Austronesian Languages PDF

4/21/2020 Austronesian languages - Wikipedia
Austronesian languages
The Austronesian languages (/ˌɒstroʊˈniːʒən/, /ˌɒstrə/, /ˌɔːstroʊ-/, /ˌɔːstrə-/) are a language
Austronesian
family widely spoken throughout Taiwan, the Malay Peninsula,[2] Maritime Southeast Asia,
Madagascar and the islands of the Pacific Ocean. There are also a few speakers in continental Asia.[3] Ethnicity Austronesian peoples
They are spoken by about 386 million people (4.9% of the world population). This makes it the fifth- Geographic Malay Peninsula, Maritime
largest language family by number of speakers. Major Austronesian languages include Malay distribution Southeast Asia, Madagascar
(Indonesian and Malaysian), Javanese, and Tagalog (Filipino). According to some estimates, the and parts of Mainland
family contains 1,257 languages, which is the second most of any language family.[4] Southeast Asia, Oceania,
In 1706, the Dutch scholar Adriaan Reland first observed similarities between the languages spoken Easter Island and Taiwan
in the Malay Archipelago and by peoples on islands in the Pacific Ocean.[5] In the 19th century, Linguistic One of the world's primary
researchers (e.g. Wilhelm von Humboldt, Herman van der Tuuk) started to apply the comparative classification language families
method to the Austronesian languages. The first extensive study on the history of the sound system
Proto- Proto-Austronesian
was made by the German linguist Otto Dempwolff.[6] It included a reconstruction of the Proto-
language
Austronesian lexicon. The term Austronesian was coined by Wilhelm Schmidt. The word is derived
from the German austronesisch, which is based on Latin auster "south wind" and Greek νῆσος Subdivisions Rukai
"island").[7] Tsouic
The family is aptly named, because most Austronesian languages are spoken by island dwellers. Only Puyuma
a few languages, such as Malay and the Chamic languages, are indigenous to mainland Asia. Many Northwest Formosan
Austronesian languages have very few speakers, but the major Austronesian languages are spoken by Western Plains
tens of millions of people. For example, Malay is spoken by 250 million people. This makes it the
eighth most-spoken language in the world. Approximately twenty Austronesian languages are official Atayalic
in their respective countries (see the list of major and official Austronesian languages). East Formosan
Bunun
By the number of languages they include, Austronesian and Niger–Congo are the two largest language
families in the world. They each contain roughly one-fifth of the world's languages. The geographical Paiwan
span of Austronesian was the largest of any language family before the spread of Indo-European in Malayo-Polynesian
the colonial period. It ranged from Madagascar off the southeastern coast of Africa to Easter Island in
ISO 639-2 / 5 map
the eastern Pacific. Hawaiian, Rapa Nui, Maori, and Malagasy (spoken on Madagascar) are the
geographic outliers. Glottolog aust1307 (http://glottolog.org/
resource/languoid/id/aust1307)[1]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austronesian_languages 1/27
According to Robert Blust (1999), Austronesian is divided into several primary branches, all but one
of which are found exclusively in Taiwan. The Formosan languages of Taiwan are grouped into as
many as nine first-order subgroups of Austronesian. All Austronesian languages spoken outside
Taiwan (including its offshore Yami language) belong to the Malayo-Polynesian branch. These are
sometimes called Extra-Formosan.
Most Austronesian languages lack a long history of written attestation. This makes reconstructing
earlier stages—up to distant Proto-Austronesian—all the more remarkable. The oldest inscription in
the Cham language, the Đông Yên Châu inscription dated to the mid-6th century AD at the latest, is Distribution of Austronesian languages
the first attestation of any Austronesian language.
Contents
Typological characteristics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Lexicon
Classification
Malayo-Polynesian
Primary branches on Taiwan (Formosan languages)
Blust (1999)
Li (2008)
Ross (2009)
Major languages
History
Hypothesized relations
Austric
Austro-Tai
Sino-Austronesian
Japanese
Ongan
Writing systems
Comparison charts
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
External links
Typological characteristics
Phonology
The Austronesian languages overall possess phoneme inventories which are smaller than the world average. Around 90% of the Austronesian
languages have inventories of 19-25 sounds (15-20 consonants and 4-5 vowels), thus lying at the lower end of the global typical range of 20-37
sounds. However, extreme inventories are also found, such as Nemi (New Caledonia) with 43 consonants, or Northwest Mekeo (Papua New Guinea)
with only 7 consonants.[8]
The canonical root type in Proto-Austronesian is disyllabic with the shape CV(C)CVC (C = consonant; V = vowel), and is still found in many
Austronesian languages.[9] In most languages, consonant clusters are only allowed in medial position, and often, there are restrictions for the first
element of the cluster.[10] There is a common drift to reduce the number of consonants which can appear in final position, e.g. Buginese, which only
allows the two consonants /ŋ/ and /ʔ/ as finals, out of a total number of 18 consonants. Complete absence of final consonants is observed e.g. in
Nias, Malagasy and many Oceanic languages.[11]
Unlike in the languages of Mainland Southeast Asia, tonal contrasts are extremely rare in Austronesian languages.[12] Exceptional cases of tonal
languages are Moklen and a few languages of the Chamic, South Halmahera–West New Guinea and New Caledonian subgroups.[13]
Morphology
Most Austronesian languages are agglutinative languages, i.e. they have a relatively high number of affixes and clear morpheme boundaries.[14]
Most affixes are prefixes (e.g. Malay ber-jalan "walk" < jalan "road"), next to a smaller number of suffixes (e.g. Tagalog titis-án "ash tray" < títis
"ash") and infixes (e.g. Roviana t<in>avete "work (noun)" < tavete "to work").[15]
Reduplication is commonly employed in Austronesian languages. This includes full reduplication (e.g. Malay anak-anak "children" ´< anak "child";
Karo Batak nipe-nipe "caterpillar" < nipe "snake") or partial reduplication (e.g. Agta taktakki "legs" < takki "leg", at-atu "puppy" < atu "dog").[16]
Syntax
It is difficult to make generalizations about the languages that make up a family as diverse as Austronesian. Very
broadly, one can divide the Austronesian languages into three groups: Philippine-type languages, Indonesian-
type languages and post-Indonesian type languages:[17]
The first group includes, besides the languages of the Philippines, the Austronesian languages of Taiwan,
Sabah, North Sulawesi and Madagascar. It is primarily characterized by the retention of the original system Banknote for 5 dollars, Hawaii, circa
