Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324

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Computers in Human Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/comphumbeh

How do motives affect attitudes and behaviors toward internet

advertising and Facebook advertising?
Serra Inci Celebi ⇑
Yasar University, Universite Cad., Agacli Yol, No. 35-37, Bornova, Izmir, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Survey research conducted to learn young individuals’ motivations toward Internet, Facebook, and their
Available online 27 May 2015 attitudes and behaviors toward Internet advertising (Study 1) and Facebook advertising in addition to
Facebook feature use (Study 2). Interpersonal utility was the most prominent motivation that affected
Keywords: participants’ all attitudinal and behavioral process in study 1. So, particiapting in discussions, belonging
Internet advertising to a group, meeting new people, in other words activities associated with using social media influenced
Facebook advertising consumers’ attitudes and behaviors toward Internet advertising favorably. In study 2, the participants
Motives
whose opinions and attitudes are positive toward Facebook use tended to use all Facebook features.
Attitudes
Behaviors
Results show that quality of life, peer influence, & structure time significantly predicts use of both
one-to-many communication features (such as status updates and Groups) and one-to-one communica-
tion features (such as private messaging and chat). Facebook Groups are used more by those who are
motivated by quality of life, peer influence, & structure time. Security in privacy concern had an effect
on comments. In other words, the more users felt secure and less privacy concern, the more they wrote
comments on Facebook.
Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction
Turkey is the 5th biggest Internet user country among Europe’s
top 10 Internet countries according to Internet World Stats based
on data gathered on 30th of June 2014 with its 46.3 million users
(‘‘Internet top’’, 2014). There are two important reasons that make
Internet the world’s most powerful media advertising. The first
reason is the majority of people have Internet access. The second
reason is Internet audience has been much more than traditional
media audience throughout media history (Taylor, Lewin, &
Strutton, 2011).
Compared to traditional media, Internet has offered more inter-
action among people which has generated a new and transparent
environment where there is democratic and participatory commu-
nication (Demirtas, 2012). Thus, creating, organizing, sharing, and
spreading information have not been easy in the history of human
beings up until the invention and the use of Internet and social
media. This new trend of communication turned word of mouth
into word of mouse where electronic communication comes in
and it is a fun and easy way to spread brand related information
(Dryer, n.d.).
⇑ Tel.: +90 546 792 17 16, +90 545 737 5554.
E-mail address: serracelebi@hotmail.com
Almost a decade ago, some leading companies (e.g., P&G) sus-
pected the performance of Internet advertising which raised a
question about the effectiveness of this new medium (as cited in
Joines, Scherer, & Scheufele, 2003). However, today, there are some
cross cultural studies about the Web advertising attitudes in which
results are favorable. Bevan-Dye (2013), for example, investigated
attitudes of black Generation Y students toward Web advertising in
South Africa and found positive attitudes. For creating positive atti-
tudes toward Web advertising, there are certain considerations
that give an idea to marketers and advertisers. Those considera-
tions enhance marketing campaign plans, such as what kind of
content shall be put in the advertisement or in what way of adver-
tisements shall be used (Yaakop, 2013).
Companies use the Internet to attract consumers to both offline
and online shopping (Sanje & Senol, 2012). Some scholars (e.g.,
Sanje & Senol, 2012) studied online behavioral advertising; how-
ever, consumers who are affected by Internet advertising do not
only involve in online shopping but also involve in offline shop-
ping. Many Internet related studies are directed to online shop-
ping, but not much is known about what fosters purchasing
behavior in general (both online and offline).
To learn whether or not the related findings can be generalized
to other countries, it is important to conduct research in those
countries too. Turkey has a young population and one of main

