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Forensic Ballistics Chapter 1: Ballistics and Its Branches
Forensic Ballistics Chapter 1: Ballistics and Its Branches
BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS
1. INTERIOR BALLISTICS - treats of the motion of projectile while it still inside the firearm.
The time during which the projectile is influenced by interior ballistic. From the release
of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the
muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.
2. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS - treats of the motion of projectiles after leaving the muzzle of the
gun barrel.
The flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum range,
which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33 degrees.
a. Muzzle blast - the sound created at the muzzle end of the barrel of the firearm after the
explosion.
b. Muzzle Energy - energy generated after leaving the firearms.
c. Trajectory - this refers to the parabola-like flight of the projectile from the time it leaves
the muzzle until it hits the target.
d. Range - the distance between the firearm and the target.
1. Accurate range - the distance within which the shooter or gunner has control of
his shots.
2. Effective range - the maximum distance at which the projectile can be expected
to be lethal.
3. Maximum range - the greater distance a projectile can travel when fired at the
optimum angle of elevation of the barrel.
e. Velocity - the speed of the bullet
f. Air resistance - encountered by the bullet in flight.
g. Pull of gravity - the downward movement of the bullet.
h. Penetration - the entry of the bullet on target.
3. TERMINAL BALLISTICS - is the dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the
target. Penetration of the bullet is of a prime interest. It involves:
Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the
end of the projectiles flight as an integral and un-deformed body and may end in one of
these:
a. The projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or
b. Its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge.
1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they
investigate a case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the
investigating officers, and this involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and
transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical Examinations of the Ballistics Exhibits - This is the job performed by the
firearms examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test
firings of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes,
photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative
charts, and making of reports on the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
3. Legal Proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and
the ballistics exhibits are presented during trial of the case in a court of justice.
FORUM - It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace,
where people gather for “public disputation” or “public discussion.” The term “Ballistics”,
“Forensic Ballistics”, and “Firearms Identification”, have come to mean one and the
same thing in the minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.
CHAPTER 2: FIREARMS: ITS NATURE AND CLASSIFICATION
In Section 877 Revised Administrative Code and Section 290 of National Internal
Revenue Code. Firearms or Arms as herein used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotgun,
pistol, revolvers, and other deadly weapons, to which a bullet, shot, shell, or other missiles may
be discharge by means of gun powder or other explosives. This term also includes air rifle,
except those of small calibers and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall
be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof.
TECHNICAL DEFINITION
On the FBI Manual of Firearms Identification. Firearm is an instrument used for the
propulsion of projectile by means of the expansive force gases coming from burning
gunpowder.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS
1. Smooth Bore Firearms - Firearms that have no rifling (lands and grooves) inside their
gun barrel.
Examples: Shotguns and Musket
2. Rifled Bore Firearms - Firearms that have rifling inside their gun barrel.
Examples: Pistols and Revolvers
ADVANTAGES
1. REVOLVER
a. It is an old standard weapon that is easy to operate, hence almost everyone
knows about it.
b. Safer for inexperienced people
c. The mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better
d. A misfire does not put the revolver out action
e. Can handle satisfactory old or new or party deteriorated ammunition which
reduces velocity.
2. PISTOL
a. Has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally
b. More compact for the same fire power
c. Easier to load
d. Barrel when worn out or corroded can be replaced without sending the gun to the
factory.
e. Easier to clean
f. Gives greater fire power and greatest ease in firing
g. No gas leakage during firing
DISADVANTAGES
1. REVOLVER
a. Bulkier to carry
b. Grip or handle is generally not as good as that of a pistol
c. Hard to clean after firing
d. Slower to load
e. Harder to replace worn out parts – it’s a factory job
f. Worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy due to improper
lining cylinder.
2. PISTOL
a. Ammunition must be perfect otherwise, a jam might be experience
b. Misfire stop the functioning of the gun.
c. When kept loaded for long time, the magazine spring is under tension and may
deteriorate and cause problems.
d. Has poorer trigger pull
e. Magazine requires jacketed bullet
f. More dangerous to handle especially for inexperienced people.
g. Usually not adapted to reloading
h. Its mechanism ejects empty shell towards the face of the shooter causing
flinching.
i. Throws out empty shell on the ground to remain as evidence
j. Cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming
CHAPTER 3: AMMUNITION
LEGAL DEFINITION
In Chapter VII, Sec. 290 of National Internal Revenue Code as well as Sec. 877 Revised
Administrative Code. Ammunition refers to loaded shell for rifles, muskets, carbine, shotgun,
revolvers and pistols from which a ball, shot, shell or other missiles maybe fired by means of
gun powder or other explosive. The term also includes ammunition for air rifles as mentioned
elsewhere in the code.