of Philippine-type voice alternations, where typically three or four verb voices determine which semantic role 1839, using Hawaiian language
the "subject"/"topic" expresses (it may express either the actor, the patient, the location and the beneficiary,
or various other circumstantial roles such as instrument and concomitant). The phenomenon has frequently
been referred to as focus (not to be confused with the usual sense of that term in linguistics). Furthermore,
the choice of voice is influenced by the definiteness of the participants. The word order has a strong tendency to be verb-initial.
In contrast, the more innovative Indonesian-type languages, which are particularly represented in Malaysia and western Indonesia, have
reduced the voice system to a contrast between only two voices (actor voice and "undergoer" voice), but these are supplemented by applicative
morphological devices (originally two: the more direct *-i and more oblique *-an/-[a]kən), which serve to modify the semantic role of the
"undergoer". They are also characterized by the presence of preposed clitic pronouns. Unlike the Philippine type, these languages mostly tend
towards verb-second word-orders. A number of languages, such as the Batak languages, Old Javanese, Balinese, Sasak and several Sulawesi
languages seem to represent an intermediate stage between these two types.[18][19]
Finally, in some languages, which Ross calls "post-Indonesian", the original voice system has broken down completely and the voice-marking
affixes no longer preserve their functions.
Lexicon
The Austronesian language family has been established by the linguistic comparative method on the basis of cognate sets, sets of words similar in
sound and meaning which can be shown to be descended from the same ancestral word in Proto-Austronesian according to regular rules. Some
cognate sets are very stable. The word for eye in many Austronesian languages is mata (from the most northerly Austronesian languages, Formosan
languages such as Bunun and Amis all the way south to Māori). Other words are harder to reconstruct. The word for two is also stable, in that it
appears over the entire range of the Austronesian family, but the forms (e.g. Bunun dusa; Amis tusa; Māori rua) require some linguistic expertise
to recognise. The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database gives word lists (coded for cognateness) for approximately 1000 Austronesian
languages.[20]
Classification
The internal structure of the Austronesian languages is complex. The family consists of many similar and
closely related languages with large numbers of dialect continua, making it difficult to recognize
boundaries between branches. The first major step towards high-order subgrouping was Dempwolff's
recognition of the Oceanic subgroup (called Melanesisch by Dempwolff).[6] The special position of the
languages of Taiwan was first recognized by André-Georges Haudricourt (1965),[21] who divided the
Austronesian languages into three subgroups: Northern Austronesian (= Formosan), Eastern
Austronesian (= Oceanic), and Western Austronesian (all remaining languages).
In a study that represents the first lexicostatistical classification of the Austronesian languages, Isidore
Dyen (1965) presented a radically different subgrouping scheme.[22] He posited 40 first-order subgroups,
with the highest degree of diversity found in the area of Melanesia. The Oceanic languages are not Distribution of the Austronesian languages,
recognized, but are distributed over more than 30 of his proposed first-order subgroups. Dyen's per Blust (1999)
classification was widely criticized and for the most part rejected,[23] but several of his lower-order
subgroups are still accepted (e.g. the Cordilleran languages, the Bilic languages or the Murutic languages).
Subsequently, the position of the Formosan languages as the most archaic group of Austronesian languages was recognized by Otto Christian Dahl
(1973),[24] followed by proposals from other scholars that the Formosan languages actually make up more than one first-order subgroup of
Austronesian. Robert Blust (1977) first presented the subgrouping model which is currently accepted by virtually all scholars in the field,[25] with
more than one first-order subgroup on Taiwan, and a single first-order branch encompassing all Austronesian languages spoken outside of Taiwan,
viz. Malayo-Polynesian.
Malayo-Polynesian
The Malayo-Polynesian languages are—among other things—characterized by certain sound changes, such as the mergers of Proto-Austronesian
(PAN) *t/*C to Proto-Malayo-Polynesian (PMP) *t, and PAN *n/*N to PMP *n, and the shift of PMP *S to PAN *h.[26]
There appear to have been two great migrations of Austronesian languages that quickly covered large areas, resulting in multiple local groups with
little large-scale structure. The first was Malayo-Polynesian, distributed across the Philippines, Indonesia, and Melanesia. The second migration was
that of the Oceanic languages into Polynesia and Micronesia.[27]
Primary branches on Taiwan (Formosan languages)
In addition to Malayo-Polynesian, thirteen Formosan subgroups are broadly accepted. The seminal article in the classification of Formosan—and, by
extension, the top-level structure of Austronesian—is Blust (1999). Prominent Formosanists (linguists who specialize in Formosan languages) take
issue with some of its details, but it remains the point of reference for current linguistic analyses. Debate centers primarily around the relationships
between these families. Of the classifications presented here, Blust (1999) links two families into a Western Plains group, two more in a
Northwestern Formosan group, and three into an Eastern Formosan group, while Li (2008) also links five families into a Northern Formosan group.
Ross (2009) splits Tsouic, and notes that Tsou, Rukai, and Puyuma fall outside of reconstructions of Proto-Austronesian.
Other studies have presented phonological evidence for a reduced Paiwanic family of Paiwanic, Puyuma, Bunun, Amis, and Malayo-Polynesian, but
this is not reflected in vocabulary. The Eastern Formosan peoples Basay, Kavalan, and Amis share a homeland motif that has them coming
originally from an island called Sinasay or Sanasay (Li 2004). The Amis, in particular, maintain that they came from the east, and were treated by
the Puyuma, amongst whom they settled, as a subservient group.[28]
Blust (1999)
(clockwise from the southwest)
Tsouic (Formosan)
Tsou language
Saaroa language
Kanakanabu language
Western Plains (Formosan)
Thao language a.k.a. Sao: Brawbaw and Shtafari dialects
Central Western Plains
Babuza language; old Favorlang language: Taokas and Poavosa dialects
Papora-Hoanya language: Papora, Hoanya dialects
Northwest Formosan
Saisiyat language: Taai and Tungho dialects
Pazeh language a.k.a. Kulun
Families of Formosan languages before
Atayalic (Formosan)
Minnanese colonization of Taiwan, per
Atayal language Blust (1999)
Seediq language a.k.a. Truku/Taroko
East Formosan
Northern (Kavalanic languages)