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.011
0747-5632/Ó 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
target markets of Internet and Facebook. Thus, conducting such
studies especially in Turkey is important to guide marketers and
advertisers. One possible way to get a clear understanding of
Internet advertising highly depends on the reason why consumers
use the Internet (Joines et al., 2003). Learning what drives and
motivates consumers to use the Internet is important and helps
to understand who may be highly likely to see the Internet adver-
tising. That is the reason why in this study 1, Internet usage moti-
vations and which Internet usage motivations have effects on
users’ attitudes and behaviors toward Internet advertising have
been investigated.
After general examination of Internet advertising in study-1,
Facebook was selected to be investigated in study-2. Facebook
was created as a communication platform between students by
Mark Zuckerberg and his friends while they were students at
Harvard University in 2004. Since then, Facebook became a very
successful social network and by 2006 it spread in the US and by
2011 it started to be used in all around the world (Greerand &
Yan, 2011). In January 2009, there used to be over 175 million
Facebook users all around the world which displays the popularity
and worldwide engagement of Facebook. The 175 million Facebook
users represent 15 million less than Brazil’s population (190 mil-
lion) and 15 million more than double of Germany’s population
(80 million) (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010).
According to Internet World Stats based on data gathered on
31st of December 2012, there were 32.131.260 Facebook users in
Turkey (Internet stats, 2014) and Facebook users represented
approximately half of the Turkish population, as it was approxi-
mately 74.9 million in 2012 (Turkey: Total population from 2004
to, 2014). Turkey is a very convenient target market for Facebook
with its young population. In 2014, Facebook was still the most
popular and engaging social network site in Turkey with its 26%
penetration rate (Penetration of leading social networks in
Turkey as of 4th quarter, 2014).
There is gender and age difference regarding the number of
average friends among Turkish Facebook users. Male Facebook
users have more friends (162 friends) than female Facebook users
(156 friends). For the numbers of friends, more efficient users are
15–24 years (almost 178 friends) and it is followed by Facebook
users 25–34 years (almost 158 friends). In addition to demographic
profile of the users, geographic place (the city) is important in
_
terms of the number of friends. The city of Izmir (where the current
studies were conducted) is notably superior to any other cities of
Turkey, with about 180 friends per Facebook users in Izmir _
(Demirtas, 2012).
Facebook is one of social networking sites that enable people to
stay connected and chat with other people who share the same
online communities (Rohani & Hock, 2010). ‘‘Facebook currently
derives 82 percent of its revenue from advertising’’ (Wolff, 2012,
p. 70). The effectiveness of Facebook advertising, like any other
advertisements on the Web, is evaluated by either CPM (cost per
thousand ad impression) or CPC (cost per click). So, sharing a par-
ticular type of ad or video ad with friends or clicking the like but-
ton or surfing on the Facebook pages even without clicking is
valuable (Wolff, 2012). However, some authors (e.g., Wolff, 2012)
argue that there is a decline in the effectiveness of digital advertis-
ing, because of the inability of digital advertisements on attracting
attention of users. They also claim that their ineffectiveness contin-
ues and so the value of digital advertisements decreases. A termi-
nology called ‘‘banner blindness’’ has recently become a nightmare
of advertisers and companies; as it refers to the tendency to igno-
rance or avoidance of banner ads especially by heavy Internet users
(Cho, 2003). This phenomenon may turn into a more serious issue
when it is not limited with banner ads and starts to include other
types of digital ads.
313
Kazançoğlu, Üstündağlı, and Baybars (2012) found consumers’
negative attitudes toward Facebook advertising affects their pur-
chasing behaviors in an unfavorable way. They question the impor-
tance and use of Facebook advertising in the promotional mix of
companies. They also found that consumer attitudes were formed
by the time spent with Facebook instead of Facebook visit fre-
quency. Ulusu (2010) examined the motivations for Facebook use
in Turkey and found that the people who wanted to escape from
their daily routines used Facebook more than other individuals.
There are important reasons why in study-2 Facebook was
selected to be examined and why it is investigated in Turkey:
First, Facebook was selected to be studied, as it is the most
splendid (Demirtas, 2012) as well as the most used social network
_ßbulan, 2011).
in Turkey and across the world (Is
Secondly, university students are selected to be examined since
‘‘most of the social network users are young individuals, many of
them university students’’ (Bozkır, Mazman, & Sezer, 2010, p.
145-146).
Thirdly, there is an explosive increase in the number of
Facebook users, while research investigating Facebook remains
steady and has not increased proportionally (Is_ßbulan, 2011)
Fourthly, Alhabash, Park, Kononova, Chiang, and Wise (2012)
explain the importance of investigating Facebook in countries
other than the US. Alhabash et al’s state of line is: ‘‘Despite the fact
that the majority of Facebook users come from countries other
than the United States, the extreme majority of Facebook research
is U.S. centric. Therefore, it becomes important to explore this
social phenomenon in other countries and cultures’’ (p. 304).
Finally, there is a growing interest in researching the uses and
effects (Akyıldız & Argan, 2011), and motivations of Facebook,
but there is not enough research in the field of the motivations
of Facebook advertising.
The identical types of advertising are used in both social media
(e.g., banner ads, video ads, and polling ads) (Weinberg, 2009), and
Internet. Therefore, individuals’ attitudes toward them were exam-
ined in study-1 as general attitudes (Internet) and in study-2 as
specific attitudes (Facebook).
1. Study 1
1.1. Conceptual rationale and hypotheses
With the invention of the World Wide Web (WWW), in addition
to traditional media studies, online consumers’ needs and motiva-
tions have been started to be studied in the uses and gratifications
theory (U&G). The main difference between traditional media stud-
ies and the U&G is that the decision is controlled by the media
users (Lee & Lee, 2012); so the audiences are not passive but active
decision makers.
Gratification refers to needs which is obtained as a result of
using media. People have social and psychological needs and those
needs drive them to evaluate the benefits of using media; and as a
result of this assessment they choose certain media over others
(Lee & Ma, 2012). People use the Internet to satisfy their social
needs which can be considered as the most crucial and impacted
driver that motivate individuals to belong to social media (Wang,
Tchernev, & Solloway, 2012). Cha (2010) found that interpersonal
utility predicted both the frequency of using social network sites
(SNSs) and the time spent on SNSs (Cha, 2010). Lee and Lee
(2012) investigated consumer’s motivations for watching online
video ads and found five motivations, including social interaction,
relaxation, information, escapism-pass time, and entertainment.
Papacharissi and Rubin (2000) researched the motives of using
the Internet and found five motives, namely interpersonal utility,
314 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
information seeking, entertainment, convenience, and pass time.
They disclosed that those motives were important indicator of
whether or not consumers will use and response Internet advertis-
ing. However, they neither investigated online consumers’ motiva-
tional attitudes nor their behaviors, including both purchasing and
search behavior using Internet advertising.
In this study, ‘‘interpersonal utility’’ was considered as a social
need that drives a person to belong to an online social group and
to share information with them. So, it is related to using social net-
working sites and is one of the strongest motives. Therefore it is
supposed to have an influence on both attitudes and behaviors
toward Internet advertising as well as duration, frequency, and
years of using the Internet.
The proposed hypothesis is as below:
H1. Interpersonal utility will have a significant favorable effect on
consumers’ (a) attitudes toward Internet advertising, (b) behaviors
toward Internet advertising, (c) duration of using the Internet, and
(d) frequency of using the Internet.
The distinctive advantage of Internet over other traditional
media is its interactivity. As long as consumers are willing to inter-
act with an ad message, we can talk about the usefulness of
Internet advertising to advertisers (Yang, 2004) and its superiority
compared to other media. Interacting with an ad message is possi-
ble by selecting buttons or icons which is called search behavior
(Yang, 2004) and information seeking can be done easily and inter-
actively on the Internet. ‘‘Information seeking represents the activ-
ities that are carried out during the search for information. The
process of information seeking is important as it enables the indi-
viduals to collect information that can address a need’’ (Afzal, 2009,
p. 32). The appealing feature of Internet for information seeking is
that its flexibility permits its users to search for activities anytime,
anywhere they want to (Kim, 2001). Rieh (2004) mentions that
because of the wide use of Internet and being embedded in our
everyday life, our homes have become a library and information
search environment.
The essential of online information seeking is consumers’ web-
site searching behavior. Thus, consumers’ need of information
seeking will be resulted in their behaviors toward Internet adver-
tising such as reading, writing comments, voting, and clicking
online ads to get more information about what they are interested
in. Cho (2003) examined the clicking behaviors of banner ads on
the Internet and the factors that influence clicking. Cho found that
many factors influenced clicking behavior and two of them which
are related to the current study were a favorable attitude toward
the vehicle (host web site) and toward web advertising.
Yang (2004) investigated how search behavior using Internet
advertising was affected by consumers’ motives. ‘‘Using the Web
to search for information on products and services directly implies
use of the Web to obtain information’’ (Joines et al., 2003, p. 96).
Yang (2004) states that Internet use motives influence consumers’
interactions with Internet advertising. It is essential to understand
why consumers choose to interact with Internet advertising and
which Internet usage motive plays an important role for this inter-
action. The second hypothesis is based on abovementioned
discussions:
H2. Information seeking will have a significant favorable effect on
consumers’ (a) behaviors toward Internet advertising, (b) year of
using the Internet and (c) duration of using the Internet.
More and more people have been using the Internet out of bore-
dom and to kill time more than ever before due to the availability
of high-speed broadband Internet connections (Bednarz, 2011).
Pass time, in a similar fashion, is related to making an individual
busy with activities other than his daily routine. Therefore, individ-
uals may prefer passing their time by reading or viewing online
advertisements. Eventually, similar to information seeking motiva-
tion, consumers’ pass time motivation is expected to generate
favorable behavior toward Internet advertising as well as result
in long duration of using the Internet. The third hypothesis is for-
mulated as below:
H3. Pass time will have a significant favorable effect on (a)
consumers’ behaviors toward Internet advertising and (b) duration
of using the Internet.
The basis of entertainment is having fun and relaxation by surf-
ing and playing on the Internet. Okazaki (2007) states that enter-
tainment plays a fundamental role in the adoption of wireless
advertising. In some studies perceived entertainment of Web
advertising was found to be associated with favorable attitude
toward Web advertising (Zhou & Bao, 2002). The motivation of
entertainment is considered to be positively associated with atti-
tude toward online advertising. The fourth hypothesis is as below:
H4. Entertainment will have a significant effect on consumers’ (a)
favorable attitude toward Internet advertising, (b) frequency of
using the Internet and (c) duration of using the Internet.
1.2. Method
1.2.1. Participants
An online survey was conducted at one of the private universi-
ties in the Western part of Turkey. The total of 692 undergraduate
students who registered to Research Methodology course in dis-
tance learning program of the university were announced online
that their instructor was conducting an academic research and
by participating in it they would get extra points. They were also
informed that the participation was voluntary and their responses
would be only used for academic purposes, without revealing their
private information. After this class-wide announcement, they
received a questionnaire by e-mail and 140 of them replied. The
response rate is 20.23%. The students who completed and returned
this survey were given extra points for their courses.
1.2.2. Measurement
Questions for demographic profile and Internet usage were in
the form of multiple choice. Internet motive items, attitudinal
and behavioral items were measured with a 5-point Likert scale
ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. The items to mea-
sure Internet usage motivation were taken from Papacharissi and
Rubin’s (2000) previous study. Since then, there is more than a dec-
ade difference between the current study and Papacharissi and
Rubin’s research, motivational items were slightly modified and
included in this study.
Attitudinal and behavioral items toward Internet advertising
were adopted from the scale created by Taylor et al. (2011). They
were developed by considering several other forms of advertising
that young consumers may come a across during their online surf-
ing and interactions.
The types of Internet advertising asked on the questionnaire of
this study are: Companies’ offers and price reductions, polling ads,
comment ads, banner ads, advertising announcing free product
samples (freebies), word link ads, and e-mail ads.
Internet behavior allowed to include both behavior toward
Internet advertising (e.g., clicking, downloading, surfing) and
online and offline purchasing behavior toward products or brands
that are advertised on the Internet.
1.2.3. Dependent and independent variables
Independent variables are motivations for using the Internet.
Dependent variables are attitudes and behaviors toward Internet
 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324 315

advertising, Internet usage years, Internet usage frequency, and Table 2

Internet hours. Cronbach’s a and factor analysis results for attitudes and behaviors toward internet
advertising scale.

