cm b.s.) marks the end of the pre-
ceramic occupation of the site at 5517 ± 49 BP.
3.23. G

enova (1520 m asl, 975 m2)
This temporary campsite is located west of the Condina creek on

nova Ranch, along the Variante Sur Road south of Pereira, in
the Ge
the Vereda Montelargo District. Like La Trinidad, it is situated on
the south side of a large elongated terrace with steep slopes to the
east and west. Excavations on the eastern flank of the terrace
recovered lithic material and fire-cracked rock (Restrepo, 2006). A
charcoal sample from Level 7 (70e80 cm) dates the occupation to
9230 ± 40 BP.
3.24. Salento 24 (2070 m asl)
This site is situated on the top of an eroded knoll along the
highway that runs between Pereira and the town of Salento, in the
municipality of Salento, Quindío. A carbon sample from Horizon
ABb2 (Level 15) dated to 9680 ± 100 BP represents the initial set-
tlement of the site, associated with unused flakes and micro-
debitage. A second occupation level above this in Horizon Ab2
contained lithic flakes and a hoe. A third preceramic occupation
level in Horizon ABb1 (Level 10) with flakes, micro-debitage, a
scraper, rounded cobles, and fire-cracked rock was dated to
7400 ± 70 BP (Rojas and Tabares, 2000).
3.25. Salento 21 (2100 m asl)
Salento 21 is located approximately 1.6 km from Salento 24 near
the same highway, on the top of a hill near the community of San
Antonio. The initial preceramic occupation of the site, dated
8430 ± 100 BP, was associated with domestic refuse, including a
hearth, macrobotanical remains (seeds and a type of nut), burnt
rocks, lithic debitage and used flakes (Rojas and Tabares, 2000).
3.26. Chaguala (1532 m asl, 1500 m2)
This site is exposed in a road-cut of the Variante Calarc

a-Pereira
road, west of Armenia, Quindío, at the proximal end of the Pereir-
aeArmenia volcanoclastic fan (Guarín et al., 2004). The exposed
profile shows various tephra layers of varying thickness and
composition, representing recurrent episodes of volcanic ash fall,
accumulation, and preservation, with some strata more than 1 m
thick. The site has not been systematically excavated, but lithic
artifacts characteristic of the Middle Cauca preceramic period,
including a bifacially flaked chopper/hoe, were found eroding out
of an organically rich layer 230 cm b.s., 30 cm below a coarse sand
layer believed to be lapilli associated with the eruption of Cerro
51
Machín (27 km away) in 3600 BP (Cano et al., 2013). However, a
carbon sample from the buried organic layer dated to 7427 ± 40 BP,
suggesting significant erosion of sediments between the deposition
of the organic layer and the Cerro Machín eruption.
4. Discussion
4.1. New dates
Through our recent archaeological field work in the region, we
obtained 36 new AMS dates from 11 sites (in bold in Table 1). These
additional dates help round out the occupational history or extend
the known preceramic use of particular sites. Moreover, they help
anchor the settlement chronology and establish a baseline for
assessing cultural patterns and changes over time, such as the
adoption of food production and its social and environmental
consequences.
Most of the new AMS dates fit well within existing site chro-
nologies with some exceptions, likely the result of bioturbation and
stratigraphic mixing. There was significant evidence of bioturbation
at La Mikela and Cuba (primarily caused by insects, worms, and
roots), visible up to 1 m below surface. Despite attempts to avoid
sampling in disturbed areas, these sites produced some out-of-
sequence dates that were rejected as intrusive (see Sections 3.18
and 3.20, and Table 1). Other sites, such as El Jazmín and La
Pochola, showed some small-scale disturbances in the upper levels
(mainly worms and roots), but these did not affect the preceramic
chronological sequence.
In most cases, wood charcoal was the material sampled for
dating. Because of the humid environment of the region, it is un-
likely that old wood effect was an issue. Wood and organic material
rapidly decays in this region unless preserved through carboniza-
tion. Likewise, marine or freshwater reservoir effects are not issues
with our samples.
4.2. Chronological distribution of dates
Based on an examination of all accepted radiocarbon dates, the
Middle Cauca region was inhabited throughout the entire pre-
ceramic period, from 10,600 to 3600 BP, with little evidence of any
region-wide abandonment (Fig. 2). The earliest date clearly asso-
ciated with cultural material is 10,619 ± 66 BP at the site of Cuba.
Three other sites show evidence of human activity earlier than
10,000 BP: El Jazmín, La Mikela, and El Guatín. Between 10,000 and
9000 BP, the number of sites with evidence of human occupation
nearly triples from four to eleven, with the addition of El Mirador,
La Selva, Invías 3, La Pochola, La Montan~ ita, UTP Jardín Bota

nico, La
Trinidad I and II, Ge
nova, and Salento 24.
Evaluating region-wide settlement patterns is challenging
despite the number of sites and dates compiled. For many of the
archaeological sites discussed, only one or two dates were ob-
tained, and these were often focused on establishing earliest
occupation of the site or time(s) of the most intense occupation. For
this reason, apparent gaps in the regional sequence, particularly in
the later part of the preceramic period, are more likely the result of
sampling bias than actual absence of human activity. However,
several sites were more extensively sampled and provide a
sequence of dates through their entire preceramic occupation,
particularly La Selva, El Jazmín, La Pochola, Cuba, and La Mikela.
Examination of the chronologies of these sites allows some limited
interpretations of local settlement patterns.
As described in Section 2, the Middle Cauca region is situated
within a highly active tectonic area, and the majority of the
archaeological sites lie within the shadow of a major volcanic
massif with nine active or dormant volcanoes (Cerro Bravo, Ruíz,
52 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54