Basay language: Trobiawa and Linaw–Qauqaut dialects
Kavalan language
Ketagalan language, or Ketangalan
Central (Ami)
Amis proper
Sakizaya
Siraya language
Bunun language (Formosan)
Rukai language (Formosan)
Mantauran, Tona, and Maga dialects of Rukai are divergent
Puyuma language (Formosan)
Paiwan language (south-eastern tip of Formosa)
(outside Formosa)
Malayo-Polynesian
Li (2008)
This classification retains Blust's East Formosan, and unites the other northern languages. Li (2008) proposes a Proto-Formosan (F0) ancestor and
equates it with Proto-Austronesian (PAN), following the model in Starosta (1995).[29] Rukai and Tsouic are seen as highly divergent, although the
position of Rukai is highly controversial.[30]
F0: Proto-Formosan = Proto-Austronesian

Rukai
Mantauran
Maga–Tona, Budai–Labuan–Taromak
F1: (unnamed branch)

Central (Tsouic)
Tsou
Southern Tsouic
Saaroa
Kanakanabu
F2: (unnamed branch)
Northern Formosan
Northwestern (Plains)
Saisiyat–Kulon–Pazeh
Western
Thao
West Coast (Papora–Hoanya–Babuza–Taokas)
Atayalic
Squliq Atayal Families of Formosan languages before
Minnanese colonization, per Li (2008).
Ts'ole' Atayal (= C'uli')
The three languages in green (Bunun,
Seediq Puyuma, Paiwan) may form a Southern
East Formosan Formosan branch, but this is uncertain.
Kavalan–Basay
Siraya–Amis–Nataoran
Sakizaya
? Southern [uncertain]
Bunun
Isbukun
Northern and Central (Takitudu and Takbanuaz)
Paiwan–Puyuma [uncertain]
Ross (2009)
In 2009, Malcolm Ross proposed a new classification of the Formosan language family based on morphological evidence from various Formosan
languages.[31] He proposed that the current reconstructions for Proto-Austronesian actually correspond to an intermediate stage, which he terms
"Proto-Nuclear Austronesian". Notably, Ross' classification does not support the unity of the Tsouic languages, instead considering the Southern
Tsouic languages of Kanakanavu and Saaroa to be a separate branch. This supports Chang's (2006) claim that Tsouic is not a valid group.[32]
Formosan
Rukai
(Mantauran and Tona–Maga dialects are divergent)

