THE CHANGING ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIA

Women in India are beginning to follow the direction that the women of the
Western world took more than eighty years ago; demanding treatment as human equals.
However, it has become more and more evident as the revolution ages that Indian women
may have to adapt the Western feminist method to their very traditional and religious
culture. India has different complications that put the development of women in a
completely altered context than their Western counterparts. Although the key targets
remain similar: improvement of health care, education and job opportunities in order to
gain equality between men and women in the various settings of public society, the
workplace, the school yard and – possibly the most fundamental setting of all – the home.
Women are striving to be independent on the equal level of men. The additional
complexities that the women of India must also challenge are the caste system, the heavy
religious customs, older and more traditional roles of the sexes, as well as the even
stronger power that men hold in India. The status was at one time accepted, but with the
Western women’s revolution and perception, the role is slowly succeeding in its
development through both independent groups of women and national and worldwide
organizations based on the goal of gaining equality. They have all accomplished much, but
have yet to overthrow the male dominated society.

The Original Status

A patriarichal and oppressed society with an inhumane caste system supposedly

based on religious faith, however, their religious beliefs are obviously not understood since
their masculine domination acts against the religious base of men and women living as
equals. Despite modernization, women’s status remained low and devalued well into the
20th century. Gargi Chakravarty of the National Federation of Indian Women stated in
1990 that “Girls are looked upon by their parents as burdens”.

The status of women in India has been subject to many great changes over the past
few millennia. From a largely unknown status in ancient times through the low points of
the medieval period, to the promotion of equal rights by many reformers, the history of
women in India has been eventful.

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Contents

 1 History
o 1.1 Ancient India
o 1.2 Medieval period
o 1.3 Historical practices
o 1.4 British rule
 2 Independent India
o 2.1 Timeline
 3 Culture
 4 Education and economic development
o 4.1 Education
o 4.2 Workforce participation
o 4.3 Land and property rights
 5 Crimes against women
o 5.1 Sexual Harassment
o 5.2 Dowry
o 5.3 Female infanticides and sex selective abortions
o 5.4 Domestic violence
o 5.5 Trafficking
 6 Other concerns
o 6.1 Health
o 6.2 Family planning
 7 Notable Indian women
o 7.1 Arts and entertainment
o 7.2 Sports
o 7.3 Politics
o 7.4 Literature
o 7.5 Other fields

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History

Ancient India

Some scholars believe that in ancient India, the women enjoyed equal status with
men in all fields of life. However, some others hold contrasting views. Works by ancient
Indian grammarians such as Patanjali and Katyayana suggest that women were educated in
the early Vedic period. Rigvedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age
and were probably free to select their husband. Scriptures such as Rig Veda and
Upanishads mention several women sages and seers, notably Gargi and Maitreyi.

According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early Vedic
period. However, later (approximately 500 B.C.), the status of women began to decline
with the Smritis (esp. Manusmriti) and with the Islamic invasion of Babur and the Mughal
empire and later Christianity curtailing women's freedom and rights.

Although reformatory movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to

the religious order, by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restrictions.
The practice of child marriages is believed to have started from around sixth century.

Medieval period

Krishna at Goddesss Radharani's feet

The Indian woman's position in the society further deteriorated during the
medieval period. Sati, child marriages and ban on widow remarriages became part of social
life in India. The Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent brought the purdah practice
in the Indian society. Among the Rajputs of Rajasthan, the Jauhar was practised. In some
parts of India, the Devadasis or the temple women were sexually exploited. Polygamy was
widely practised esp. among Hindu Kshatriya rulers. In many Muslim families, women were
secluded to Zenana.

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In spite of these conditions, some women excelled in the fields of politics, literature,
education and religion. Razia Sultana became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled
Delhi. The Gond queen Durgavati ruled for fifteen years, before she lost her life in a battle
with Mughal emperor Akbar's general Asaf Khan in 1564. Chand Bibi defended
Ahmednagar against the mighty Mughal forces of Akbar in 1590s. Jehangir's wife Nur Jehan
effectively wielded imperial power and was recognized as the real force behind the Mughal
throne. Shivaji's mother, Jijabai was deputed as queen regent, because of her ability as a
warrior and administrator. In South India, many women administered villages, towns,
divisions and heralded social and religious institutions.

The Bhakti cults tried to restore women's status and questioned some of the forms of
oppression . Mirabai, a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement
figures. Some other female saint-poets from this period include Akkamadevi, Rami Janabai
and Lal Ded.

Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were
principle movements within the Hindu fold to openly advocate social justice and equality
between men and women.

Jahanara Begum and Princess Zebunnissa were well-known poetesses and they also
influenced the ruling administration.

Shortly after the Bhakti movement, Guru Nanak, the first Guru of Sikhs also preached the
message of equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to
lead religious assemblies; to perform and lead congregational hymn singing called Kirtan
or Bhajan; become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the
battlefield; have equality in marriage, and equality in Amrit (Baptism). Other Sikh Gurus
also preached against the discrimination against women.

Historical practices

Traditions such as sati, jauhar, child marriage, and devadasi have been banned and are
largely defunct. However, some cases of these practices are still found in remote parts of
India. The purdah is still practised by many Indian women.