Cisne, Huile, Santa Isabel, Santa Rosa, Quindío, Tolima, and Machín). phenocrysts in the soil, coincide with those levels (12e16) which
Geomorphological study of the landscape and archaeological ex- contain the highest density of archaeological materials, interpreted
cavations through thick ash and mudflow layers clearly illustrate as the most intensive occupation of the site (Aceituno and Loaiza,
the major impacts that volcanic activity has had on site formation 2007). At El Jazmín, Aceituno and Loaiza (2007:43; 2014)
processes (INCIVA, 1995; Cano et al., 2001, 2013; Restrepo, 2006, observed a similar pattern in Levels 14e21. Mineralogical analysis
2013b; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2007; Cano, 2008). This raises the of the site sediments indicates that there was relatively low vol-
question of what sort of impact this history of volcanic events had canic activity during the initial occupation phase, but increased
on the past human occupation of the region. volcanic activity between 7200 and 5400 BP (Orozco, 2001).
Although the occupation of the region spans the entire pre- This does not mean that human populations did not suffer from
ceramic, there are some small gaps within the overall regional the effects of volcanic eruptions. It is likely that eruptions forced
radiocarbon chronology. The most significant of these (>500 people to move away due to harmful gases and destructive ash falls,
radiocarbon years) are 6460e5922 BP (508 radiocarbon years) and lahars, and lava flows, but so far we have not detected any clear
5517e4794 BP (723 radiocarbon years) (Fig. 2). However, as evidence of a population influx into adjacent regions during pe-
mentioned, these gaps are most likely the result of sampling biases riods of intense volcanic activity. However, after this activity had
rather than indicative of people abandoning the Middle Cauca re- ceased, weathering of the deposited ash resulted in the formation
gion. These gaps do not coincide with known volcanic activity, of rich soils and renewed plant growth, likely attracting resettle-
documented through geomineralogical analyses and teph- ment of these areas. Based on our data, this appears to have
rachronology (Me
ndez et al., 2002) (Table 2). In fact, when dates of occurred during the preceramic, at least in some parts of the Middle
major volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity are compared Cauca Valley region (Cano et al., 2013). As they weathered, the
with dates of human occupation, these often coincide (Fig. 2); fertility of these andisols played an important role in a region
people continued living and working in this landscape, despite the where there is evidence for early plant cultivation (Aceituno and
eposidic eruptions, ash falls, and lava flows. Lalinde, 2011; Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014).
Archaeobotanical analysis, particularly starch grain analysis on
stone tools, has documented the use of both local plant resources
Table 2
History of volcanic activity in the Middle Cauca region 11,500e3000 BP. and introduced domesticates in the preceramic subsistence econ-
omy of the Middle Cauca region. Radiocarbon dates associated with
Uncal Yrs BP Volcanic event Reference
these stone tools, along with macrobotanical remains, provides a
3050 ± 200 Cerro Bravo eruption Smithsonian Inst., 2013 preliminary history of plant use, cultivar introductions, and the
3100 Quindío eruption Orozco, 2001
adoption of horticulture as part of the subsistence strategy. Starch
3310 ± 150 Cerro Bravo eruption Smithsonian Inst., 2013
3600e4700 Eruption of lapilli from Orozco, 2001 grains from La Selva and El Jazmín show that local root crops
Tolima, Quindío, Cerro Bravo, (Dioscorea sp. and Calathea sp.) and a variety of bean (Phaseolus sp.)
Santa Isabel were being used by 8660 ± 55 BP (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014),
4300e4400 Machín eruptions Me
ndez et al., 2002
possibly cultivated in an incipient horticultural system. Tree fruits,
4600e5100 Machín eruptions Me
ndez et al., 2002
such as guana
bana (Annona sp.), mora (Rubus sp.), and avocado (P.
5400e7200 Block lava from Tolima, Orozco, 2001
Quindío, Cerro Bravo, americana), supplemented the diet, based on macrobotanical re-
Santa Isabel mains from El Recreo Cancha and La Montan ~ ita (Morcote et al.,
5490 ± 475 Block lava from Santa Isabel Me
ndez, 1997 2010). Starch grain residues from El Jazmín show that manioc
6250 ± 110 Cerro Bravo eruption Thouret et al., 1985
(Manihot esculenta) was introduced into the region ca. 7590 ± 60
6759 ± 180 Block lava from Santa Isabel Me
ndez, 1997
7435 ± 100 Block lava from Santa Isabel Me
ndez, 1997 (Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). By 7080 ± 50 BP, people were clearly
8450 ± 95 Machín eruption Me
ndez et al., 2002 engaged in cultivation practices, growing maize (Z. mays), along
8630 ± 50 Cerro Bravo eruption Thouret et al., 1985 with manioc, yams, and beans (Aceituno and Lalinde, 2011;
8590 ± 115 Ruíz eruption Herd, 1982 Aceituno and Loaiza, 2014). Pollen from El Jazmín shows
9740 ± 95 Machín eruption Me
ndez et al., 2002
increased forest clearing around 7000 BP.
10,000e11,500 Ash clouds and pumice flows Orozco, 2001
from Tolima, eruption of Quindío These archaeobotanical data suggest that since the early Holo-
cene, human settlers in the Middle Cauca region were collecting,
and possibly cultivating, wild plants in order to optimize the sub-
The beginning of the early Holocene (ca. 11,500e10,000 BP) was sistence returns in a humid tropical environment. With this pre-
marked by significant eruptions in the region, including Machín ca. existing familiarity with plant resources, people's adoption of
9740 ± 95 BP (Thouret and Van der Hammen, 1983:275; Orozco, newly introduced domesticates and shift to horticultural activities
2001; Me
ndez et al., 2002). From ca. 9000e7500 BP, there were likely occurred gradually, without any sudden socio-economic re-
explosive ash and pumice emissions from several volcanoes orientation. Rather than being driven away by frequent volcanic
(Salomons, 1989:33). Thereafter, volcanic activity shifted to large events, these early horticulturalists took advantage of the soil
lava flows from Santa Isabel and other volcanos, from ca. fertility to cultivate plants and invest in food production. Research
7200e5400 BP (Thouret and Van der Hammen, 1983:275; Me
ndez, is ongoing to further investigate the history of plant use in this
1997). After 5100 BP, activity was primarily eruptions from Machín region, and understand the changing dynamics of subsistence,
in the southern part of the massif, and the deposition of lapilli from environment, and social organization. A high resolution radio-
eruptions of Tolima, Quindío, Cerro Bravo, Santa Isabel (Orozco, carbon chronology is essential for establishing the history of these
2001; Me
ndez et al., 2002). The presence of dated evidence of processes.
cultural activity despite these frequent and ongoing episodes sug-
gests that ancient peoples found ways of adapting to the volcanic 5. Conclusions
conditions throughout the region.
This can be observed at the site level as well. At La Pochola, the The western Cordillera Central section of the Middle Cauca re-
sequence of volcanic ash layers and cultural material indicates gion has become a key region in the investigation of preceramic
continued occupation throughout major volcanic events. Evidence settlement of Colombia, and the initial transition to food produc-
of significant ash falls, documented by an elevated percentage of tion in the Neotropics. Our recent research in the area has
 R. Dickau et al. / Quaternary International 363 (2015) 43e54 53