Puyuma
Tsou
Nuclear Austronesian
Subdivisions not addressed, apart from Saaroa–Kanakanabu being separate from Tsou.
Major languages
History
From the standpoint of historical linguistics, the place of origin (in linguistic terminology, Urheimat) of the Austronesian languages (Proto-
Austronesian language) is most likely the main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa; on this island the deepest divisions in Austronesian are
found, among the families of the native Formosan languages.
According to Robert Blust, the Formosan languages form nine of the ten primary branches of the Austronesian language family (Blust 1999). Comrie
(2001:28) noted this when he wrote:
... the internal diversity among the... Formosan languages... is greater than that in all the rest of Austronesian put together, so there is a
major genetic split within Austronesian between Formosan and the rest... Indeed, the genetic diversity within Formosan is so great that
it may well consist of several primary branches of the overall Austronesian family.
At least since Sapir (1968), linguists have generally accepted that the
chronology of the dispersal of languages within a given language family
can be traced from the area of greatest linguistic variety to that of the
least. For example, English in North America has large numbers of
speakers, but relatively low dialectal diversity, while English in Great
Britain has much higher diversity; such low linguistic variety by Sapir's
thesis suggests a more recent origin of English in North America.
While some scholars suspect that the number of principal branches
among the Formosan languages may be somewhat less than Blust's
estimate of nine (e.g. Li 2006), there is little contention among
linguists with this analysis and the resulting view of the origin and
direction of the migration. For a recent dissenting analysis, see (Peiros
2004). The protohistory of the Austronesian people can be traced Map of the Austronesian expansion. Periods are based on archeological studies,
farther back through time. To get an idea of the original homeland of though the association of the archeological record and linguistic reconstructions is
the populations ancestral to the Austronesian peoples (as opposed to disputed.
strictly linguistic arguments), evidence from archaeology and
population genetics may be adduced. Studies from the science of
genetics have produced conflicting outcomes. Some researchers find evidence for a proto-Austronesian homeland on the Asian mainland (e.g.,
Melton et al. 1998), while others mirror the linguistic research, rejecting an East Asian origin in favor of Taiwan (e.g., Trejaut et al. 2005).
Archaeological evidence (e.g., Bellwood 1997) is more consistent, suggesting that the ancestors of the Austronesians spread from the South Chinese
mainland to Taiwan at some time around 8,000 years ago. Evidence from historical linguistics suggests that it is from this island that seafaring
peoples migrated, perhaps in distinct waves separated by millennia, to the entire region encompassed by the Austronesian languages (Diamond
2000). It is believed that this migration began around 6,000 years ago (Blust 1999). However, evidence from historical linguistics cannot bridge the
gap between those two periods. The view that linguistic evidence connects Austronesian languages to the Sino-Tibetan ones, as proposed for
example by Sagart (2002), is a minority one. As Fox (2004:8) states:
Implied in... discussions of subgrouping [of Austronesian languages] is a broad consensus that the homeland of the Austronesians was in
Taiwan. This homeland area may have also included the P'eng-hu (Pescadores) islands between Taiwan and China and possibly even
sites on the coast of mainland China, especially if one were to view the early Austronesians as a population of related dialect
communities living in scattered coastal settlements.
Linguistic analysis of the Proto-Austronesian language stops at the western shores of Taiwan; any related mainland language(s) have not survived.
The only exceptions, the Chamic languages, derive from more recent migration to the mainland (Thurgood 1999:225).
Hypothesized relations
Genealogical links have been proposed between Austronesian and various families of East and Southeast Asia.
Austric
A link with the Austroasiatic languages in an 'Austric' phylum is based mostly on typological evidence. However, there is also morphological
evidence of a connection between the conservative Nicobarese languages and Austronesian languages of the Philippines.
Austro-Tai
A competing Austro-Tai proposal linking Austronesian and Kra-Dai was first proposed by Paul K. Benedict, and is supported by Weera Ostapirat,
Roger Blench, and Laurent Sagart, based on the traditional comparative method. Ostapirat (2005) proposes a series of regular correspondences
linking the two families and assumes a primary split, with Kra-Dai speakers being the Austronesians who stayed behind in their Chinese homeland.
Blench (2004) suggests that, if the connection is valid, the relationship is unlikely to be one of two sister families. Rather, he suggests that proto-
Kra-Dai speakers were Austronesians who migrated to Hainan Island and back to the mainland from the northern Philippines, and that their
distinctiveness results from radical restructuring following contact with Hmong–Mien and Sinitic. An extended version of Austro-Tai was
hypothesized by Benedict who added the Japonic languages to the proposal as well.[33]
Sino-Austronesian
French linguist and Sinologist Laurent Sagart considers the Austronesian languages to be related to the Sino-Tibetan languages, and also groups the
Kra–Dai languages as more closely related to the Malayo-Polynesian languages.[34] He also groups the Austronesian languages in a recursive-like
fashion, placing Kra-Dai as a sister branch of Malayo-Polynesian. His methodology has been found to be spurious by his peers.[35][36]
Japanese
Several linguists have proposed that Japanese is genetically related to the Austronesian family, cf. Benedict (1990), Matsumoto (1975), Miller
(1967).
Some other linguists think it is more plausible that Japanese is not genetically related to the Austronesian languages, but instead was influenced by
an Austronesian substratum or adstratum. Those who propose this scenario suggest that the Austronesian family once covered the islands to the
north as well as to the south. Martine Robbeets (2017)[37] claims that Japanese genetically belongs to the "Transeurasian" (= Macro-Altaic)
languages, but underwent lexical influence from "para-Austronesian", a presumed sister language of Proto-Austronesian. The linguist Ann Kumar
(2009) proposed that some Austronesians migrated to Japan, possibly an elite-group from Java, and created the Japanese-hierarchical society and
identifies 82 plausible cognates between Austronesian and Japanese.[38]
Ongan
Blevins (2007) proposed that the Austronesian and the Ongan protolanguage are the descendants of an Austronesian–Ongan protolanguage.[39] But
this view is not supported by mainstream linguists and remains very controversial. Robert Blust rejects Blevins' proposal as far-fetched and based
solely on chance resemblances and methodologically flawed comparisons.[40]
Writing systems
Most Austronesian languages have Latin-based writing systems today. Some non-Latin-based writing systems are
listed below.
Brahmi script
Kawi script
Balinese alphabet - used to write Balinese and Sasak.
Batak alphabet - used to write several Batak languages.
Baybayin - used to write Tagalog and several Philippine languages. Sign in Balinese and Latin script
at a Hindu temple in Bali
Bima alphabet - once used to write the Bima language.
Buhid alphabet - used to write Buhid language.
Hanunó'o alphabet - used to write Hanuno'o language.
Javanese alphabet - used to write the Javanese language and several neighbouring languages like
Madurese.
Kerinci alphabet (Kaganga) - used to write the Kerinci language.
Kulitan alphabet - used to write the Kapampangan language.
Manuscript from early 1800s
Lampung alphabet - used to write Lampung and Komering. using Batak alphabet
Lontara alphabet - used to write the Buginese, Makassarese and several languages of Sulawesi.
Sundanese alphabet - used to write the Sundanese language.
Rejang alphabet - used to write the Rejang language.
Rencong alphabet - once used to write the Malay language.
Tagbanwa alphabet - once used to write various Palawan languages.
Lota alphabet - used to write the Ende-Li'o language.
Cham alphabet - used to write Cham language.
Arabic script
Pegon alphabet - used to write Javanese, Sundanese and Madurese as well as several smaller neighbouring languages.
Jawi alphabet - used to write Malay, Acehnese, Banjar, Minangkabau, Tausug, Western Cham and others.
Sorabe alphabet - once used to write several dialects of Malagasy language.
Hangul - once used to write the Cia-Cia language but the project is no longer active.
Dunging - used to write the Iban language but it was not widely used.
Avoiuli - used to write the Raga language.
Eskayan - used to write the Eskayan language, a secret language based on Boholano.
Woleai script (Caroline Island script) - used to write the Carolinian language (Refaluwasch).
Rongorongo - possibly used to write the Rapa Nui language.
Braille - used in Filipino, Malaysian, Indonesian, Tolai, Motu, Māori, Samoan, Malagasy, and many other Austronesian languages.
Comparison charts
Below are two charts comparing list of numbers of 1-10 and thirteen words in Austronesian languages; spoken in Taiwan, the Philippines, the
Mariana Islands, Indonesia, Malaysia, Chams or Champa (in Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam), East Timor, Papua, New Zealand, Hawaii,
Madagascar, Borneo and Tuvalu.
Comparison chart-numerals
Austronesian List
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
of Numbers 1-10
*əsa
Proto-Austronesian *duSa *təlu *Səpat *lima *ənəm *pitu *walu *Siwa *(sa-)puluq
*isa
Formosan
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
languages
Atayal qutux sazing cyugal payat magal mtzyu mpitu mspat mqeru mopuw
Seediq kingal daha teru sepac rima mmteru mpitu mmsepac mngari maxal
Truku kingal dha tru spat rima mataru empitu maspat mngari maxal
Thao taha tusha turu shpat tarima katuru pitu kashpat tanathu makthin
Papora tanu nya tul pat lima minum pitu mehal mesi metsi
Babuza nata naroa natura naspat nahop naitu naito natap maitu tsihet
Taokas tatanu rua tool'a lapat hasap tahap yuweto mahalpat tanaso tais'id
Pazeh adang dusa tu'u supat xasep xasebuza xasebidusa xasebitu'u xasebisupat isit
Saisiyat 'aeihae' roSa' to:lo' Sopat haseb SayboSi: SayboSi: 'aeihae' maykaSpat hae'hae' lampez
Tsou coni yuso tuyu sʉptʉ eimo nomʉ pitu voyu sio maskʉ
Bunun tasʔa dusa tau paat hima nuum pitu vau siva masʔan
Rukai itha drusa tulru supate lrima eneme pitu valru bangate pulruku
Paiwan ita drusa tjelu sepatj lima enem pitju alu siva tapuluq
Puyuma isa zuwa telu pat lima unem pitu walu iwa pulu'
Kavalan usiq uzusa utulu uspat ulima unem upitu uwalu usiwa rabtin
Basay tsa lusa tsu səpat tsjima anəm pitu wasu siwa labatan
Amis cecay tosa tolo spat lima enem pito falo siwa mo^tep
Sakizaya cacay tosa tolo sepat lima enem pito walo siwa cacay a bataan
Siraya sasaat duha turu tapat tu-rima tu-num pitu pipa kuda keteng
Taivoan tsaha' ruha toho paha' hima lom kito' kipa' matuha kaipien
Makatao na-saad ra-ruha ra-ruma ra-sipat ra-lima ra-hurum ra-pito ra-haru ra-siwa ra-kaitian
Yami asa dora atlo apat lima anem pito wao siyam poo
Qauqaut is zus dor sop rim ən pit ar siu tor