Sati
Sati is an old, largely defunct custom, in which the widow was immolated alive on
her husband's funeral pyre. Although the act was supposed to be a voluntary on the
widow's part, it is believed to have been sometimes forced on the widow. It was
abolished by the British in 1829. There have been around forty reported cases of
sati since independence. In 1987, the Roop Kanwar case of Rajasthan led to The
Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act.
Jauhar
Jauhar refers to the practice of the voluntary immolation of all the wives and
daughters of defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent

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 molestation by the enemy. The practice was followed by the wives of defeated
Rajput rulers, who are known to place a high premium on honour.
Child marriages
Earlier, child marriages were highly prevalent in India. The young girls would live
with their parents till they reached puberty. In the past, the child widows were
condemned to a life of great agony, shaving heads, living in isolation, and shunned
by the society.[11] Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common
practice in some underdeveloped areas of the country.
Purdah
Purdah is the practice of requiring women to cover their bodies so as to cover their
skin and conceal their form. It imposes restrictions on the mobility of women, it
curtails their right to interact freely and it is a symbol of the subordination of
women. It does not reflect the religious teachings of either Hinduism or Islam,
contrary to common belief, although misconception has occurred due to the
ignorance and prejudices of religious leaders of both faiths.
Devadasis
Devadasi is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which women are
"married" to a deity or temple. The ritual was well established by the 10th century
A.D. In the later period, the illegitimate sexual exploitation of the devadasis became
a norm in some parts of India.

British rule

European scholars observed in the 19th century Hindu women are "naturally chaste" and
"more virtuous" than other women. [14] During the British Raj, many reformers such as Ram
Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Jyotirao Phule etc. fought for the upliftment of
women. Raja Rammohun Roy's efforts led to the abolition of the Sati practice in 1829.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's crusade for the improvement in condition of widows led to
the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. Many women reformers such as Pandita Ramabai also
helped the cause of women upliftment.

Rani Lakshmi Bai, the Queen of Jhansi, led the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British.
She is now widely considered as a nationalist hero. Begum Hazrat Mahal, the co-ruler of
Awadh, was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857. She refused the deals with the British
and later retreated to Nepal. The Begums of Bhopal were also few of the notable female
rulers during this period. They did not observe purdah and were trained in martial arts.

Chandramukhi Basu, Kadambini Ganguly and Anandi Gopal Joshi were few of the earliest
Indian women to obtain educational degrees.

In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women's
political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women's
Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927. In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act
was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl through the
efforts of Mahomed Ali Jinnah. Though Mahatma Gandhi himself married at the age of

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thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon the young men to
marry the child widows[11]

Women played an important part in India's independence struggle. Some of the famous
freedom fighters include Bhikaji Cama, Dr. Annie Besant, Pritilata Waddedar, Vijayalakshmi
Pandit, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Anjali Ammal, Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta Kriplani and Kasturba
Gandhi. Other notable names include Muthulakshmi Reddy, Durgabai Deshmukh etc. The
Rani of Jhansi Regiment of Subhash Chandra Bose's Indian National Army consisted
entirely of women including Captain Lakshmi Sahgal. Sarojini Naidu, a poet and a freedom
fighter, was the first Indian woman to become the President of the Indian National
Congress and the first woman to become the governor of a state in India.

Independent India

Women in India now participate in all activities such as education, politics, media, art and
culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc.

The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no
discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), and equal
pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by
the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory
to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by
the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article
42).

The feminist activism in India picked up momentum during later 1970s. One of the first
national level issues that brought the women's groups together was the Mathura rape case.
The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station, led to
a wide-scale protests in 1979–1980. The protests were widely covered in the national
media, and forced the Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure
Code and the Indian Penal Code and introduce the category of custodial rape. [16] Female
activists united over issues such as female infanticide, gender bias, women health, and
female literacy.

Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India, many women
groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana,
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh and other states.[16] Many Indian Muslim women have questioned
the fundamental leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law and have
criticized the triple talaq system.

In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-
oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as Self Employed Women's Association
(SEWA) have played a major role in women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as
leaders of local movements. For example, Medha Patkar of the Narmada Bachao Andolan.

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The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment
(Swashakti). The National Policy for the Empowerment of Women came was passed in
2001.

In 2006, the case of a Muslim rape victim called Imrana was highlighted in the media.
Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that
Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to wide-spread protests and finally Imrana's
father-in-law was given a prison term of 10 years, The verdict was welcomed by many
women's groups and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.

Timeline

The steady change in their position can be highlighted by looking at what has been
achieved by women in the country:

 1905: Suzanne RD Tata becomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.
 1916: The first women's university, SNDT Women's University, was founded on June
2, 1916 by the social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve with just five students.
 1927: The All India Women's Conference was founded.
 1994: Harita Kaur Deol becomes the first Indian woman to perform a solo flight.
 1951: Prem Mathur becomes the first Indian women commercial pilot of the Deccan
Airways
 1959: Anna Chandy becomes the first Indian woman Judge of High Court
 1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state
airline, Indian Airlines.
 1966: Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay wins Ramon Magsaysay award for community
leadership.
 1966: Indira Gandhi becomes the first woman Prime Minister of India
 1970: Kamaljit Sandhu becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in the Asian
Games
 1972: Kiran Bedi becomes the first female recruit to join the Indian Police Service.
 1989: Justice M. Fathima Beevi becomes the first woman judge of the Supreme Court
of India.
 November 1997: Kalpana Chawla becomes the first Indian woman to go into Space.
 September 21, 1992: Priya Jhingan becomes the first lady cadet to join the Indian
Army (later commissioned on March 6, 1993)
 2004: Punita Arora becomes the first woman in the Indian Army to don the highest
rank of Lt General.
 2005: Manndhir Rajput, a 34-year-old woman from Ludhiana, Punjab becomes the
first Indian woman to become an engine driver of trains with the New South Wales
Rail Corporation, Australia.
 2007: Pratibha Patil becomes the first woman President of India.