TECHNICAL DEFINITION
Ammunition refers to a group of cartridge or to a single cartridge. Cartridge is a complete
unfired unit consisting of bullet (ball), primer (cap), cartridge case (shell) and gunpowder
(propellant).
ORIGIN
The word cartridge was derived from the Latin word “Charta” meaning a paper and also from
the French word “Cartouche” meaning a rolled paper. This only indicates that the first type of
cartridge was made up of a rolled paper. It was about the turn of the 16th century that the term
“cartridge” came to use.
1. Dummy (fake) model - a type of ammunition which merely resembles the genuine one. It is
a carefully made replica of a cartridge, usually of tool steel and dimensioned, to be used by
weapons instructor, inspector, and repairman when checking the functioning of weapon.
2. Drill Ammunition (w/o gunpowder) - it is a type of an ammunition that is completely inert,
without an explosive and are used in mill training to practice loading and manipulation of the
gun.
3. Blank Ammunition (w/o bullet) - an ammunition without a bullet, containing gunpowder that
is designed to generate a loud noise to indicate firing. This type of ammunition is used for
theatrical performances or film making, training dogs and military training.
4. Live Ammunition - is the term applied for complete unit of unfired cartridge.
CARTRIDGE - a term used to describe a complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, primer cartridge
case and gun powder.
1. RIMMED TYPE - the diameter of the rim is greater than the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case. E.g. caliber .38 and caliber .22
2. SEMI- RIMMED TYPE - the diameter of the rim is slightly greater than the diameter of the
body of the cartridge case. E.g. caliber .25, .32, super .38
3. RIMLESS TYPE - the diameter of the rim is equal with the diameter of the body of the
cartridge case. E.g. caliber mm, .30, .9mm, .45
4. REBATED TYPE - the diameter of the rim is smaller than the body of the cartridge case. E.g.
caliber 8 mm ×59.
TYPES OF CARTRIDGES ACCORDING TO LOCATION OF PRIMER
1. PIN- FIRE CARTRIDGE - the pin extends radially through the head of the cartridge case into
the primer. This type of cartridge is no longer used.
2. RIM- FIRE CARTRIDGE - the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the rim of the
head of the cartridge case.
3. CENTER- FIRE CARTRIDGE - the primer cup forced into the middle portion of the head of
the cartridge case.
4. PERCUSSION - a means of ignition of a propellant charge by mechanical blow against the
primer or percussion cup.
a. LOW POWDER - a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of less 1850 ft/sec.
b. HIGH POWER - a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of 1925 and 2500 ft/sec.
c. HIGH INTENSITY - a cartridge giving a muzzle velocity of 2500 ft/sec.
The word projectile is a generic term used when referring to any metallic or non-metallic ball
that is propelled from firearm. It may also be referred to as bullet, slug, shot, or missile.
The word “Bullet” was derived from the French word “Boullette” which means a small ball. This
term is generally used when we are referring to a projectile fired from small arms, which has a
variety of form, especially during the earlier history.
In a more technical sense, bullet refers to a metallic or non- metallic cylindrical ball propelled
from firearm. And it is sometimes called as shots or slugs.
Bullets have various types depending upon their nature specific nature and purpose. In
general, bullet can be classified as either Lead or Jacketed.
1. Lead Type – is a type of bullet that is basically composed of metal. It is primarily for its
density; having a good weight in a small size and easy for casting.
2. Jacketed Type – is a type of bullet consisting of the regular lead core, coated with copper
alloy in order to prevent lead fouling of the barrel and is generally used in pistols and high-
powered guns.
1. Ball Bullets – have soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles, weapons
and armored targets in general.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is set on fire
when the bullet is projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the
bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials, that can
be set on fire by impact. They are used against target that will burn readily such as aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets – contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their small
size it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this
reason, the use of high explosive bullets is usually limited to 20mm and above.
CHAPTER 5: CARTRIDGE CASE
DEFINITION
Cartridge Case is the metallic or non- metallic tabular container usually made of brass (70%
copper and 30% zinc); it is designed to unite the bullet, primer and the gunpowder into one
unit. It is also known as a shell or casing.
CHAPTER 6: PRIMER
DEFINITION
It is the assembly which ignite the propellant. The primer assembly of a centerfire cartridges
consists of a brass or guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive
explosive, a paper disk (foil), and a brass anvil.
ORIGIN
1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system. He was a Scotch
Presbyterian Minister, chemist and hunter.
First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate.
1. Corrosive – one containing potassium chlorate which when ignited produced moisture
causing the formation of rust in the bore of the firearm. Other components are antimony
sulfide and mercury fulminate.
2. Non-Corrosive – one which is designed for less chances of rusting by replacing the
potassium chlorate with barium nitrate.