Malayo-
Polynesian 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
languages
Proto-Malayo- *əsa
*duha *təlu *əpat *lima *ənəm *pitu *walu *siwa *puluq
Polynesian *isa
sifar
Acehnese sa duwa lhee peuet limong nam tujoh lapan sikureueng siploh
soh
Balinesea dasa
besik
nul dua telu papat lime nenem pitu kutus sia
siki
Banjar asa dua talu ampat lima anam pitu walu sanga sapuluh
Batak, Toba sada dua tolu opat lima onom pitu ualu sia sampulu
Buginese ceddi dua tellu empa lima enneng pitu arua asera seppulo
dise rua walu
Cia-Cia tolu pa'a lima no'o picu siua ompulu
ise ghua oalu
Cham sa dua klau pak lima nam tujuh dalapan salapan sapluh
Javanese
sunya dasa
(Kawi)b[41] eka dwi tri catur panca sad sapta asta nawa
sa
Old Javanese[42] das rwa tĕlu pāt lima nĕm pitu walu sanga sapuluh
(sa' / sak)
Javanese (Krama) nol setunggal kalih tiga sekawan gangsal enem pitu wolu sanga sedasa
Javanese loro from

siji from
nol ka-rwa (ka- telu papat lima enem pitu wolu sanga sepuluh
(Ngoko)[43] sahiji
ro)
Kelantan-Pattani kosong so duwo tigo pak limo ne tujoh lape smile spuloh
Madurese nol settong dhuwa' tello' empa' lema' ennem petto' ballu' sanga' sapolo
lobbang
Makassarese se're rua tallu appa' lima annang tuju sangantuju salapang sampulo
nolo'
Standard Malay kosong sa/se

delapan
(both Indonesian sifar[44] satu dua tiga[47][48] empat lima[49] enam tujuh sembilan sepuluh
lapan[50]
and Malaysian) nol[45] suatu[46]
Minangkabau ciek duo tigo ampek limo anam tujuah salapan sambilan sapuluah
chewaj
teloj waloj
Moken cha:? thuwa:? pa:t lema:? nam luɟuːk (cʰɛwaːy / cepoh
(təlɔy) (walɔy)
sɛwaːy)
Rejang do duai tlau pat lêmo num tujuak dêlapên sêmbilan sêpuluak
Sasak sekek due telo empat lime enam pituk baluk siwak sepulu
Sundanese nol hiji dua tilu opat lima genep tujuh dalapan salapan sapuluh
Terengganu Malay kosong se duwe tige pak lime nang tujoh lapang smilang spuloh
Tetun nol ida rua tolu hat lima nen hitu ualu sia sanulu
sa˧ *
Tsat (HuiHui)c tʰua˩ kiə˧ pa ma˧ naːn su˥ paːn tʰu˩ paːn piu˥
ta˩ **
There are two forms for numbers 'one' in Tsat (Hui Hui; Hainan Cham) :
^* The word sa˧ is used for serial counting.
^** The word ta˩ is used with hundreds and thousands and before qualifiers.
ibbong
Ilocano maysa dua tallo uppat lima innem pito walo siam sangapulo
awan
Ibanag awan tadday duwa tallu appa' lima annam pitu walu siyam mafulu
Pangasinan sakey duwa talo apat lima anem pito walo siyam samplo
metung/
Kapampangan ala adua atlu apat lima anam pitu walu siyam apulu
isa'
Tagalog walâ isá dalawá tatló apat limá anim pitó waló siyám sampû
Bikol wara sarô duwá tuló apat limá anom pitó waló siyám sampulû
isaea
Aklanon uwa daywa tatlo ap-at lima an-om pito waeo siyam napueo
sambilog
Karay-a wara (i)sara darwa tatlo apat lima anəm pito walo siyam napulo
Onhan isya darwa tatlo upat lima an-om pito walo siyam sampulo
Romblomanon isa duha tuyo upat lima onum pito wayo siyam napuyo
isad duwa
Masbatenyo tulo upat lima unom pito walo siyam napulo
usad duha
Hiligaynon wala isa duha tatlo apat lima anom pito walo siyam napulo
Cebuano wala usa duha tulo upat lima unom pito walo siyam napulo
pulo
Waray waray usa duha tulo upat lima unom pito walo siyam napulò
Tausug sipar isa duwa tū upat lima unum pitu walu siyam hangpu'
Maranao isa dua telu pat lima nem pitu ualu siau sapulu'
Benuaq (Dayak
eray duaq toluu opaat limaq jawatn turu walo sie sepuluh
Benuaq)
Lun Bawang/ na luk
eceh dueh teluh epat limeh enem tudu' waluh liwa' pulu'
Lundayeh dih
Dusun aiso iso duo tolu apat limo onom turu walu siam hopod
isa
Malagasy aotra roa telo efatra dimy enina fito valo sivy folo
iray
Sangirese (Sangir-
sembau darua tatelu epa lima eneng pitu walu sio mapulo
Minahasan)
Oceanic
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
languagesd
Fijian saiva dua rua tolu vaa lima ono vitu walu ciwa tini
Hawaiian 'ole 'e-kahi 'e-lua 'e-kolu 'e-hā 'e-lima 'e-ono 'e-hiku 'e-walu 'e-iwa 'umi
Kiribati akea teuana uoua tenua aua nimaua onoua itua wanua ruaiwa tebwina
tekau
Māori kore tahi rua toru whā rima ono whitu waru iwa
ngahuru
Marshallese[51] o̧o juon ruo jilu emān ļalem jiljino jimjuon ralitōk ratimjuon jon̄oul
Motue[52] ta rua toi hani ima tauratoi hitu taurahani taurahani-ta gwauta
Niuean nakai taha ua tolu fā lima ono fitu valu hiva hogofulu
Rapanui tahi rua toru hā rima ono hitu va'u iva angahuru
Rarotongan Māori kare ta'i rua toru 'ā rima ono 'itu varu iva nga'uru
Rotuman ta rua folu hake lima ono hifu vạlu siva saghulu
Sāmoan o tasi lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva sefulu
Sāmoan
o kasi lua kolu fa lima ogo fiku valu iva sefulu
(K-type)
Tahitian hō'ē piti toru maha pae ōno hitu va'u iva hō'ē 'ahuru
tahi
hongofulu
Tongan noa taha ua tolu fa nima ono fitu valu hiva
taha noa
Trukese eet érúúw één fáán niim woon fúús waan ttiw engoon
tahi
Tuvaluan lua tolu fa lima ono fitu valu iva sefulu
tasi
Comparison chart-thirteen words