Culture

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Sari (a single piece of a long cloth wound around the body) and salwar kameez are worn by
women all over India. Bindi is part of the women's make-up. Traditionally, it was worn only
by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a part of women's fashion.

Rangoli (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women. Popular
women's magazines include Femina, Grihshobha , vanita, Woman's Era etc.

Education and economic development

According to 1992-93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were female-headed.
However, approximately 35% of the households below the poverty line were found to be
female-headed.

Education

Though it is gradually rising, the female literacy rate in India is lower than the male literacy
rate. Compared to boys, far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop
out. According to the National Sample Survey Data of 1997, only the states of Kerala and
Mizoram have approached universal female literacy rates. According to majority of the
scholars, the major factor behind the improved social and economic status of women in
Kerala is literacy.

Under Non-Formal Education programme, about 40% of the centers in states and 10% of
the centers in UTs are exclusively reserved for females. As of 2000, about 0.3 million NFE
centers were catering to about 7.42 million children, out of which about 0.12 million were
exclusively for girls. Currently, in engineering, medical and other colleges, 30% of the seats
have been reserved for females. In urban india, girls are nearly at par with the boys in
terms of education. However, in rural India girls continue to be less educated than the boys.

According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female
education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of
female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being
depicted as weak and helpless)

Workforce participation

Contrary to the common perception, a large percent of women in India work. The National
data collection agencies accept the fact that there is a serious under-estimation of women's
contribution as workers. However, there are far fewer women in the paid workforce than
there is men.In urban India Women have impressive number in the workforce. As an
example at software industry 30% of the workforce is woman. They are at par with their
male counter parts in terms of wages, position at the work place.

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In rural India, agriculture and allied industrial sectors employ as much as 89.5% of the total
female labour.[28] In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at
55% to 66% of the total labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted
for 93% of total employment in dairy production in India. Women constitute 51% of the
total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.

One of the most famous female business success stories is the Shri Mahila Griha Udyog, the
makers of the Lijjat papad. In 2006, Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw, who started Biocon - one of
India's first biotech companies, was rated India's richest woman. Lalita Gupte and Kalpana
Morparia (both were the only businesswomen in India who made our list of the Forbes
World's Most Powerful Women), run India's second-largest bank, ICICI Bank.

Land and property rights

In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not
get a share of parental property. Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women
continue to have little access to land and property. In fact, some of the laws discriminate
against women, when it comes to land and property rights.

The Hindu personal laws of mid-1956s (applied to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains) gave
women rights to inheritance. However, the sons had an independent share in the ancestral
property, while the daughters' shares were based on the share received by their father.
Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the
ancestral property, but the son will continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally,
married daughters, even those facing marital harassment, had no residential rights in the
ancestral home. After amendment of Hindu laws in 2005, now women in have been
provided the same status as that of men.

In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that Shah Bano, an old divorced Muslim woman
was eligible for maintenance money. However, the decision was vociferously opposed by
fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal
law. The Union Government subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of
Rights upon Divorce) Act.

Similarly, the Christian women have struggled over years for equal rights of divorce and
succession. In 1994, all the churches, jointly with women's organisations, drew up a draft
law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government
has still not amended the relevant laws.

Crimes against women

Police records show high incidence of crimes against women in India. The National Crime
Records Bureau reported in 1998 that the growth rate of crimes against women would be
higher than the population growth rate by 2010. Earlier, many cases were not registered
with the police due to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation cases. Official

9
statistics show that there has been a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes
against women.

Sexual Harassment

Half of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990 related to molestation
and harassment at the workplace. Eve teasing is a euphemism used for sexual harassment
or molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidents of sexual
harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent
Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed to prohibit indecent
representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings,
figures or in any other manner.

In 1997, in a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against
sexual harassment of women in the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed
guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for
Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.

Dowry

In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act, [35] making the dowry
demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related
domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such
cases were reported

In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and
bridegroom) rules were framed. According to these rules, a signed list of presents given at
the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom should be maintained. The list
should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the name of
whoever has given the present and his/her relationship to the person. However, such rules
are hardly enforced.

A 1997 report claimed that at least 5,000 women die each year because of dowry deaths,
and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The term for
this is "bride burning" and is criticized within India itself. Amongst the urban educated,
such dowry abuse has reduced dramatically.

Female infanticides and sex selective abortions

India has a low sex ratio, the chief reason being that many women die before reaching
adulthood. Tribal societies in India have a better sex ratio than all other caste groups. This,
in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower levels of income, literacy and
health facilities.[16] It is therefore suggested by many experts, that the low sex ratio in India
can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions.