Items Cronbach’s Factor- Factor-

a 1 2
1.2.4. Validity of instrument
The validity of both the motivations of using Internet and atti- Attitudes .951
Generally, I like ads that I see on the .556 .169
tudes and behaviors were assessed by maximum likelihood in fac- Internet
tor analysis. Out of five motivations of using Internet four of them Generally, I want to buy products/services .863 .152
were valid (pass time, interpersonal utility, information seeking, advertised on the Internet
and entertainment); and for Internet behaviors and attitudes, I like advertisements created by the .539 .186
sponsor company of the product or
two factors were valid.
brand
I like ad created by customers/fans of the .730 .005
product or brand
I want to try products/services by seeing ad .838 .022
1.2.5. Reliability of instrument
created by the sponsor company
The Internet using motivation scale consisted of four subscales. I want to try products/services when I see .898 .182
The pass time subscale consisted of three items (a = .830), the ad created by customers/fans
interpersonal utility subscale consisted of six items (a = .795), the I like companies’ offers and price .665 .135
information seeking subscale consisted of four items (a = .820), reductions on the Internet
I like companies’ sampling ads on the .635 .079
and the entertainment subscale consisted of two items (a = .727)
Internet
(see Table 1). Behaviors .953
The attitudes and behaviors toward Internet advertising scale I purchase products or use services that are .233 .503
consisted of two subscales. The attitudes subscale consisted of sent me by e-mail advertisement
I purchase products/services when I see ad .309 .522
eight items (a = .951) and the behaviors subscale consisted of
by clicking word links
twelve items (a = .953) (see Table 2). I click like button of companies’ banners .026 .884
I purchase products/services when I see .338 .558
banner ads on the Internet
I click like button of companies’ video ads .149 .1,004
1.2.6. Analysis I purchase products or use services when I .345 .567
The latest version of the Statistical Package for the Social see their video ads
Sciences (SPSS) 22.0 was used for analysis. Frequencies was used I click like button of companies’ polling ads .127 .994
for demographic profile and Internet usage. Factor analysis and I vote by using companies’ polling ads on .046 .621
the Internet
regression analysis were conducted for motivations, attitudes and
I click like button of companies’ application .051 .891
behaviors. ads
I download companies’ application when I .032 .851
see their application ads
I click like button of companies’ comment .079 .985
Table 1 ads
Cronbach’s a and factor analysis results for internet using motivation scale. I write my comments by using companies’ .100 .667
comment ads
Items Cronbach’s Factor Factor Factor Factor
a 1 2 3 4 Note: Bold indicates a significant factor loading identifying the item and factor
associated with it. N = 140. All items shared a common prompt: ‘‘Indicate how
Pass time .830 much you agree with each option by marking the appropriate response’’ and were
To occupy my time .956 .062 .193 .042 measured with a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from ‘‘Strongly Disagree’’ to ‘‘Strongly
I have nothing better to .873 .000 .069 .002 Agree’’.
do
Passes time when bored .543 .096 .030 .317
Interpersonal utility .795 1.3. Findings
To belong to a group .081 .784 .049 .115
I enjoy answering .223 .687 .065 .011
questions 1.3.1. Descriptive results
To participate in .112 .678 .001 .037 1.3.1.1. Demographic background. The majority of the participants
discussions was between 21 and 23 years old (57.9%). Females (62.1%) were
To give information .143 .594 .102 .063
more than males (37.9%). The students were representing all the
To express myself freely .080 .514 .097 .190
To meet new people .066 .504 .008 .010
departments (seven faculties and one vocational high school) of
the university. The participation was higher from the faculty of
Information seeking .820
To look for daily .026 .028 .840 .130
economics and administrative science (24.3%) and less from the
information faculty of Art and Design (5%). Sophomore was the highest repre-
To get information in .131 .076 .735 .094 sented group (30.7%) compared to the other participants.
the World
To see what is out there .073 .015 .731 .023
To get information for .173 .059 .609 .074 1.3.1.2. Internet background. The majority of the participants was
free using the Internet for more than nine years (47.8%). 98.6% of them
Entertainment .727 use the Internet on a daily basis. The majority of the participants
It is enjoyable .138 .066 .021 .746 used the Internet (37.1%) 3–4 h a day.
It is entertaining .193 .231 .162 .679

Note: Bold indicates a significant factor loading identifying the item and factor
associated with it. N = 140. All items shared a common prompt: ‘‘Indicate how
much you agree with each option by marking the appropriate response’’ and were
measured with a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from ‘‘Strongly Disagree’’ to ‘‘Strongly
Agree’’.
1.3.2. Factor analysis results
The factorability of the twenty-seven Internet Using Motivation
Scale items was examined. Two well-recognized criteria for the
factorability of a correlation were used. The Kaiser–Meyer-Olkin
316 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324