English one two three four person house dog road day new we
*balay, *qaləjaw,
Proto-Austronesian *əsa, *isa *duSa *təlu *əpat *Cau *asu *zalan *baqəRu *kita, *kami
*Rumaq *waRi
Tetum ida rua tolu haat ema uma asu dalan loron foun ita
Amis cecay tosa tolo sepat tamdaw luma wacu lalan cidal faroh kita
Puyuma sa dua telu pat taw rumah soan dalan wari vekar mi
Tagalog isa dalawa tatlo apat tao bahay aso daan araw bago tayo / kami
Bikol sarô duwá tuló apat táwo harong áyam dálan aldaw bâgo kitá
Rinconada Bikol əsad darwā tolō əpat tawō baləy ayam raran aldəw bāgo kitā
ayam,
Waray usa duha tulo upat tawo balay dalan adlaw bag-o kita
ido
usa,
Cebuano duha tulo upat tawo balay iro dalan adlaw bag-o kita
isa
Hiligaynon isa duha tatlo apat tawo balay ido dalan adlaw bag-o kita
isaea,
Aklanon daywa tatlo ap-at tawo baeay ayam daean adlaw bag-o kita
sambilog
Kinaray-a (i)sara darwa tatlo apat tawo balay ayam dalan adlaw bag-o kita
Tausug hambuuk duwa tu upat tau bay iru' dan adlaw ba-gu kitaniyu
Maranao isa dowa t'lo phat taw walay aso lalan gawi'e bago tano
Kapampangan metung adwa atlu apat tau bale asu dalan aldo bayu ikatamu
dua, talo, apat,
Pangasinan sakey too abong aso dalan ageo balo sikatayo
duara talora apatira
Ilokano maysa dua tallo uppat tao balay aso dalan aldaw baro datayo
Ivatan asa dadowa tatdo apat tao vahay chito rarahan araw va-yo yaten
Ibanag tadday dua tallu appa' tolay balay kitu dalan aggaw bagu sittam
Yogad tata addu tallu appat tolay binalay atu daddaman agaw bagu sikitam
Gaddang antet addwa tallo appat tolay balay atu dallan aw bawu ikkanetam
Tboli sotu lewu tlu fat tau gunu ohu lan kdaw lomi tekuy
Lun Bawang/ Lundayeh eceh dueh teluh epat lemulun/lun ruma' uko' dalan eco beruh teu
Malay
sa/se,
rumah,
satu, dua tiga[47] empat orang anjing jalan hari baru kita
(Malaysian/Indonesian) suatu
balai
esa, rwa, tĕlu, pat, hañar,

Old Javanese wwang umah asu dalan dina kami[55]
eka dwi tri catur[53] añar[54]
uwong, omah, awaké dhéwé,
siji, loro, tĕlu, papat, asu, dalan, dina, anyar,
Javanese tiyang, griya, kula
setunggal kalih tiga[56] sekawan sĕgawon gili[56] dinten[56] énggal[56]
priyantun[56] dalem[56] panjenengan[56]
anyar,
Sundanese hiji dua tilu opat urang imah anjing jalan poe arurang
enggal
rumoh,
Acehnese sa duwa lhèë peuët ureuëng balè, asèë röt uroë barô (geu)tanyoë
seuëng
labuah,
Minangkabau ciek duo tigo ampek urang rumah anjiang hari baru awak
jalan
Rejang do duai tlau pat tun umêak kuyuk dalên bilai blau itê
Lampungese sai khua telu pak jelema lamban kaci ranlaya khani baru kham
Buginese se'di dua tellu eppa' tau bola asu laleng esso baru idi'
uwang, gumah, anying, aik,
Temuan satuk duak tigak empat jalan bahauk kitak
eang umah koyok haik
Toba Batak sada dua tolu opat halak jabu biang dalan ari baru hita
ghumoh,
Kelantan-Pattani so duwo tigo pak oghe anjing jale aghi baghu kito
dumoh
håcha,
Chamorro hugua tulu fatfat taotao/tautau guma' ga'lågu[57] chålan ha'åni nuebu[58] hita
maisa
ta, ita,
Motu rua toi hani tau ruma sisia dala dina matamata
tamona ai
tāua,
tātou/tātau
Māori tahi rua toru whā tangata whare kurī ara rā hou
māua,
mātou/mātau
Tuvaluan tasi lua tolu fá toko fale kuli ala, aso fou tāua
tuu
Hawaiian kahi lua kolu hā kanaka hale 'īlio ala ao hou kākou
Banjarese asa duwa talu ampat urang rūmah hadupan heko hǎri hanyar kami
Malagasy isa roa telo efatra olona trano alika lalana andro vaovao isika
walai,
Dusun iso duo tolu apat tulun tasu ralan tadau wagu tokou
lamin
Kadazan iso duvo tohu apat tuhun hamin tasu lahan tadau vagu tokou
tolu, tulun, valai,

Rungus iso duvo apat tasu dalan tadau vagu tokou
tolzu tulzun valzai
Sungai/Tambanuo ido duo tolu opat lobuw waloi asu ralan runat wagu toko
satu, sa, orang, ukui,
Iban dua tiga empat rumah jalai hari baru kitai
siti, sigi urang uduk
satu,
Sarawak Malay dua tiga empat orang rumah asuk jalan ari baru kita
sigek
ghumoh,
Terengganuan se duwe tige pak oghang anjing jalang aghi baghu kite
dumoh
kami',
Kanayatn sa dua talu ampat urakng rumah asu' jalatn ari baru
diri'
See also
Austronesian Formal Linguistics Association
List of Austronesian languages
List of Austronesian regions
Notes
(2017). "Austronesian" (http://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/aust
1. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. 1307). Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the
Science of Human History. 23. Grace (1966).