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All medical tests that can be used to determine the sex of the child have been banned in
India, due to incidents of these tests being used to get rid of unwanted female children
before birth. Female infanticide (killing of girl infants) is still prevalent in some rural areas.
The abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective
abortions and female infanticides in India.

Domestic violence

The incidents of domestive violence are higher among the lower Socio-Economic Classes
(SECs). There are various instances of an inebriated husband beating up the wife often
leading to severe injuries. Domestic violence is also seen in the form of physical abuse. The
Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into force on October 26,
2006.

Trafficking

The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956. However many cases of
trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. These women are either forced
into prostitution, domestic work or child labor.

Other concerns

Health

The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it
has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, esp. rural ones, the girls
and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and
malnourished.

The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world. Only 42% of births in
the country are supervised by health professionals. Most women deliver with help from
women in the family who often lack the skills and resources to save the mother's life if it is
in danger. According to UNDP Human Development Report (1997), the proportion of
pregnant women (age 15-49 aged) with anemia was found to be as high as 88%.

Family planning

The average Indian woman has little control over her own fertility and reproductive health.
Women, particularly women in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled
methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like
sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilization
accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for
almost 95% of all sterilizations.

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Arts and entertainment

Singers and vocalists such as M.S. Subbulakshmi, Lata Mangeshkar and Asha Bhosle are
widely revered in India. Many actresses such as Aishwarya Rai are highly popular. Anjolie
Ela Menon is a famous painter.

Sports

Although the general sports scenario in India is not very good, some Indian women have
made notable achievements in the field. Some of the famous female sportspersons in Indian
include P. T. Usha (athletics), Kunjarani Devi (weightlifting), Diana Edulji (cricket), Koneru
Hampi (chess) and Sania Mirza (tennis). Karnam Malleswari (weightlifter) is the only
Indian woman to have won an Olympic medal (Bronze medal in 2000).

Politics

Through the Panchayat Raj institutions, over a million women have actively entered
political life in India. As per the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, all local
elected bodies reserve one-third of their seats for women. Although the percentage of
women in various levels of political activity has risen considerably, women are still under-
represented in governance and decision-making positions.

In 2005, the Women's Reservation Bill was passed, providing 33% reservation for women
in Parliament and State Assembly. Some of the notable women leaders in India include
Sushma Swaraj, Vasundhara Raje Scindia, Sheila Dikshit, Jayalalitha, Uma Bharati,
Mayawati, Mamata Banerjee and Sonia Gandhi. On July 25, 2007 the country's ever first
woman president Pratibha Patil was sworn in.

ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIAN SOCIETY

As a woman in India, I find that the society is changing a lot in terms of acceptance of
women as professionals, as bread-earners in families and as independent thinking
individuals. Women have proved themselves as equals in many professions as well as
proved themselves even better suited than men in others. The situation for working
women is improving fast.

On the other hand, in the typical Indian Society, you find that there are still expectations
and assumptions about women that are not so much relevant to their current status, but a
clear hangover from out supressive past. This may be more obvious in rural societies, but it
is extremely prevalent in urban ones as well.

I am speaking of “running the home” kind of stuff. Regardless of how hard the man and
woman of the house work, there are certain areas of the home that are the woman’s
province in happy times and her nemesis in not so happy times.

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“As the woman of the house, you should….” is a familiar refrain for most women in India. I
think it is high time that we as citizens of modern India took a good hard look at our
automatic assumptions and investigated which among these are still applicable today, and
which ones we simply need to let go.

Typical situations we see include the woman bringing a cup of hot tea for her man
returning from work, or the woman returning home after her husband and heading straight
to the kitchen to cook dinner, and so on.

On an average, in any home where women are working, their income is also important to
the well-being of the home and the living standards. Where it is not a question of money, it
is generally possible to employ someone for the work in the house. So when we speak of a
traditional role of a woman being responsible for the efficient running of her home, it is
something we need to be aware of as an additional expectation made from her.

The traditional role of a man has been the one of earning the money for the running of the
home. This has changed to a great extent. Working women contribute to the expenses of
running their homes as well. However, there has been little contribution from men in terms
of shouldering some of the responsibilities of women.

One interesting insight I received into this was from a friend. He said, “See, women find the
outside world challenging and attractive. They like the freedom it brings to them. So they
enter the world. There is no reason for a man to find the women’s traditional role
appealing, so he doesn’t. No one has forced the women to step into the man’s role, and no
one should force the men to step into a woman’s role”

On the surface, this seems to strike sense. However, the flaw lies in an assumption of curent
roles that are the same as traditional roles and that the women are entering “a man’s
territory”. This simply doesn’t hold true in most cases today. Women are educated and
often have their careers well before they get married and it is as much their right as the
man’s work is his. However, the other part, wher ehte men don’t find the house work
appealing enough to invest effort in still holds true.

This is something that needs to be taken an honest assessment of. If we abandon the
traditional perspective of division of responsibilities inside and outside the home (since it
has already been broken in the outside the home area), we come to a situation where the
couple are both inhabiting a home and earning and contrubuting toward its running. What
we need to find is a sharing of responsibilities inside the home as well, that allows both
some dignity.

This would also help resolve many situations where a man feels threatened by a working
woman. Why wouldn’t he. She earns, she spends, she invests, and on top of that, she is
independent in terms of being able to manage her own existence completely, including
running of her own home.