DEFINITION
Gunpowder (also called as propellant or power charge) is the mixture of chemicals of various
compositions designed to propel the projectile by means of its expensive force of gas when
burned.
Any various powder used in the firearms as propellant charge. The inventor of gunpowder is
Berthold Schwartz, real name is Constantin Anklitzen. A Fransican monk in the town of
Freiburg in Germany.
1. Black Powder – The oldest propellant powder that consists of irregular grains and have
either a dull or shiny black surface.
DEFINITION
An explosive is any substance that may cause an explosion by its sudden
decomposition or combustion. It is a material either a pure single substance or mixture
of substance which is capable of producing an explosion by its energy.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
1. Propellant or low explosives – burns but do not explode and function by producing gas
which produces explosion.
E.g. black powder and smokeless powder.
3. High explosives – detonates under the influence of the shock of the explosion of primary
explosive. They do not function by burning; in fact, not all of them are combustible, but
most of them can be ignited by a flame and in small amount generally burn tranquilly and
can extinguished easily.
E.g. TNT (Trinitrotoluene), dynamite, nitroglycerine and picric acid
It is very important that a Ballistic Expert or Firearms Examiner be sufficiently familiar with various
steps in the manufacture of a firearm in order that he will be able to explain the source or cause of
the different markings which may be found on a firearm evidence which may be found in basis of his
identification. There should always be reason for all the markings, scratches, or dents visible on
firearms evidence and it is the function of the firearm examiner to determine how and why they are
made, and also to interpret their significance both to himself and to the court. Most of these markings
are transferred on the firearm evidence by deliberate or accidental operations of the tools during the
process of manufacture.
Drilling – The process of manufacture starts with a solid steel bar which, when drilled from
end to end makes it is steel pipe. The interior surface at this stage bears numerous scratches
resulting from irregular cutting of the drill and the metal chips which mark the finish.
Lapping – For smooth bore barrels, after the drilling process the inside of the barrel is made
very smooth.
Reaming – In barrels intended for rifles the next steps after drilling consists of “reaming” and
drilled hole for its entire length, this removes some of sears and scratches. The reamer
removes metal from the entire surface because it is slightly larger in diameter than the drill.
Rifling – If the barrel is to be rifled it is done with the use of modern tools which automatically
cut the spiral grooves on the inside the barrel and impart to every firearms characteristic
which are peculiar to the barrel.
Another phase of firearm manufacture which is of great importance to the identification of
firearms is finishing operations of the breech face of the breechblock of the firearm. It is
that portion of the firearm against which the cartridge is fired.
1. BULLET IDENTIFICATION
a. No two barrels and microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all possess
individual characteristics markings.
b. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the riflings and this
engraving on a bullet fired from one barrel will be different from that on a similar bullet fire
from another barrel. And conversely, the engraving on bullet from the same barrel will be
the same.
c. Every barrel leaves its “thumbmark” on every bullet which is fired through it, just as every
breech face leaves its “thumbmark” on the base of the fired cartridge case.
WHAT TO COMPARE?
Evidence Bullet and Test/Standard Bullet – Before proceeding in the examination of the
firearm by means of the fired bullets, first identify the particular firearm through the class
characteristics appearing on the cylindrical surface of the bullet.
3. SHELL IDENTIFICATION
a. The breech face and the striker of every single firearm leave microscopically
individualities of their own. The firearm leaves “fingerprint” or “thumbmark” on every
cartridge which is fires.
b. The whole principle of identification is based on the fact that since the breechface of
every weapon must be individually distinct, the cartridge case which it fires is imprinted
with this individuality.
c. The imprints on all cartridges fired from the same weapon are the same and those
cartridges fired from different weapon must always be different.
It must be noted that the first priority upon arrival at the crime scene is to save life if possible.
Recording – the investigator begins the process of recording pertinent facts and details of
the investigation the moment he arrives at the scene of incident. He writes the identification
of the persons involved and what he initially sees. He also drew a basic sketch of the crime
scene and takes the initial photographs (general, medium, close up and extreme close up
view should be taken if a photographer is available). This is to secure that an image of the
crime scene is properly recorded before any occurrence would disturb the scene. As a rule;
do not touch, alter or remove anything at the scene of the crime until the evidence has been
processed through notes, sketches and photographs, with proper measurements.
Search Evidence – In rooms, buildings and small outdoor areas, systematic search of
evidence is initiated. The investigator examines each item, encountered on the floor, walls,
ceiling to locate anything that may be of evidentiary value. Stains, spots, and pools of liquid
within the scene may be treat as an evidence and any peculiar odor emitting from the scene.
Treat as evidence all other items, such as hairs, fibers, and earth particles, foreign to the
area in which they are found – for example, matter found under the victims’ fingernails.