2. Klamer, Marian (6 May 2019). "The dispersal of Austronesian 24. Dahl (1973).
languages in Island South East Asia: Current findings and debates". 25. Blust (1977).
Language and Linguistics Compass. 13 (4): e12325.
doi:10.1111/lnc3.12325 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Flnc3.12325). 26. Blust (2013), p. 742.
27. Greenhill, Blust & Gray (2008).
3. "Austronesian Languages" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Austron
esian-languages). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 26 October 28. Taylor, G. (1888). "A ramble through southern Formosa". The China
2016. Review. 16: 137–161. "The Tipuns... are certainly descended from
4. Robert Blust (2016). History of the Austronesian Languages. emigrants, and I have not the least doubt but that the Amias are of
University of Hawaii at Manoa. similar origin; only of later date, and most probably from the Mejaco
Simas [that is, Miyako-jima], a group of islands lying 110 miles to the
5. Pereltsvaig (2018), p. 143. North-east.... By all accounts the old Pilam savages, who merged
6. Dempwolff, Otto (1934-37). Vergleichende Lautlehre des into the Tipuns, were the first settlers on the plain; then came the
austronesischen Wortschatzes. (Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für Tipuns, and a long time afterwards the Amias. The Tipuns, for some
Eingeborenen-Sprachen 15;17;19). Berlin: Dietrich Reimer. (3 vols.) time, acknowledged the Pilam Chief as supreme, but soon absorbed
7. John Simpson; Edmund Weiner, eds. (1989). Official Oxford English both the chieftainship and the people, in fact the only trace left of
Dictionary (OED2) (Dictionary). Oxford University Press. them now, is a few words peculiar to the Pilam village, one of which,
8. Blust (2013), p. 169. makan (to eat), is pure Malay. The Amias submitted themselves to
the jurisdiction of the Tipuns."
9. Blust (2013), p. 212.
29. Starosta, S (1995). "A grammatical subgrouping of Formosan
10. Blust (2013), p. 215–218.
languages". In P. Li; Cheng-hwa Tsang; Ying-kuei Huang; Dah-an Ho
11. Blust (2013), p. 220–222. & Chiu-yu Tseng (eds.). Austronesian Studies Relating to Taiwan.
12. Crowley (2009), p. 100. Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica. pp. 683–
13. Blust (2013), p. 188–189;200;206. 726.
14. Blust (2013), p. 355. 30. Li (2008), p. 216: "The position of Rukai is the most controversial:
15. Blust (2013), pp. 370–399. Tsuchida... treats it as more closely related to Tsouic languages,
based on lexicostatistic evidence, while Ho... believes it to be one of
16. Blust (2013), pp. 406–431. the Paiwanic languages, i.e. part of my Southern group, as based on
17. Ross (2002), p. 453. a comparison of fourteen grammatical features. In fact, Japanese
18. Adelaar, K. Alexander; Himmelmann, Nikolaus (2005). The anthropologists did not distinguish between Rukai, Paiwan and
Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. Routledge. pp. 6– Puyuma in the early stage of their studies"
7. ISBN 978-0415681537. 31. Ross (2009).
19. Croft, William (2012). Verbs: Aspect and Causal Structure. Oxford 32. Chang, Henry Yungli (2006). "Rethinking the Tsouic Subgroup
University Press. p. 261. ISBN 978-0199248599. Hypothesis: A Morphosyntactic Perspective". In Chang, H.; Huang,
20. Greenhill, Blust & Gray 2003–2019. L. M.; Ho, D. (eds.). Streams converging into an ocean: Festschrift in
21. Haudricourt (1965), p. 315. honor of Professor Paul Jen-Kuei Li on his 70th birthday. Taipei:
Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica.
22. Dyen (1965).
33. Solnit, David B. (March 1992). "Japanese/Austro-Tai By Paul K. 45. Predominantly in Indonesia, comes from the Latin nullus
Benedict (review)". Language. Linguistic Society of America. 687 (1): 46. The Sanskrit loanword "Ekasila" : "Eka" means 1, "Sila" means
188–196. doi:10.1353/lan.1992.0061 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Flan. "pillar", "principle" appeared in Sukarno's speech
1992.0061). 47. In Kedukan Bukit inscription the numeral Tlu ratus appears as Three
34. van Driem, George (2005). "Sino-Austronesian vs. Sino-Caucasian, hundred, Tlu as Three, in http://www.wordsense.eu/telu/ the word
Sino-Bodic vs. Sino-Tibetan, and Tibeto-Burman as default theory" (h Telu is referred to as Three in Malay and Indonesian, although the
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20110726012439/http://www.eastling.org/ use of Telu is very rare.
paper/Driem.pdf) (PDF). In Yogendra Prasada Yadava; Govinda
48. The Sanskrit loanword "Trisila" : "Tri" means 3, "Sila" means "pillar",
Bhattarai; Ram Raj Lohani; Balaram Prasain; Krishna Parajuli (eds.). "principle" appeared in Sukarno's speech
Contemporary Issues in Nepalese Linguistics. Kathmandu: Linguistic
Society of Nepal. pp. 285–338 (see page 304). Archived from the 49. loanword from Sanskrit प न् páñcan - see Sukarno's Pancasila: "five
original (http://www.eastling.org/paper/Driem.pdf) (PDF) on 2011-07- principles", Pancawarna: "five colours, colourful".
26. Retrieved 2010-10-29. 50. lapan is a known contraction of delapan; predominant in Malaysia,
35. Winter (2010). Singapore and Brunei.
36. Blust (2013), pp. 710–713;745–747. 51. Cook, Richard (1992). Peace Corps Marshall Islands: Marshallese
Language Training Manual (http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~rscook/pd
37. Robbeets, Martine (2017). "Austronesian influence and f/PCMLT-JejeinM.pdf) (PDF), pg. 22. Accessed August 27, 2007.
Transeurasian ancestry in Japanese: A case of farming/language
dispersal". Language Dynamics and Change. 7 (2): 210–251. 52. Percy Chatterton, (1975). Say It In Motu: An instant introduction to
doi:10.1163/22105832-00702005 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F221058 the common language of Papua (http://www.exkiap.net/other/tok_pisi
32-00702005). n/Say_It_In_Motu.pdf). Pacific Publications. ISBN 978-0-85807-025-
7
38. Kumar, Ann (2009). Globalizing the Prehistory of Japan: Language,
Genes and Civilization. Oxford: Routledge. 53. s.v. kawan, Old Javanese-English Dictionary, P.J. Zoetmulder and
Stuart Robson, 1982
39. Blevins (2007).
54. s.v. hañar, Old Javanese-English Dictionary, P.J. Zoetmulder and
40. Blust (2014). Stuart Robson, 1982
41. Siman Widyatmanta, Adiparwa. Vol. I dan II. Cetakan Ketiga.
55. s.v. kami, this could mean both first person singular and plural, Old
Yogyakarta: U.P. "Spring", 1968. Javanese-English Dictionary, P.J. Zoetmulder and Stuart Robson,
42. Zoetmulder, P.J., Kamus Jawa Kuno-Indonesia. Vol. I-II. Terjemahan 1982
Darusuprapto-Sumarti Suprayitno. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka 56. Javanese English Dictionary, Stuart Robson and Singgih Wibisono,
Utama, 1995. 2002
43. "Javanese alphabet (Carakan)" (http://www.omniglot.com/writing/java 57. From Spanish "galgo"
nese.htm). Omniglot.
58. From Spanish "nuevo"
44. from the Arabic ‫ﺻ ْﻔر‬
ِ ṣifr
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Lin, Marie (eds.). Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics. London: Routledge. pp. 211–218.
Lynch, John; Ross, Malcolm; Crowley, Terry (2002). The Oceanic languages. Richmond, Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-415-68155-3.
Melton, T.; Clifford, S.; Martinson, J.; Batzer, M.; Stoneking, M. (1998). "Genetic evidence for the proto-Austronesian homeland in Asia: mtDNA
and nuclear DNA variation in Taiwanese aboriginal tribes" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1377653). American Journal of