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There is no point pushing the women down. What needs to happen is the removal of the
“un-machoness” associated with responsibilities at home and recognise it as the actions of
a responsible and independent individual, whether male or female. This would actually add
some power to the increasingly “lazy” image of men among women and empower them
with some self-respect, while empowering the women with acceptance and support from
the one source that matters the most.

Please not that I am not speaking of every man out here. There are many couples who are
already on this journey and find themselves comfortable both inside and outside the home,
and the mutual respect and closeness can be seen a mile off in such couples.

I sincerely think that this is an important adaption that is the need of today’s times.

Women in India:

How Much Have Their Lives Changed Since Independence?

 The role of women in India needs to be carefully described within the Indian
context.
 Some Indian wives have been victimized in dowry deaths and bride burnings.
 Indian women are increasing their presence in politics, law, medicine, business and
other public roles.

TEACHER BACKGROUND

Women in India continue to play traditional roles even while changes are occurring.
Many of the ancient attitudes about women can be traced back to the Vedas and other texts.
Although women realize that the circumstances of their lives are changing, many continue to
abide by these values, feeling it gives substance and structure to their lives. 7his tends to be
truer among women in rural areas than among urban women. However, even urban women
usually welcome arranged marriages and wait to move up the hierarchy in their husband's
household. Educated women are making more and more unilateral choices but among the
educated it is accepted that it is appropriate for the family to select a mate rather then
encourage 1ove matches.

Probably the most publicized aspect of women's lives in India today is the two issues of
'bride burning and the recurrence of sati (sutee). 7he government has reacted quickly to these
problems and has been decisive in prosecuting and punishing the wrong-doers. However,
many women's groups feel the government can be even speedier in its actions and these
women continue to bring us issues of bride burning in the press and on Indian YV. 7he last
issue is sex selection among those who can afford tests to determine the sex of the unborn

14
foetus. Many feminists, both in India and throughout the world, register strong indignation at
this practice and cite the lower female birth rate in India.

In discussing the issue of the role women play in modern India as well as their
importance in the entire social and political scheme, it is important that the teacher take a
more leveraged point of view in the classroom. It is very easy (and somewhat biased) to
develop the picture of abuse toward women as exemplified by dowry deaths and female
infanticide. However, on a deeper and more significant level, it is important to examine sex
ratios throughout India to see how a female baby is regarded and treated. These figures show
that female babies can be systematically "overlooked' during the crucial primary years of
their lives. In rural areas it is more likely that boy children will be taken to see the doctor if
there is illness. After all, in rural areas a doctor's visit means that both parents must lose two
to three days work (and wages) because the doctors are only in towns and rural women do
not travel alone through the countryside. It is also more likely that boy children receive a
large portion of food or milk Sex ratios in all the states overwhelmingly indicate that male
children outnumber female children although the number of female children born is greater
than the number of male children. It is also interesting to note schooling figures among young
males and young females In rural districts, females are kept in the house to assist the women
with their endless round of chores while male children are given greater opportunity to
attend school.

It is important to note that these two lessons show many aspects of women's lives,
although it is not all-inclusive. Many of these materials can be used in other lessons or
changed in placement. It is important to remember that the women's issues here are not
all-inclusive nor the most significant. Women’s issues change depending on caste, class,
location, economic background, etc. In dealing with women in India today, as with women
throughout the world, it is important to note that many issues are occurring concurrently as
women change their lives.

Women in India: How Much Have Their Lives Changed Since Independence?

Worksheet 1: Ancient Attitudes toward Women

Indians will often explain their attitude and treatment of women through the
religious texts and in the examples of heroes and heroines from ancient literature.
The following is an excerpt from a 1988 article in the Times of India which was
entitled "Men were Masters."

... 7he Indo-Aryans established a social system in which the father, instead of
the mother, became the head of thefami~y- 7he mother continued to be

15
necessary and important... but she had no independence. She came to perform
her duties as wife, mother and housekeeper within a framework that had been
prepared in advance by the patriarch.

Women were obliged to abide by the laws which had been made by men ...
Vedic society was very largely a society of males, not a society of people.
Women could be admired and respected, no doubt, but such admiration or
respect depended on men and could not be demanded by women in their own
right. No women could live or work for her own sake.

All women had to marry and bear children, particularly male, to achieve
fulfillment.. 7he ancient texts are full of prayers for the birth of a son ... There is
a hymn which says, 'May we possess a family of males. ‘7here is no hymn in any
of the ancient prayers for the birth of a daughter. On the contrary, there are
prayers and ceremonies which seek to prevent the birth of a daughter. In one of
the ancient texts, a king who had 100 wives and no sons and who longed or a
son is told: '7he son is the boat of salvation, a light in the highest heaven. A wife
is a comrade but a daughter is a misery.

The Laws of Manu state:

Her father protects her in childhood,

Her husband protects her in youth,

Her sons protect her in old age –

A woman does not deserve independence.

It continues to state:

She should always be cheerful, In season aid out of

season,

16
 and ski1lful in her domestic duties, her lord, who wed
her with the sacred rites,

With her household vessels well cleaned, ever gives happiness

to his wife

and her hand tight on the purse strings... both here and in the
other world.

Though he be uncouth and prone to pleasure,

though he has no good points at all,

the virtuous wife should ever

worship her lord as a god.