measure of sampling adequacy was .72, above the commonly rec- p 6 0.05) (R2 = 0.047), but it was not significant for frequency of
ommended value of .6 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was signifi- using the Internet (b = 0.003, p > 0.05) (R2 = 0.000). H1 a, b, and c
cant (v2 (351) = 1404.205, p 6 :05). were confirmed; but d was not confirmed.
Initial Eigen values indicated that the first four factors explained Hypothesis 2
21.8%, 11.3%, 9.3%, and 6% of the variance respectively. The fifth, H2 states that information seeking will have a significant favor-
sixth, seventh and eight factors had Eigenvalues just over one able effect on consumers’ (a) behaviors toward Internet advertis-
and each explained 5.5%, 4.6%. 4.1% and 4% of the variance. ing, (b) year of using the Internet and (c) duration of using the
Maximum likelihood factor analysis was conducted to find the Internet. Information seeking was positively associated with
structure of the motivation scale and the factors were examined Internet behavior (b = 0.215, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.046). Users with high
using oblimin rotations of the factor loading matrix. The four factor information seeking hold favorable behaviors toward Internet
solution, which explained 48.4% of the variance, was preferred advertising because of the perceived informativeness of Internet
because: (1) it has theoretical basis (five motivational scales were advertising. Regression analysis result was significant between
found in Papacharissi & Rubin’s study in 2000), (2) there was the years of using the Internet (b = 0.181, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.033) and
‘flattening out’ of Eigen values on the scree plot after four factors, the motivation of information seeking. Participants who had a need
and (3) the insufficient number of primary loadings appeared for seeking information were the ones who started to use the
and caused difficulty of interpreting the fifth factor and subsequent Internet many years ago. The results were not significant for infor-
factors. mation seeking and duration (b = 0.050, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.003) of
A total of six items were eliminated because they did not con- using the Internet. H2 a and b were confirmed; but c was not con-
tribute to a simple factor structure and another six items were firmed (see Table 3).
eliminated because they failed to meet the criteria of having a fac- Hypothesis 3
tor loading of .5 or above. All items in this analysis had primary H3 propounds that pass time will have a significant favorable
loadings over .5. effect on (a) consumers’ behaviors toward Internet advertising
Four factors found three items had their higher loading on and (b) duration of using the Internet. The motivation of pass time
Factor 1 (pass time), six items had their higher loading on Factor for Internet use (b = 0.046, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.002) was not signifi-
2 (interpersonal utility), four items had their higher loading on cant with behaviors toward Internet advertising. Regression analy-
Factor 3 (information seeking), and two items had their higher sis result was significant between duration of using the Internet
loading on Factor 4 (entertainment). (b = 0.172, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.030) and pass time. H3 a was not con-
Internal consistency for each of the scales was examined using firmed; but b was confirmed.
Cronbach’s alpha. The alphas were showing the sufficient levels of Hypothesis 4
reliability: .830 for pass time, .795 for interpersonal utility, .820 for H4 introduces that entertainment will have a significant effect
information seeking, and .727 for entertainment. There were no on consumers’ (a) favorable attitude toward Internet advertising,
substantial increase in alpha for any of the scales. (b) frequency of using the Internet and (c) duration of using the
For examining the factorability of the fourty Attitudes and Internet. Entertainment was positively associated with attitudes
Behaviors toward Internet Advertising Scale items two criteria (b = 0.231, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.053). Users with high entertainment
were used. The Kaiser–Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy motivation hold favorable attitudes toward Internet advertising
was .92 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (v2 because of the perceived entertainment of Internet advertising.
(780) = 5641.311, p 6 :05). Regression analysis result was significant between frequency of
Eigen values showed that the first two factors explained a total using the Internet (b = 0.163, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.027) and the motiva-
of 61% of the variance. The third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh tion of entertainment; duration of using the Internet (b = 0.288,
factors had Eigenvalues just over one and each explained under p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.083) and the motivation of entertainment.
4% of the variance. Participants’ who had the motivation of entertainment were the
By using oblimin rotations of the factor loading matrix and ones who frequently used the Internet and stayed on the Internet
maximum likelihood factor analysis the factors were examined. for longer hours. H4 a, b, and c were confirmed.
The two factor solution was preferred because of: (1) its theoretical
basis (two scale obtained from Taylor, Lewin, & Strutton’s study in 1.4. Discussions and managerial implications for Study 1
2011), (2) the ‘leveling off’ of Eigen values on the scree plot after
two factors, and (3) difficulty of interpreting the third and subse- 1.4.1. Interpersonal utility
quent factors. The results confirmed Cha’s (2010) study in which interpersonal
A total of seventeen items were dismissed as they did not con- utility predicted time spent on SNSs; but it did not support that
tribute to a simple factor structure and another three items were
eliminated since they failed to meet the criteria of having a factor
loading of .5 or above.
Internal consistency for each of the scales was examined using Table 3
Cronbach’s alpha. The alphas were showing the high levels of reli- Regression results for the predictors of internet motivations by attitudes, behaviors,
and internet usage.
ability: .951 for attitudes (eight items) and .953 for behaviors
(twelve items). Attitudes Behaviors Inter. Inter. Inter.
Year Frequ. Duration
1.3.3. Regression analysis results Pass time .102 .046 .048 108 .172*
Hypothesis 1 Interpersonal .295*** .308*** .032 .003 .217**
utility
H1 predicts that interpersonal utility will have a significant
Information .014 .215** .181* .088 .050
favorable effect on consumers’ (a) attitudes toward Internet adver- seeking
tising, (b) behaviors toward Internet advertising, (c) duration of Entertainment & .231 *
.094 .044 .163 *
.288**
using the Internet, and (d) frequency of using the Internet. convenience
Interpersonal utility was positively associated with attitudes *
p 6 0:05.
(b = 0.295, p 6 0:05) (R2 = 0.087), behaviors (b = 0.308, p 6 0:05) **
p 6 0:01.
(R2 = 0.095), and duration of using the Internet (b = 0.217, ***
p 6 0:001.
 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
interpersonal utility predicted frequency of using SNSs. Users with
the motivation of interpersonal utility hold a favorable attitude
and behavior toward Internet advertising because people perceive
utility to belong to a group, express themselves, meet new people,
and need for exchanging information. Those who enjoy a sense of
community and interacting with them were more positive toward
Internet advertising both attitudinally and behaviorally. Online
advertising industry may focus on creating a platform in which
Internet users may find peer community and their generations to
whom they can discuss their branding experiences. Users with
high interpersonal utility spend more time on the Internet to grat-
ify their needs. A good example is Procter & Gamble’s ‘Pampers vil-
lage’. It is an Internet site offering an opportunity to its users
(especially for new parents) to connect, share, and exchange ideas
about raising children.
1.4.2. Information seeking
As it was expected, users with high information seeking moti-
vation had positive behavior toward Internet advertising, because
of the perceived informativeness of Internet advertising. The
motivation of information seeking led the people to search for
alternative methods for information gathering and one of them
was using the Internet. That is why it is not surprising that the
motivation of information seeking was a predictor of long year
Internet usage. Internet offers its users a flexible way of searching
for information and accessing sources of information anytime and
anywhere (Kim, 2001) which has increased in popularity as a new
way of finding information. In other words, Internet has opened
its gates to its users to seek information without travelling but
while travelling. Internet is the one that not only offers entertain-
ment and pass time to its users but also information seeking
which makes it a unique medium that offers more choices and
gratifies different needs than any other media in the media
history.
However, the motivation of information seeking was not related
with duration of using the Internet. Browsing Internet briefly may
be because of the characteristic of the sample of this study.
University students either look for daily brief information (e.g.,
weather forecast or Google map) or information necessary for their
essays and homework. For other age groups, however, there might
be a possible relation between information seeking and duration of
using the Internet. Thus, in further research, other age groups can
be included to be examined.
1.4.3. Pass time
Similar to interpersonal utility, pass time also predicted dura-
tion of using the Internet. People who wanted to pass time con-
nected to Internet and spent time to gratify their passing time
needs. However, although interpersonal utility generated favorable
behavior toward Internet advertising, pass time did not have the
same effect.
1.4.4. Entertainment
As expected, consumers who used the Internet for the purpose
of entertainment showed favorable attitude toward Internet
advertising, confirming the studies by Okazaki (2007) and Zhou
and Bao (2002). Their need of having fun and relaxation by
browsing the Internet influenced them to stay longer and to con-
nect frequently. However, this study is limited with the investiga-
tion of entertainment as a motive of using the Internet, but not
using the Internet advertising, and its effect on attitude toward
Internet advertising. In other studies, entertainment as a motive
of using the Internet advertising and its effect on attitudes can
be examined.
317
2. Study 2
2.1. Conceptual rationale and hypotheses
2.1.1. Facebook feature use
There are different features of Facebook which offer its users
convenience, practicality, and ease of connection as well as a plea-
surable way of expressing themselves. Feature can be defined as a
technical tool on the Facebook site that enables its users to do mul-
tiple activities while spending their time on the Net. Each year dif-
ferent features are added to Facebook. However, in this paper
certain features have been used and those features have been
described by Smock, Ellison, Lampe, and Wohn (2011) in their arti-
cle entitled Facebook as a toolkit: A uses and gratification approach to
unbundling feature use. They are namely status updates, comments,
wall posts, private messages, chat, and groups. Based on motiva-
tions of Facebook, it is expected that those motivations positively
affect users’ Facebook feature. It is also possible that some motives
(e.g., informativeness and entertainment) and some factors (e.g.,
age, gender, and frequency of Facebook use) will have an effect
on certain Facebook feature use. The proposed hypothesis and
the research questions are as below:
H1 (a). Informativeness and entertainment, (b) quality of life, peer
influence, & structure time, and (c) self-brand congruity are
positively related to Facebook feature use.
RQ1a: Which motives and factors predict the use of status
updates?
RQ1b: Which motives and factors predict the use of comments?
RQ1c: Which motives and factors predict the use of Wall posts?
RQ1d: Which motives and factors predict the use of private
messages?
RQ1e: Which motives and factors predict the use of chat?
RQ1f: Which motives and factors predict the use of Groups?
2.1.2. Invasiveness
‘‘For generations, advertising interrupted the entertainment
that Americans wanted to read, hear or watch’’ (Elliot, 2007, p.
3). Consumers may perceive advertisements as being invasive,
when they feel that their private, social, and entertainment lives
are interrupted. Li, Edwards, and Lee (2002) note that advertise-
ments may distract and irritate consumers when their goal ori-
ented behaviors are interfered and therefore it can be seen as a
common complaint of advertising. This complaint is due to show-
ing reactance to advertisements which is the result of the uncon-
trolled environment and a need to re-establish freedom and
taking control of a situation. Some comparative studies show that
unsolicited e-mails are perceived as more intrusive and irritating
than traditional postal direct mail (Morimoto & Chang, 2006).
With regard to the discussion above, the following hypothesis is
employed:
H2. Perceived invasiveness of Facebook advertising is negatively
related to (a) attitude toward Facebook advertising, and (b)
behavior toward Facebook advertising.
2.1.3. Informativeness and entertainment
Urista, Dong, and Day (2009) investigated young adults’
Internet usage and found that they heavily used the Internet for
entertainment and information. More specifically, entertainment
and informativeness are also important factors for Internet and