significantly increased the number of dates and data available for Holocene transition: synthesis and perspectives. Quaternary International 301,
23e33.
the region. The chronological sequence obtained from 26 sites in-
rica: países andinos Colombia,
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Cano, M.C., Lo
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Funding was provided by NSF Grant 1049588 to AJR and RD. suelos del Eje Cafetero, Suelos del Eje Cafetero. Proyecto UTP - GTZ, Pereira,
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Dept. of Archaeology at the University of Exeter, the Comite
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Departamental de Cafeteros de Caldas, the Asociacio
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Geolo
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mico de

gicas Nacionales, and Autopistas del Cafe
. We gratefully Panama
y Colombia: Evidencia de Almidones en Sitios Húmedos Subtropicales
Arqueolo
pez, C.E., Ospina, G.A. (Eds.), Ecología Histo
rica:
Premontanos. Pereira. In: Lo
acknowledge the contribution of the late Dr. Michael Tilst, geolo- Interacciones Sociedad-Ambiente a Distintas Escalas Socio-Temporales. Socie-
gist, to this paper and the Middle Cauca Archaeology Project. dad Colombiana de Arqueología, Pereira, pp. 60e67.
Thanks also to pedologist Pedro Jose
Botero and palynologist Cat- Espinal, L.S., 1990. Zonas de vida de Colombia. Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Medellín.
alina Gonza
lez for their insights. The map in Fig. 1 was created by Guarín, F., 2008. Etude du Fan Fluvio-Volcanique du Quindio (Re
gion d'Armenia
Juan David Arango, and we thank Susana Vela
squez-Franco for Colombie). Unpublished M.Sc. thesis. De
partement de Ge
ologie et de
helpful discussions regarding Fig. 2. We also would also like to
ontologie, Universite
Pale
de Geneve, Switzerland.
Guarín, F., Gorin, G., Espinosa, A., 2004. A Pleistocene stacked succession of volca-
thank our exceptional excavation crews and the landowners of each niclastic massflows in central Colombia: the Quindio-Risaralda fan. Acta Vul-
site. The manuscript was improved by comments from two canologica 16, 109e124.
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