The ideal of the suffering wife and mother is enshrined in classical Indian
literature. Sita, from the Ramayana, serves as the role model for this value. She
never questioned her husband Ram and remained loyal to him even though he
required her to go through an ordeal by fire and later banished her to the forest
when she was pregnant with his twin sons. She is supposed to have said:

Do thou tell the king (Rama) that he is still my last refuge? I do not care for this
body as for his good name. For a woman, her husband is her god, her friend, her
mentor, there his work should he done even at the cost of her life.

 Indian women, like other women, see the good and the bad effects of change in their
status.

Distribute Worksheet 1: Contemporary Indian Women. Read selections aloud with the
class.

-What is the point of view of Susheela Gopalan?

-What is the point of view of Seeta?

17
 -Which do you agree with? Why?

-How do you think these issues can be resolved?

 It is important to realize that many movements are occurring in India to help Indian
women change their status. These movements are often initiated and supported
primarily by women.

Distribute Worksheet 2: Technology Transfer, Grass Roots Solutions and Women's

Self Employment

SUMMARY/APPLICATION

 Women in leadership positions are fairly new both in the Western and non-Western
contemporary world. Many men and women are still reeling from the after effects of the
"Feminine Revolution" and women find themselves espousing many different points of
view.

How Have Women In India Taken the Lead in Changing Their Status?

Worksheet 1: Contemporary Indian Women

(Adapted from An Indian Source Book, Sudha Gogate, 1980, Unit 8, pp. 7)

Although marriage and raising a family are the roles usually associated with women
in India, they are not the only options women have. There are more women doctors in India
per capita than in the United States; more women members of Parliament and more women
lawyers; it was India, not the United States that had a woman Prime Minister for 19 years.
7his statement from Susheela Gapalan indicates how women can pursue roles in politics and
balance their obligations to their families and to the larger society.

Women ought to be in politics, especially the wives of politicians. Only then they
understand why their husbands cannot provide for them, why they go to jail, why they
agitate.

Women should work for the welfare of their sex, because women are still backward
and because they are the worse sufferers in almost any situation.

18
 Being a woman is not a handicap in politics but certainly there are difficulties. A
woman has to think of her children and the care of her home.

The presence of women in politics could be conducive to higher standards in

political life. I have disagreed with Indira Gandhi on certain political issues but I feel that
she achieved what Nehru (her father) with all his prestige could not ... I would say she
raised the standards of political behavior, not lowered them.

How Have Women In India Taken the Lead in Changing Their Status?

Worksheet 2: Technology Transfer, Grass Roots Solutions and Women's Self

Employment (Adapted from "Women and Technology Transfer in India," Jecta Saxena,
77ES Magazine, Sept/Oct 1990, pp. 7-10. Reprinted with permission TIES Magazine,
Trenton State College, NJ)

1. TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: In some cases the introductions of innovative technologies to

assist women have not helped them in their drudgery. For example, solar cookers were
introduced into some villages where women traditionally prepared their food early in the
day to avoid the hot, noonday sun. The use of the solar cookers required the women to be
out in the bright sunlight, a cooking strategy which defeated the original purpose. Other
problems have been created when new technologies, like improved wood stoves, have been
introduced alone rather than as part of changing a system. In many communities stoves are
now lying in a state of disrepair because users have received neither adequate maintenance
training nor support services. If technology training is to be successful, there must be
decision making on the part of the users and those decisions must be based on the user's
needs. Ibis includes education and training

In one agricultural area, women make up to 90 % of the total labor force and
produce 44 % of all the food. Most of these women are employed as low -skill menial
laborers. When the Green Revolution came to India in the late sixties, bringing with it new
technical means of agricultural production, women were excluded from training, partly
because of traditional restrictions on women's education. Since many of the "supervisors"
were Western or Western-educated men, they were unable to interact with women who
were restricted in this area. This mechanization has upgraded some previously "low level"
jobs, making them interesting for men and further reducing the scope and potential for
women's employment. This was true in "cottage industries" also, once predominately a
female field. With the development of factories, women were further restricted because of
poor education and the inaccessibility of the factory from the home ... In fact, the role and

19
status of women has been eroded in several ways. Their lack of education as well as their
exclusion from the process of stating their needs has eroded the status and role of women.

II. GRASSROOTS SOLUTIONS: The picture is not entirely gloomy. A strong women's movement
is gradually emerging in India. Since independence, the Indian government has established
agencies for training women in vocations like handicrafts, carpet-making, weaving,
spice-processing, embroidery and similar work. In this training, the contribution of
voluntary self-help groups is enormous. According to a researcher at WorIdwatch Institute,
about 12,000 self-help groups presently exist in India. The ideal example is the
Self-Employed Women's Association (SEWA) in Ahmedabad. This organization provides
working capital, banking, legal and insurance services for its 20,000 plus members. SEWA
also provides training and has established retail outlets and cooperatives for specialized
crafts and trades.

Defending Motherhood

Female agricultural workers have to work through the ninth month of pregnancy to earn
the daily meal for their families. A woman only comes home when she feels the labor pains
and then returns to work within a week because she needs the money.

SEWA feels that women are providing for the continuity of society, so motherhood
should not be seen as a burden that women alone have to bear. They went to an insurance
company and asked for coverage for the women but were denied because women are
considered a high risk. SEWA then started its own motherhood defense, the Maternity
Benefit Scheme.