social media advertising messages. Blanco, Blasco, and Azorín
318 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
(2010), for example found that consumers’ perception of the enter-
tainment and informational aspects of mobile advertising affect
their attitudes in a positive way. As a result of this study, it is
expected that perceived entertainment and informativeness of
Facebook advertising is related to positive attitude toward adver-
tising. That is, individuals who enjoy, are entertained, and
informed are drawn to Facebook advertising; and they were sup-
posed to stay with Facebook for long hours and frequently con-
nected to it. The hypothesis is formulated as below:
H3. Perceived informativeness & entertainment of Facebook
advertising is positively related to (a) attitude toward Facebook
advertising, (b) frequency of using Facebook and (c) duration of
using Facebook.
2.1.4. Self-brand congruity
Consumers compare their self-images with perceived images of
brands. Self-congruity is the relationship between self-image
reflected by brands and a person’s self-image (Branaghan &
Hildebrand, 2011). Hennig-Thurau and Walsh (2003/2004) state
that consumers’ tendency to read product related information on
online platforms can be linked to a need to evaluate as well as to
determine their social prestige and position. Consumers perceive
their self-identity with similar products and services advertised.
There are some studies showing that self-congruity positively
affect consumers’ purchase intentions (Yu, Lin, & Chen, 2013).
Based on self-brand congruity discussion, the below hypothesis is
offered:
H4. Perceived self-brand congruity of Facebook advertising is
positively related to (a) attitude toward Facebook advertising and
(b) duration of using Facebook.
2.1.5. Quality of life, peer influence, & structure time
Individuals belong to social media for satisfying their social
needs (Wang et al., 2012). For connecting with each other and sat-
isfying interpersonal communication as a way to enjoy their ongo-
ing activities, and get approval from other people, individuals use
social network sites (SNSs) (Urista et al., 2009). People who belong
to social media tend to think that participating in social media is
socially desirable, will improve their quality of life by interacting
with the people sharing similar interests, ideas, hobbies, and con-
cerns. Structure time of using social media is related to partici-
pants’ log into their accounts as part of a structured routine (e.g.,
in the mornings while commuting to their school, in the afternoons
after the lunch break, or in the evenings preferring it to a television
serial). ‘‘Such ritualized usage may increase the likelihood that con-
sumers view SNA favorably because it becomes a time structured
and temporally triggered part of their interactions with SNSs’’
(Taylor et al., 2011, p. 262-263). The preceding discussion offers
the following hypothesis:
H5. Perceived quality of life, peer influence, and structure time of
Facebook is positively related to (a) attitude toward Facebook
advertising, (b) frequency of using Facebook, and (c) duration of
using Facebook.
2.1.6. Privacy concern
As a result of privacy concerns, individuals involve themselves
in risk-coping behaviors such as avoiding Internet sites that ask
private information or they look for extra privacy statements pub-
lished on the Web site (Youn, 2009). Sheehan and Hoy (1999) in
their studies observed that when privacy concern increased among
respondents, they left Web sites by leaving the information page
incomplete and requesting from companies for opt-out. In
Turkey, Öngün and Demirağ (2014) investigated Facebook users’
blocking tendencies with regard to their privacy and secrecy set-
tings. They found that Facebook users tended to be careful and
secure about privacy issues and female Facebook users were more
restrictive in accepting invitations from others and showing more
blocking behavior compared to male users.
However, many individuals still may not be aware of compa-
nies’ systematic collection of their private information including
age, gender, products and service purchased, or brand preferences.
‘‘The information storage and retrieval capabilities of new media
technologies can facilitate the collection and exchange of customer
information, often without the knowledge or permission of the
consumer’’ (Papacharissi & Fernback, 2005, p. 260). The
Internet allows customers to surf on Web pages and get informa-
tion about products and companies. However, while they are
browsing about the brands they are not wholly familiar that their
private information is gathered by those companies (Resnick &
Montania, 2003).
SNS users’ apprehension about their loss of private information
by social media providers/advertisers is explained as privacy con-
cern (Taylor et al., 2011) of this study. When connected to
Facebook, users may feel that by viewing or clicking certain
Facebook advertising they may lose their private information and
therefore may have such concern. If Facebook users feel secure in
providing sensitive information on their Facebook pages, and feel
that Facebook keeps their personal and private information, they
will not have privacy concern. In contrast, feeling secure in privacy
concern will generate positive feeling and attitude toward
Facebook advertising. The last hypothesis is as below:
H6. Feeling secure in privacy concern on Facebook is positively
related to attitude toward Facebook advertising.
2.2. Method
2.2.1. Pre-test
The questionnaire was delivered to 20 students in a university
in the Western part of Turkey, and the clarity of its questions were
pre-tested. The questionnaire was pre-tested a couple of weeks
before the main study was initiated. As a result of this
pre-testing, some questionnaires were re-designed. For example,
the 7th multiple choice question asked ‘‘How frequently do you
connect to Facebook?’’ and the choices ranged from ‘‘more than
10 h a day’’ to ‘‘1–2 h a month’’. After a student asked whether
the question was about duration or frequency, it was discovered
that the question and the options were not matching. Then the
questionnaire was re-written and it asked ‘‘When connected to
Facebook, how long do you use it?’’ The second modification was
done about the Likert scale questions. The Likert scale questions
for attitudes and behaviors toward Facebook advertising were
grouped into two categories. The first group of questions were
based on the respondents Facebook profile and the second cate-
gory questions asked about companies’ Facebook profile. Before
the pre-test, the questions were not clear enough and the students
were confused, whether the Likert scale questions asked about
his/her own Facebook profile or company profile. Then, they were
re-arranged to make the questions clearer.
2.2.2. Instrument
2.2.2.1. Motivations of using Facebook. The scale for the motivations
of Facebook and Facebook advertising was the adaptation of the
motivations of SNS advertising tested and developed by Taylor
et al. (2011). It included eight motivations of which rated by the
participants with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly
 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
disagree to strongly agree. Factor analysis results of this study
revealed five motivations instead of eight. Two separate motiva-
tions of ‘‘entertainment and informativeness’’ merged in one moti-
vation. Three separate motivations of ‘‘quality of life, structure
time, and peer influence’’ were merged in another one motivation.
‘‘Self-brand congruity’’, ‘‘invasiveness’’ and ‘‘privacy concern’’
remained as separate motivations. Among those five motivations,
two of them namely: ‘‘quality of life, structure time, & peer
influence’’ and ‘‘privacy concern’’ are related to Facebook usage
motivations. Other three of them, namely ‘‘informativeness &
entertainment’’, ‘‘self-brand congruity’’, and ‘‘invasiveness’’ are
the motivations related to Facebook advertising.
2.2.2.2. Facebook feature use. Facebook feature use was adapted
from six different characteristics of Facebook platform (e.g., the
comment feature, Wall post, the private messages feature) devel-
oped by Smock et al. (2011). In order to measure use of specific
Facebook feature, a set of items about frequency of use were asked:
‘‘I use (name of feature) often’’. Respondents were asked to rank
how much they agreed with this statement on a 5-point Likert
scale ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree (see
Table 7 for item wording, mean and standard deviation).
2.2.2.3. Attitudes and behaviors toward Facebook
advertising. Attitudinal scale was adapted from the work by
Taylor et al. (2011) and developed by allowing several other forms
of advertising. The goal of the current research is to evaluate con-
sumer attitudes and behaviors toward Facebook and Facebook
advertising. Thus, Facebook advertising have been described to
them to include many form of commercial content (e.g., video clip,
e-mail, comment ads, word link ads) available on Facebook which
can be viewed by a typical consumer. Then the behavioral scale
was developed based on the attitudinal scale created. Attitudinal
and behavioral items toward Facebook advertising were measured
with a 5-point Likert scale ranging from strongly disagree to
strongly agree. Facebook advertising behavior allowed to include
both behavior toward Facebook advertising (e.g., clicking, down-
loading, surfing) and online and offline purchasing behavior
toward products or brands that are advertised on Facebook.
2.2.3. Application
The 692 undergraduate students who registered to Research
Methodology course in distance learning program of the university
were given the second online announcement and informing them
that the survey questionnaires would be delivered. The participa-
tion was voluntary; however, the participating students would
earn extra marks (e.g. 5 points) for their course support. They were
acknowledged that it was their instructor’s academic research and
all the information given would be used for this purpose without
revealing their identities. They received questionnaires by e-mail
and the number of participation was slightly higher than the first
study, producing 158 responses with the response rate of 23.98%.
2.2.4. Dependent and independent variables
Independent variables are the motivations of Facebook usage
and the motivations of Facebook advertising. Dependent variables
are attitudes toward Facebook advertising, behaviors toward
Facebook advertising, Facebook feature use, Facebook usage years,
Facebook usage frequency, and Facebook usage hours.
2.2.5. Validity of instrument
The validity of the motivations of Facebook advertising and atti-
tudes and behaviors were assessed by maximum likelihood in fac-
tor analysis. For the motivations of Facebook use and Facebook
advertising use, out of eight motivations five of them were valid
(see Table 5). For attitudes and behaviors, two factors (attitudes
319
Table 4
Facebook feature use of respondents.
Cronbach’s M SD
a
Facebook feature use .799
I update my status on Facebook often 2.93 1.13
I use the comments feature on Facebook often 2.92 1.15
I write Wall posts on my friends’ pages often 2.31 1.08
I use the private messages feature on Facebook 3.63 1.15
often
I use Facebook chat often 3.27 1.27
I use Facebook Groups often 3.05 1.29
Note: N = 158 All items shared a common prompt: ‘‘Indicate how much you agree
with each option by marking the appropriate response’’ and were measured with a
5-point Likert-type scale ranging from ‘‘Strongly Disagree’’ to ‘‘Strongly Agree.’’
toward Facebook advertising, behaviors toward Facebook advertis-
ing) were valid (see Table 6).
2.2.6. Reliability of instrument
The Facebook feature use scale consisted of six items (a = .799)
(see Table 4).
The Facebook using motivation scale consisted of five subscales.
The privacy concern subscale consisted of three items (a = .852),
the informativeness & entertainment subscale consisted of six
items (a = .915), the invasiveness subscale consisted of five items
(a = .926), the quality of life, structure time, & peer influence sub-
scale consisted of ten items (a = .884), the self-brand congruity
subscale consisted of four items (a = .907) (see Table 5).
The attitudes and behaviors toward Internet advertising scale
consisted of two subscales. The attitudes subscale consisted of
twelve items (a = .947) and the behaviors subscale consisted of
seven items (a = .964) (see Table 6).
2.2.7. Analysis
SPSS 22.0 was used to analyze the findings. Frequencies was
used for demographic profile and Internet usage. Factor analysis
and regression analysis were conducted to find out the relation
between motivations, Facebook usage, attitudes, and behaviors.
2.3. Findings
2.3.1. Descriptive results
2.3.1.1. Demographic background. The sample consisted of 62.7%
female and 37.3.2% male, ranging in age from 18 to 27+ years
(the majority were 21–23 years old). The participants who were
sophomore was 30.4%, followed by 29.1% juniors, 25.3% freshman,
and 14.6% senior. They represented a variety of faculties and
departments.
2.3.1.2. Facebook background. Particpants’ Facebook usage experi-
ence ranged from 1–2 years to 9 + years. More than half of the par-
ticipants (53.2%) had 5–6 years of Facebook experience. Daily
Facebook users were 74.1% and once they connected the majority
used Facebook 1–2 h a day (36.1%) or less than one hour a day
(30.4%).
The common Facebook feature use among respondents were
private messages, chats, and groups (see Table 4).
2.4. Factor analysis results
The factorability of the 33 Facebook Using Motivation Scale
items displayed five criteria. The Kaiser–Meyer-Olkin measure of
sampling adequacy was .85 and Bartlett’s test of sphericity was sig-
nificant (v2 (528) = 3577.302, p 6 :05).
320 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324