Human Genetics. 63 (6): 1807–23. doi:10.1086/302131 (https://doi.org/10.1086%2F302131). PMC 1377653 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/
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Asia and Taiwan. Geneva.
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Ross, Malcolm (2009). "Proto Austronesian verbal morphology: a reappraisal". In Adelaar, K. Alexander; Pawley, Andrew (eds.). Austronesian
Historical Linguistics and Culture History: A Festschrift for Robert Blust. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 295–326.
Ross, Malcolm; Pawley, Andrew (1993). "Austronesian historical linguistics and culture history". Annual Review of Anthropology. 22: 425–459.
doi:10.1146/annurev.an.22.100193.002233 (https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.an.22.100193.002233). OCLC 1783647 (https://www.worldcat.o
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Ross, John (2002). "Final words: research themes in the history and typology of western Austronesian languages". In Wouk, Fay; Malcolm,
Ross (eds.). The history and typology of Western Austronesian voice systems. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 451–474.
Sagart, Laurent (8–11 January 2002). Sino-Tibeto-Austronesian: An updated and improved argument (http://halshs.ccsd.cnrs.fr/docs/00/08/50/5
9/PDF/canberra.pdf) (PDF). Ninth International Conference on Austronesian Linguistics (ICAL9). Canberra, Australia.
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06/document). Oceanic Linguistics. 43 (2): 411–440. doi:10.1353/ol.2005.0012 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fol.2005.0012).
Sagart, Laurent (2005). "Sino-Tibeto-Austronesian: An updated and improved argument". In Blench, Roger; Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia (eds.). The
Peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. London: Routledge Curzon. pp. 161–176. ISBN 978-0-415-
32242-3.
Sapir, Edward (1968) [1949]. "Time perspective in aboriginal American culture: a study in method". In Mandelbaum, D.G. (ed.). Selected writings
of Edward Sapir in language, culture and personality. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 389–467. ISBN 0-520-01115-5.
Taylor, G. (1888). "A ramble through southern Formosa" (https://www.reed.edu/formosa/texts/Taylor1888.html). The China Review. 16: 137–161.
Thurgood, Graham (1999). From Ancient Cham to Modern Dialects. Two Thousand Years of Language Contact and Change. Oceanic
Linguistics Special Publications No. 28. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-2131-9.
Trejaut, J. A.; Kivisild, T.; Loo, J. H.; Lee, C. L.; He, C. L. (2005). "Traces of archaic mitochondrial lineages persist in Austronesian-speaking
Formosan populations" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1166350). PLoS Biol. 3 (8): e247. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0030247 (http
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Winter, Bodo (2010). "A Note on the Higher Phylogeny of Austronesian". Oceanic Linguistics. 49 (1): 282–287. doi:10.1353/ol.0.0067 (https://do
i.org/10.1353%2Fol.0.0067). JSTOR 40783595 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/40783595).
Wouk, Fay; Ross, Malcolm, eds. (2002). The history and typology of western Austronesian voice systems. Pacific Linguistics. Canberra:
Australian National University.
Further reading
Bengtson, John D., The "Greater Austric" Hypothesis (http://jdbengt.net/articles/Austric.pdf), Association for the Study of Language in
Prehistory.
Blundell, David. "Austronesian Dispersal". Newsletter of Chinese Ethnology. 35: 1–26.
Blust, R. A. (1983). Lexical reconstruction and semantic reconstruction: the case of the Austronesian "house" words. Hawaii: R. Blust.
Cohen, E. M. K. (1999). Fundaments of Austronesian roots and etymology. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. ISBN 0-85883-436-7
Marion, P., Liste Swadesh élargie de onze langues austronésiennes, éd. Carré de sucre, 2009
Pawley, A., & Ross, M. (1994). Austronesian terminologies: continuity and change. Canberra, Australia: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of
Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University. ISBN 0-85883-424-3
Sagart, Laurent, Roger Blench, and Alicia Sanchez-Nazas (Eds.) (2004). The peopling of East Asia: Putting Together Archaeology, Linguistics
and Genetics. London: RoutledgeCurzon. ISBN 0-415-32242-1.
Terrell, John Edward (December 2004). "Introduction: 'Austronesia' and the great Austronesian migration". World Archaeology. 36 (4): 586–590.
doi:10.1080/0043824042000303764 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0043824042000303764).
Tryon, D. T., & Tsuchida, S. (1995). Comparative Austronesian dictionary: an introduction to Austronesian studies. Trends in linguistics, 10.
Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3110127296
Wittmann, Henri (1972). "Le caractère génétiquement composite des changements phonétiques du malgache." Proceedings of the International
Congress of Phonetic Sciences (http://www.nou-la.org/ling/1972a-malgache.pdf) 7.807-10. La Haye: Mouton.
Wolff, John U., "Comparative Austronesian Dictionary. An Introduction to Austronesian Studies", Language, vol. 73, no. 1, pp. 145–56, Mar
1997, ISSN 0097-8507
External links
Blust's Austronesian Comparative Dictionary (http://www.trussel2.com/acd/)
Swadesh lists of Austronesian basic vocabulary words (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists_for_Austronesian_languages)
(from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists))
"Homepage of linguist Dr. Lawrence Reid" (http://www2.hawaii.edu/~reid/). Retrieved July 28, 2005.
Summer Institute of Linguistics site showing languages (Austronesian and Papuan) of Papua New Guinea. (http://www.sil.org/pacific/png)
"Austronesian Language Resources" (https://web.archive.org/web/20041122214717/http://www-personal.umich.edu/~rustyb/112/austronesian.ht
m). Archived from the original (http://www-personal.umich.edu/~rustyb/112/austronesian.htm) on November 22, 2004.
Spreadsheet of 1600+ Austronesian and Papuan number names and systems – ongoing study to determine their relationships and distribution
(http://coconutstudio.com/Austro%20Nos%20Mar2008%2011-3.xls)
Languages of the World: The Austronesian (Malayo-Polynesian) Language Family (https://www.nvtc.gov/lotw/months/june/austronesianLanguag
eFamily.html)
Introduction to Austronesian Languages and Culture (video) (Malayo-Polynesian) Language Family (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mYSr2k
4buqU) on YouTube
南島語族分布圖 (http://www.pro-classic.com/ethnicgv/maps/map_index.htm)
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4/21/2020 Austronesian languages - Wikipedia

Primary branches on Taiwan (Formosan languages)

(clockwise from the southwest)

Northern (Kavalanic languages)

F0: Proto-Formosan = Proto-Austronesian

F1: (unnamed branch)

(Mantauran and Tona–Maga dialects are divergent)

Qauqaut is zus dor sop rim ən pit ar siu tor

Javanese loro from

Standard Malay kosong sa/se

Comparison chart-thirteen words

esa, rwa, tĕlu, pat, hañar,

tolu, tulun, valai,

Science of Human History. 23. Grace (1966).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Austronesian_languages&oldid=950599002"

This page was last edited on 12 April 2020, at 22:50 (UTC).

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