Mothers are provided cash for immediate expenditures, lost-work pay, medicines
and nourishment to replenish them after giving birth. The death rate among mothers has
fallen.

Financial Services

Self-employed women face two most common problems: They often have to rent
their tools and they are short of money to buy supplies. They are vulnerable to exploitation
because they frequently must borrow money at high interest rates in order to rent
equipment and buy supplies.

But providing finances to the women was not simple. Banks were reluctant to give
loans to women. Then the women's heavy schedule did not allow them time to reach the
banks during banking hours. It became quite obvious that providing money from the bank
20
was only the beginning. In December, 1973, SEWA decided to create a "bank of their own"
where women would be accepted in their own right and not made to feel inferior. Four
thousand women contributed share capital of 10 rupees each to establish the Shri Mahila
SEWA Sahakari Bank (Women's Cooperative SEWA Bank). Since many of the women were
illiterate and could not even sign their names, they used photographs instead of signatures
as identification. In May, 1974, the SEWA Bank was registered as a cooperative bank.

Since then the bank has shattered the existing myths about banking with poor, illiterate
women and proved to be a viable financial venture. At the end of 1984, SEWA Bank had
20,122 savings accounts (99 % of the holders were illiterate). The loan repayment rate is
more than 98%. 'Me SEWA Bank and Credit Fund made available other support services:
training in money management, counseling in purchase and marketing of goods, legal aid,
maternal protection and life insurance. Through their saving accounts, the banks provide
women a secure and exploitation-free way to control their income.

Women in India Taken the Lead in Changing Their Status?

Worksheet 3: The Leadership Gap: A Challenge to Feminists

It is my hope that this conference will make a breakthrough, remove

some of the road blocks that holds us back from providing our leadership to
society and state, not only in India but the whole world. Or to put it another
way, enable our creativity to play a role in global governance.

I would argue that there is an urgent need to search for a perspective

for the women's movement. We are missing a theory to bind us all together.
This theory has to develop from women's experiences in politics in the
broadest sense - within families, society and the economy. We must stop being
fragmented and suspicious of each other.

From the beginning, we have been an organization of scholars and

activists ... Our journeys as academics and grassroots workers have been
deeply intertwined - learning, complementing each other capabilities, differing
politically but working out the differences. We have found an identity through
our similar but different routes to working for and with women workers of the
poor. .

... Are there special characteristics that make up women's behavior and
that get reflected when women lead? Some suggested characteristics emerged

21
 - non-hierarchical, responsive, mediating, pro-equity. It is important to stress
this difference as a necessary condition before we urge bringing more women
into leadership ... Because I recognize the importance of caste and class
differentiation, of religion-bases differentiation, of other

Changing Role of Women: A Study of Small Manufacturing Enterprises in India

Abstract

Women's position in the labour market is quite vulnerable and they face widespread
discrimination, especially in the informal sector. This position is changing, both
quantitatively and qualitatively, and there is a marked trend towards feminisation of
workforce. This paper focuses on this changing position of women in the informal
manufacturing sector in India over the 1989-2000 periods. The share of women in total
employment is declining in the sectors traditionally labeled for women and increasing in
the non-traditional sectors. Distribution of women employment is becoming more evenly
spread across both activity groups and regions. Widespread casualisation emerges to be a
prominent phenomenon. Poverty, literacy and per capita income are identified as
important determinants of incidence of women employment. In recent years women's
participation seems to be less distress driven. Regulations regarding minimum wage, mass
literacy campaign along with vocational and on the job training are some of the policy
suggestions.

Indian women in the Age of Globalisation

'Impact of WTO on Women in Agriculture', released in January 2005, studies the plight of
rural Indian women through public hearings in Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka and
Bundelkhand. This is the first such assessment of the gender impact of the WTO and the
globalisation of agriculture

'Impact of WTO on Women in Agriculture' is a major study on the

plight of rural Indian women, conducted by Diverse Women for
Diversity -- the gender programme of the Research Foundation of
Science, Technology and Ecology, New Delhi -- for the National
Commission for Women (NCW). NCW chairperson Poornima Advani
(who left office last month) released the report in January 2005,
perhaps the last major work undertaken by the commission under
her guidance.

The research project, conducted in combination with pubic hearings

from various parts of the country, offers an in-depth analysis of the
impact of WTO policies on women in India. The public hearings
focused on issues like the shift of knowledge and control over seeds and biodiversity from
women to multinational corporations and trade liberalisation of agriculture leading to

22
large-scale loss of livelihood, employment and entitlement, and hunger.

The NCW chairperson, in the foreword, points out that the Agreement on Agriculture (AoA),
which is part of the WTO agreement, is unequal and unfair as it allows massive subsidies to
the farm sector in the rich North, leading to the artificial dumping of cheap products on the
poor South, destroying livelihoods and incomes. Advani notes that most farm operations in
India are traditionally women-centred; our food security depends mainly on the work of
women, women's knowledge and women's skills in varied operations like seed-saving,
agricultural production, food processing, local marketing and cooking. Women are the
providers of food and custodians of our crop biodiversity heritage and food diversity.