Table 5
Cronbach’s a and factor analysis results for facebook using motivation scale.

Items Factor
Cronbach’s a 1 2 3 4 5
Privacy concern .852
I feel secure in providing sensitive information .623 .008 .008 .115 .044
I feel Facebook will keeping my personal details private .793 .027 .024 .022 .023
I feel secure in posting personal information .990 .030 .014 .032 .025
Informativeness & entertainment .915
Facebook ads are valuable source of a product/service information .008 .849 .007 .053 .050
Facebook ads are convenient source of a product/service information .054 .856 .022 .055 .067
Facebook ads help keep me up to date .014 .859 .010 .041 .030
Facebook ads are fun to watch or read .039 .759 .046 .040 .130
Facebook ads are clever and quite entertaining .004 .670 .044 .122 .113
Facebook ads do not just sell, they also entertain me .001 .708 .016 .008 .144
Invasiveness .926
Facebook ads are distracting .007 .025 .703 .021 .054
Facebook ads are intrusive .001 .142 .632 .040 .130
Facebook ads are irritating .040 .042 .805 .022 .154
Facebook ads are invasive .011 .073 1.000 .020 .030
Facebook ads are interfering .030 .108 .980 .059 .053
Quality of life, structure time, & peer influence .884
Participating in Facebook is exciting .024 .017 .008 .671 .087
Participating in Facebook is cool .065 .076 .007 .783 .044
Participating in Facebook is socially desirable .065 .029 .027 .530 .027
I recommend participating in Facebook to others .095 .069 .019 .620 .113
I encourage my friends to participate in Facebook .064 .052 .071 .565 .016
I say positive things about Facebook to others .100 .094 .121 .725 .031
Participating in Facebook improves the quality of my life .121 .084 .051 .593 .023
Participating in Facebook can reduce stress after a difficult day .045 .191 .002 .752 .183
Participating in Facebook is a way to enjoy myself or relax .021 .123 .023 .794 .220
I have a daily routine for participating in Facebook .083 .033 .064 .599 .087
Self-brand congruity .907
The brands advertised are consistent with how I see myself .049 .330 .173 .015 .609
The brands advertised cater to people like me .137 .287 .059 .018 .725
The brands reflect who I am .032 .176 .111 .018 .695
The typical customers are very much like me .009 .120 .141 .019 .787

Note: Bold indicates a significant factor loading identifying the item and factor associated with it. N = 158. All items shared a common prompt: ‘‘Indicate how much you agree
with each option by marking the appropriate response’’ and were measured with a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from ‘‘Strongly Disagree’’ to ‘‘Strongly Agree’’.

Eigen values showed that the first five factors explained a total
of 62.1% of the variance (28.6% for factor 1, 14% for factor 2, 8% for
factor 3, 6.2% for factor 4, and 5.3% for factor 5). The sixth, seventh,
and eight factors had Eigenvalues just over one and each explained
4% (or less than 4%) of the variance.
A total of one item was excluded since it did not contribute to a
simple factor structure and another four items were removed
because they did not meet the criteria of having a factor loading
of .5 or above.
By using oblimin rotations of the factor loading matrix and
employing maximum likelihood factor analysis, the factors were
examined. The acceptance of the five factor solution based on the
decision of: (1) its suitability to the theoretical foundation (see
Taylor et al., 2011), (2) ‘flattening out’ of Eigen values on the scree
plot after five factors, and (3) difficulty in interpretation.
By the use of Cronbach’s alpha, the investigation of internal con-
sistency for each of the scales showed high reliability of the items
(.852 for privacy concern, .915 for informativeness & entertain-
ment, .926 for invasiveness, .884 for quality of life, structure time,
& peer influence, and .907 for self-brand congruity).
A total of 28 items were examined for the factorability of the
Attitudes and Behaviors toward Facebook Advertising Scale. 9
items were removed because they did not contribute to a simple
factor structure and the rest of the 19 items met the criteria of hav-
ing a factor loading of .5 or above. The result of the Kaiser–
Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .93 and
Bartlett’s test of sphericity was significant (v2 (378) = 4566.975,
p 6 :05). Cronbach’s alpha conducted for measuring internal con-
sistency for each of the scales and showed that for both attitudes
(.947) and behaviors (.964) they were highly reliable.
By looking at Eigen values, it was found that the first two factors
explained a total of 68% of the variance. The third factor had
Eigenvalues just over one and explained 4% of the variance. Thus,
two distinct categories were available as a result of factor analysis.
Maximum likelihood factor analysis and oblimin rotations of the
factor loading matrix were used. The results revealed that twelve
items had their higher loading on Factor 1 (represents attitudes
toward Facebook advertising), and seven items had their higher
loading on Factor 2 (represents behavior toward Facebook adver-
tising). The reason why two factor solution was preferred based
on the similar and previously explained decision of: (1) its theoret-
ical basis (see study by Taylor et al., 2011), (2) the ‘flattening off’ of
Eigen values after two factors, and (3) difficulty of interpreting the
third factor (see Tables 8 and 9).
2.5. Results for hypotheses
Hypothesis 1 (Facebook Feature Use)
H1 states that (a) Informativeness and entertainment, (b) qual-
ity of life, peer influence, & structure time, and (c) self-brand con-
gruity are positively related to Facebook feature use. Regression
analysis results displayed that (a) informativeness and entertain-
ment (b = 0.356, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.126), (b) quality of life, peer influ-
ence, & structure time (b = 0.513, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.264), and (c)
self-brand congruity (b = 0.287, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.083) were posi-
tively associated with Facebook feature use. H1 a, b, and c were
supported.
Hypothesis 2 (Invasiveness)
H2 reports that perceived invasiveness of Facebook advertising
is negatively related to attitude toward Facebook advertising and
 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324 321

Table 6 Table 9
Cronbach’s a and factor analysis results for attitudes and behaviors toward Facebook Regression results for the predictors of Facebook motivations and Facebook usage by
advertising. feature use.

Items Cronbach’s Factor Factor Stat. Comm. Wall Priv. Chat Groups
a 1 2 upda. po. mes.
Attitudes .947 Year of Facebook .162* .098 .162* .196** .098 .136
I like sponsored stories on my Facebook .842 .011 use
*** *** ** *
page Frequency of .267 .235 .218 .172 .132 .180*
I like banners on my Facebook page .840 .115 Facebook use
I like video ads on my Facebook page .839 .107 Duration of .334*** .442*** .370*** .236** .209** .180*
I like comment ads on my Facebook page .823 .073 Facebook use
I like companies’ offers and price reductions .802 .025 Informativeness & .253*** .258*** .316*** .153* .274*** .062
on my Facebook page entertainment
** *** ** **
I like application ads on my Facebook page .801 .003 Self-brand .248 .281 .199 .017 .216 .093
I like polling ads on my Facebook page .742 .106 congruity
I like companies’ event invitations on my .746 .092 Qua. of li., peer inf., .358*** .450*** .431*** .332*** .328*** .165**
Facebook page & struc. time
I like sampling ads on my Facebook page .702 .090 *
I like gift ads on my Facebook page .688 .089 p 6 0:05.
**
I like Facebook profiles created by .683 .052 p 6 0:01.
***
customers of the product p 6 0:001.
I like Facebook profiles created by the .596 .069
sponsor company of the product (b) behavior toward Facebook advertising. Pearson correlation
Behaviors .964 result revealed that perceived invasiveness of Facebook advertising
I purchase product/service that are on .039 .997 was negatively correlated with attitude toward Facebook advertis-
banner on my Facebook page
ing (r = .278; p = .000 < .05), and behavior toward Facebook
I purchase product/service on Facebook .056 .981
profiles created by customers
advertising (r = .209; p = .009 < .05). H2 a and b were supported.
I purchase product/service that are on video .019 .967 Hypothesis 3 (Informativeness and Entertainment)
ads on my Facebook page H3 predicts that perceived informativeness & entertainment of
I purchase product/service on Facebook .034 .915 Facebook advertising is positively related to (a) attitude toward
profiles by sponsor company
Facebook advertising, (b) frequency of using Facebook and (c)
I send gifts to my friends by using gift ads .144 .709
on my Facebook page duration of using Facebook. Informativeness & entertainment of
I purchase product/service that has offers & .226 .699 Facebook advertising was positively associated with attitude
price reductions toward Facebook advertising (b = 0.535, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.286) and
I recomm. friends prod/servi. on Facebook .343 .578
frequency of using Facebook (b = 0.172, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.030). But
profiles created by customers
there was no significant result for duration of using Facebook
Note: Bold indicates a significant factor loading identifying the item and factor (b = 0.153, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.025). H3 a and b were supported; but
associated with it. N = 158. All items shared a common prompt: ‘‘Indicate how c was not supported.
much you agree with each option by marking the appropriate response’’ and were
measured with a 5-point Likert-scale ranging from ‘‘Strongly Disagree’’ to ‘‘Strongly
Hypothesis 4 (Self-brand congruity)
Agree’’. H4 proposes that perceived self-brand congruity of Facebook
advertising is positively related to (a) attitude toward Facebook
advertising and (b) duration of using Facebook. Self-brand con-
Table 7
gruity was positively associated with attitudes toward Facebook
Regression results for the predictors of Facebook motivations by feature use and advertising (b = 0.495, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.245) and duration of using
attitudes. Facebook (b = 0.175, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.031). H4 a and b were
Facebook feature Attitudes
supported.
use Hypothesis 5 (Quality of Life, Structure Time, & Peer
Informativeness & entertainment .356*** .535***
Influence)
Security in privacy concern .113 .276*** H5 offers that perceived quality of life, peer influence, & struc-
Quality of life, peer influence, & structure .513*** .366*** ture time of Facebook is positively related to (a) attitude toward
time Facebook advertising and (b) frequency of using Facebook, and
Self-brand congruity .287*** .495***
(c) duration of using Facebook. Quality of life, peer influence, &
*
p 6 0:05. structure time was positively associated with attitudes toward
Facebook advertising (b = 0.366, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.134), frequency
**
p 6 0:01.
***
p 6 0:001.
of using Facebook (b = 0.347, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.121) and duration
of using Facebook (b = 0.392, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.154). H5 a, b, and c
Table 8 were supported.
Regression results for the predictors of Facebook motivations by internet usage. Hypothesis 6 (Privacy concern)
H6 presents that feeling secure in privacy concern on Facebook
Internet Internet Internet
year frequency duration is positively related to attitude toward Facebook advertising.
Feeling secure in privacy concern on Facebook was positively asso-
Informativeness & .107 .172* .158
entertainment ciated with attitudes toward Facebook advertising (b = 0.276,
Security in privacy concern .013 .041 .049 p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.076). H6 was supported.
Invasiveness .117 .086 .040
Quality of life, peer influ., & .099 .347*** .392***
struc. time 2.6. Results for research questions
Self-brand congruity .048 .127 .175*
*
p 6 0:05.
2.6.1. Status updates
**
p 6 0:01. The model addressing RQ1a, concerning motives and factors
***
p 6 0:001 that predict use of status update, had six significant predictors:
322 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
year of Facebook use (b = 0.162, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.026), frequency of
Facebook use (b = 0.267, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.071), duration of
Facebook use (b = 0.334, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.111), informativeness &
entertainment (b = 0.253, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.064),
self-brand-congruity (b = 0.248, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.061), and quality
of life, peer influence & structure time (b = 0.358, p < 0.05)
(R2 = 0.128).
2.6.2. Comments
In regards to RQ1b, which focused on predictors of comments,
frequency of Facebook use (b = 0.235, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.055), dura-
tion of Facebook use (b = 0.442, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.195), informative-
ness & entertainment (b = 0.258, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.067), self-brand
congruity (b = 0.281, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.079), and quality of life, peer
influence, & structure time (b = 0.450, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.203) were
significant.
2.6.3. Wall posts
The regression model for RQ1c found three motives and three
factors that positively predict writing on Facebook Friends’
Walls: year of Facebook use (b = 0.162, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.026), fre-
quency of Facebook use (b = 0.218, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.048), duration
of Facebook use (b = 0.370, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.137), informativeness
& entertainment (b = 0.316, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.100), self-brand con-
gruity (b = 0.199, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.039), and quality of life, peer
influence, & structure time (b = 0.431, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.186).
2.6.4. Private messages
The regression for RQ1d looking at private message use showed
three factors and two motives as significant predictors: year of
Facebook use (b = 0.196, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.038), frequency of
Facebook use (b = 0.172, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.030), duration of
Facebook use (b = 0.236, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.056), informativeness &
entertainment (b = 0.153, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.023), and quality of life,
peer influence, & structure time (b = 0.332, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.110).
2.6.5. Chat
The regression for RQ1e, concerning motives and factors that
predict the use of Facebook chat, had four significant predictors:
duration of Facebook use (b = 0.209, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.044), informa-
tiveness & entertainment (b = 0.274, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.075),
self-brand congruity (b = 0.216, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.047), and quality
of life, peer influence, & structure time (b = 0.328, p < 0.05)
(R2 = 0.107).
2.6.6. Groups
Addressing RQ1f, the use of Facebook Groups, frequency of
Facebook use (b = 0.180, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.032), duration of
Facebook use (b = 0.180, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.032), and quality of life,
peer influence, & structure time (b = 0.165, p < 0.05) (R2 = 0.027)
predicted use of the group feature.
2.7. Discussions and managerial implications for Study 2
2.7.1. Quality of life, peer influence, & structure time
Using SNSs generally, and Facebook specifically is fundamental
to some individuals more than others. Individuals who belong to
Facebook satisfy their one of the most basic needs: belongingness.
Belonging to certain online groups, being recognized and accepted
by them, expressing themselves, and changing their ideas and
opinions are the core values of many individuals especially at cer-
tain ages (Urista et al., 2009; Wang et al., 2012).
Participants who believed using Facebook was cool, exciting,
socially desirable, and fulfilled a purpose in their lives used both