But this scenario is being undermined and a male-dominated, corporate-oriented new food
culture is being imposed on the country thanks to the new global order under the World
Trade Organisation. The Trade Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPs) agreement
would transfer control over knowledge of seed and biodiversity from rural women to global
corporations, while the corporatised agriculture promoted by the AoA would deprive
women of their livelihoods in food production and food processing.

The study, conducted after public hearings in Punjab, West Bengal, Karnataka and
Bundelkhand, is the first such assessment of the gender impact of the WTO and the
globalisation of agriculture.

The well researched 205-page report has two parts -- the first and overview and the second
case studies and reports on the jan sunwais. It also contains detailed recommendations on
the basis of extensive field studies, besides a 14-point charter of the National Alliance for
Women's Food Rights, comprising various women's organizations that assert that our food
rights as enacted in the Constitution shall be protected under any economic regime and by
all governments, notwithstanding a change in government policies.

The first part makes a study of the pivotal role traditionally played by women in Indian
agriculture and the recent decline in their status mainly due to the shift in policy making
agriculture a commercial operation run along corporate lines.

The impacts are generally categorised into:

 The traditional central role of women in the foodchain, from seed-keeping to food-
making, is being broken with the onset of the globalised food industry led by
multinational giants. This has been ensured through the three major WTO
agreements -- the TRIPs, the AoA and the Sanitary and Phyto Sanitary agreement
(SAP).
 As globalisation shifts agriculture to a capital-intensive chemical-intensive system,
women bear the disproportionate costs of both displacement and health hazards.
 Women carry the heavier work burden in food production, but because of gender
discrimination they get lower returns for their work. When the WTO destroys rural

23
 livelihoods it is women who lose the most. When the WTO allows dumping, which
leads to a drop in farm product prices, women is hit the hardest because their
incomes go down further.
 As the income of farmers in general and women in particular are eroded they are
displaced from productive roles, and the patriarchal power system that controls the
assets further erodes the status of women leading to their marginalisation and
increased violence against them.

The study makes a detailed analysis of patterns of violence against women across the
country, over the past few years, and finds that there has been a spurt in the various forms
of violence against women like rape, female foeticide, and dowry deaths and trafficking in
women, etc, as the impact of shifts in the rural economy is felt. It also points out that women
are the ultimate sufferers of increased incidents of farm suicides as they are left to look
after the household with no assets and the burden of indebtedness on their shoulders.

All these four aspects are taken up in detail, with case studies and data analysis, which
brings the conclusion that there is urgent need for specific action programmes focusing on
women. Studies prove that, in the past five to seven years, there has been a steady decline in
employment opportunities in the rural sector ranging from 20% to as much as 77%. This
has resulted in men migrating to other areas in search of work, leaving a lot of the farm
operations to women who are paid much less for their work, often less than half of what
men get.

The average daily wage for a farm worker across India is as follows: Haryana: Male Rs 50-
60, female Rs 25-30; Saharanpur (UP): Male Rs 60, female Rs 35-40; North 24 Parganas
(WB): Male Rs 40 (six-hour work), female Rs 25 (six-hour work); Andhra Pradesh: Male Rs
40-50, female Rs 25-30.

Another impact of the commercialisation of agriculture is increased consumerism even

among rural households, leading to aggressive demands for dowry both in the form of cash
and assets. A study on women's land rights in West Bengal found that 39.9% of households
surveyed had sold land to raise money to pay dowry. It also found that of these families,
79% were Muslims (a community that does not traditionally practise dowry) showing how
deeply the practice entrenched has become.

The introduction of herbicides and weedicides, as part of commercial farm operations, has
badly affected women, as they have a monopoly over weeding and hoeing. Women farm
workers are also more exposed to health hazards like gynaecological infections, arthritis,
and intestinal and parasitic infections, with no medical allowances for treatment, due to the
increased use of ago-chemicals.

Instead of helping women, new technologies in the farm sector are working to their
disadvantage. For example, the introduction of biological technologies to develop high-
yielding varieties and tissue culture technology are robbing women employed in farm
nurseries of their jobs. This is a process that will only worsen in the coming days, the report

24
says.

The study looks at various farm sectors and sees the disastrous impact of globalisation
everywhere. In the plantation sector, it says, tea plantation workers in Kerala, West Bengal
and Tamil Nadu are facing starvation following the closure of several small and medium
plantations. The reasons: unrestricted imports and a sharp decline in international tea
prices.

A substantial part of farm operations in Kerala involves various types of plantations

including tea, rubber and coconuts. Ever since economic liberalisation became the
development mantra, the report states, Kerala has been at the receiving end. Flooded with
cheap, highly subsidised agricultural imports, Kerala's agrarian economy has been thrown
out of gear. Whether it is imports of palm oil, rubber, coffee or tea, almost every aspect of
the state's socio-economy has been negatively impacted.

The report paints a gloomy picture and insists there is urgent need to review our policies
and re-work our strategies to stop a disaster from happening in the Indian countryside.
Sabitri, a woman from Bhelwara village in Bishnugarh, Madhya Pradesh, sums up the rural
Indian experience in the following words: " K het kharab ho gaya," she says , "labh ke liye
purana dhan dhod diya." (Our fields are now spoilt. For profit, people have thrown out our
ancient assets.)

This is a sentiment echoed at all the jan sunwais, whether in Punjab in the north, Bengal in
east, Karnataka in the south or Bundelkhand in middle India.

25