one-to-many communication features (such as status updates
and Groups) and one-to-one communication features (such as
private messaging and chat). The participants’ positive opinions
and attitudes toward Facebook use generated the use of all features
of Facebook. Those participants also disseminated positive word of
mouth about Facebook usage and recommended it to their friends.
Participants who perceived Facebook usage would improve the
quality of their lives believed that Facebook usage well fitted into
their daily living structure. Similarly, usage frequency and duration
were important indicators for triggering recommendations. Users
who frequently connected to Facebook and spent most of their
time there suggested Facebook usage to their friends and peers.
They were also the ones whose attitudes toward Facebook adver-
tising were positive.
2.7.2. Informativeness & entertainment
The results confirm Blanco et al.’s (2010) study. They found that
participants’ attitudes were affected positively by the perception of
the entertainment and informational aspects of mobile advertising.
In this study 2, it was not only found that the participants’ attitude
toward Facebook advertising was positive but also they tended to
frequently connect to Facebook, as long as they found Facebook
advertising informative and entertaining. In contrast to what
Kazançoğlu et al. (2012) found in their Facebook advertising study,
consumers’ attitudes were not formed by the time spent with
Facebook; but it was formed by Facebook visit frequency.
Informativeness & entertainment of Facebook advertising
affected the use of all Facebook features, except Groups. The partic-
ipants who believed that Facebook ads were fun to watch or read,
kept them up to date, were convenient and valuable source of pro-
duct/service information used one-to-many and one-to-one com-
munication features. Their positive attitudes toward Facebook
advertising motivated them to use many features of Facebook.
Considering that Private Messages and Chat are two important fea-
tures of Facebook that are mainly used by the participants, the
marketers will have an opportunity to influence youngsters’ con-
versations on Facebook.
The result was not significant between informativeness & enter-
tainment and Groups feature of Facebook. Groups is the feature of
Facebook which is also commonly used by the participants. Using
Groups feature allows communication with larger audiences and
may provide the user with a forum for sharing information about
a topic of interest. Thus, it is a pity that the motivation of informa-
tiveness & entertainment of Facebook advertisements didn’t affect
the use of participants’ Group conversations.
2.7.3. Factors affecting Facebook feature use
Year of Facebook use affected status updates, Wall posts, and
private messages. Those participants, who updated their status fre-
quently, wrote on their friends’ Wall posts, and used private mes-
saging feature, had been using Facebook for many years. Frequent
Facebook users, on the other hand, used all Facebook features,
except chat.
Duration of Facebook use and quality of life, peer influence, &
structure time affected the use of all Facebook features. That is,
the participants who used Facebook for a long duration and who
believed that Facebook usage would improve their quality of lives
were the ones who used all features of Facebook. So, belief, atti-
tudes, and behaviors affected their Facebook usage as well as usage
of Facebook features.
Except the use of Groups, informativeness & entertainment was
positively related to Facebook feature use.
2.7.4. Self-brand congruity
Not surprisingly, perceived self-brand congruity of Facebook
advertising was successful for creating favorable attitude toward
Facebook advertising and duration of using Facebook. It can be
compared to duration in a supermarket: the more someone stays
 S.I. Celebi / Computers in Human Behavior 51 (2015) 312–324
may result in more purchase. In a similar fashion, the more stay on
Facebook may result in more engagement in Facebook related
activities, including purchase.
Self-brand congruity is linked to the participants’ perceptions of
seeing something from themselves in the Facebook commercial
and therefore keep reading and watching those Facebook commer-
cials (Hennig-Thurau & Walsh, 2003/2004). They identify them-
selves and assess their social prestige with the brands advertised.
Thus, Facebook feature use by those participants, who have a ten-
dency to identify themselves with the brands advertised, is impor-
tant. Youngsters who identify themselves with the brands
advertised on their Facebook pages may include those brands in
their conversations by using more features of Facebook. In other
words, they talk and mention about brands by using chats, write
on their friends’ Wall posts, and recommend it by using comments
feature. We already know that some fans of specific brand users
have been using those brands pictures when they update their sta-
tus in Facebook and that implications create high visibility. This
has been a long standing application called identity marketing
where consumers change some features of their selves to advertise
some brands (e.g., Harley Davidson tattoo) (see Solomon, 2007).
Using brands pictures for their Facebook status is also considered
within the scope of identity marketing where consumers alter their
extended selves (e.g., Facebook status/profiles) to advertise certain
brands.
2.7.5. Invasiveness
Perceived invasiveness of Facebook advertising in this study
was assessed by asking the participants’ perception of distraction,
intrusiveness, irritation, invasiveness and interference of their
activities on Facebook. As a result, their perceived invasiveness of
Facebook advertising negatively affected their attitudes and behav-
iors toward Facebook advertising.
By the use of Internet advertising especially Facebook advertis-
ing, more addressable and appropriate ads can be selected to fit the
Internet users’ characteristics and online behaviors. That is, those
advertisements should be more relevant to users first to attract
attention and then to increase favorability without distracting
them.
Advertisers ought to understand where they fail mostly. If unfa-
vorable attitudes and behaviors developed due to the content of
advertising, then advertisers can work on its content to make it
more informative, entertaining, and so on. Or if it is because of
visuality, then there are many other steps that should be taken
to make it more attractive to the users. Or if unfavorable attitudes
and in turn behaviors occur because of interruption, then different
advertising platforms can be created.
Vivid Internet ads, (e.g., animations) may increase users’ atten-
tion to the ads and the opportunity for consumers to process the
ads. However, when users are reading online news or texting with
each other, those animated banners with flashing text or pop-up
advertisements may distract them instead of attracting their atten-
tion. In this study, their general complaint and invasiveness about
Facebook ads and their effects on their attitudes and behaviors
were evaluated. In other studies which forms of Facebook advertis-
ing are more invasive and irritating and their negative effects on
attitudes and behaviors can be examined.
2.7.6. Privacy concern
A relation between feeling secure in privacy concern of using
Facebook and attitude toward Facebook advertising was found.
Those who feel secure in privacy concern of using Facebook were
more positive toward Facebook advertising.
There is no connection between feeling secure in privacy con-
cern of using Facebook and year of Facebook use, duration and fre-
quency of Facebook use, and general Facebook feature use. But,
323
when specific Facebook feature use and privacy concern was inves-
tigated it was found that the participants’ security feeling on using
Facebook positively contributed to their use of comments feature
of Facebook. When they feel that their identification on the cyber-
space will not cause them a problem, they freely express them-
selves and recommend their friends on certain subjects.
Conclusions and Limitations
The findings of study-2 supports the findings of study-1:
Individuals who have a need of belonging to groups and enjoying
a sense of community hold positive attitude toward Internet adver-
tising (study-1) and Facebook advertising (study-2). The findings of
both study-1 and study-2 represent student perceptions from a
sufficiently diverse range of faculties in which Internet and
Facebook has been majorly used. In addition to this, including a
_
sample from Izmir, which is strikingly more ideal than any other
city of Turkey with its high numbers of friends per Facebook users
(see Demirtas, 2012), explain the popularity of Facebook usage. So,
the finding is relative of the topic of this research. The main limi-
tation of studies is their small sample sizes. Considering the sample
size of 140 participants for the first study and 158 participants for
the second study, it is difficult to generalize the sample to the pop-
ulation. However, both studies are good at explaining particular
characteristics of Turkish Internet and Facebook users. Therefore,
they are exploratory in nature and offer fundamental framework
for further studies. Future research may consider using a larger
population of Internet and/or Facebook users.
Acknowledgements
I thank to Prof. Dr. Richard Petty and the members of his depart-
ment at Ohio State University for giving me an opportunity to pre-
sent this study in one of his lab meetings and appreciate their
invaluable comments and recommendations for the development
of the theories, findings, and research results. I also thank to the
editors and reviewers of the Computers in Human Behavior for their
invaluable contributions.
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