HEAT AND MASS FLOW PROCESSES

Roll NO 15757

SUBMITTED BY SULEMAN ZAHOOR

SUBMITTED TO M.YASIR JAVAID

SEMESTER 6TH (B)

PROGRAMME BSC Mechanical

GC University FSD
Q.1 Introduction to heat transfer, physical origin and three mods of
heat transfer, rate equation?

Heat transfer is a process by which internal energy from one substance

transfers to another substance. Thermodynamics is the study of heat
transfer and the changes that result from it. An understanding of heat
transfer is crucial to analyzing a thermodynamic process, such as those
that take place in heat engines and heat pumps.

Forms of Heat Transfer

Under the kinetic theory, the internal energy of a substance is

generated from the motion of individual atoms or molecules. Heat
energy is the form of energy which transfers this energy from one body
or system to another. This heat transfer can take place in a number of
ways:

 Conduction is when heat flows through a heated solid through

a heat current moving through the material. You can observe
conduction when heating a stove burner element or a bar of
metal, which goes from red hot to white hot.
 Convection is when heated particles transfer heat to another
substance, such as cooking something in boiling water.
 Radiation is when heat is transferred through electromagnetic
waves, such as from the sun. Radiation can transfer heat through
empty space, while the other two methods require some form of
matter-on-matter contact for the transfer.

In order for two substances to affect each other, they must be

in thermal contact with each other. If you leave your oven open while
turned on and stand several feet in front of it, you are in thermal
contact with the oven and can feel the heat it transfers to you (by
convection through the air).
Normally, of course, you do not feel the heat from the oven when
you're several feet away and that is because the oven has thermal
insulation to keep the heat inside of it, thus preventing thermal contact
with the outside of the oven. This is of course not perfect, so if you
stand nearby you do feel some heat from the oven.

Thermal equilibrium is when two items that are in thermal contact no

longer transfer heat between them.

The basic effect of heat transfer is that the particles of one substance
collide with the particles of another substance. The more energetic
substance will typically lose internal energy (i.e. "cool down") while the
less energetic substance will gain internal energy (i.e. "heat up").

The most blatant effect of this in our day-to-day life is a phase

transition, where a substance changes from one state of matter to
another, such as ice melting from a solid to a liquid as it absorbs heat.
The water contains more internal energy (i.e. the water molecules are
moving around faster) than in the ice.

In addition, many substances go through either thermal

expansion or thermal contraction as they gain and lose internal energy.
Water (and other liquids) often expands as it freezes, which anyone
who has put a drink with a cap in the freezer for too long has
discovered.

Heat Capacity

The heat capacity of an object helps define how that object's

temperature responds to absorbing or transmitting heat. Heat
capacity is defined as the change in heat divided by the change in

temperature.
Physical origin
Century that we had a true physical understanding of the nature of
heat, thanks to the development at that time of the kinetic theory,
which treats molecules as tiny balls that are in motion and thus possess
kinetic energy. Heat is then defined as the energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and molecules.

Although it was suggested in the eighteenth and early nineteenth

centuries that heat is the manifestation of motion at the molecular
level (called the live force), the prevailing view of heat until the middle
of the nineteenth century was based on the caloric theory proposed by
the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier (1743–1794) in 1789. The caloric
theory asserts that heat is a fluid like substance called the caloric that is
a massless, colorless, odorless, and tasteless substance that can be
poured from one body into another.

When caloric was added to a body, its temperature increased; and

when caloric was removed from a body, its temperature decreased.
When a body could not contain any more caloric, much the same way
as when a glass of water could not dissolve any more salt or sugar, the
body was said to be saturated with caloric. This interpretation gave rise
to the terms saturated liquid and saturated vapor that are still in use
today. The caloric theory came under attack soon after its introduction.
It maintained that heat is a substance that could not be created or
destroyed. Yet it was known that heat can be generated indefinitely by
rubbing one’s hands together or rubbing two pieces of wood together.
In 1798, the American Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) (1753–
1814) showed in his papers that heat can be generated continuously
through friction.

The validity of the caloric theory was also challenged by several others.
But it was the careful experiments of the Englishman James P. Joule
(1818–1889) published in 1843 that finally convinced the skeptics that
heat was not a substance after all, and thus put the caloric theory to
rest. Although the caloric theory was totally abandoned in the middle
of the nineteenth century, it contributed greatly to the development of
thermodynamics and heat transfer.

Rates of Heat Transfer

Those of us who live in colder winter climates are in constant pursuit of
methods of keeping our homes warm without spending too much
money. Heat escapes from higher temperature homes to the lower
temperature outdoors through walls, ceilings, windows and doors. We
make efforts to reduce this heat loss by adding better insulation to
walls and attics, caulking windows and doors, and buying high efficiency
windows and doors. As another example, consider electricity
generation. Household electricity is most frequently manufactured by
using fossil fuels or nuclear fuels. The method involves generating heat
in a reactor. The heat is transferred to water and the water carries the
heat to a steam turbine (or other type of electrical generator) where
the electricity is produced. The challenge is to efficiently transfer the
heat to the water and to the steam turbine with as little loss as
possible. Attention must be given to increasing heat transfer rates in
the reactor and in the turbine and decreasing heat transfer rates in the
pipes between the reactor and the turbine.
So what variables would affect the heat transfer rates? How can the
rate of heat transfer be controlled? These are the questions to be
discussed on this page of Lesson 1. Our discussion will be restricted to
the variables affecting the rate of heat transfer by conduction. Once the
variables affecting the rate of heat transfer are discussed, we will look
at a mathematical equation that expresses the dependence of rate
upon these variables.
 
Temperature Difference
In conduction, heat is transferred from a hot temperature location to a
cold temperature location. The transfer of heat will continue as long as
there is a difference in temperature between the two locations. Once
the two locations have reached the same temperature, thermal
equilibrium is established and the heat transfer stops. Earlier in this
lesson, we discussed the transfer of heat for a situation involving a
metal can containing high temperature water that was placed within a
Styrofoam cup containing low temperature water. If the two water
samples are equipped with temperature probes that record changes in
temperature with respect to time, then the following graphs are
produced.
In the graphs above, the slope of the line represents the rate at which
the temperature of each individual sample of water is changing. The
temperature is changing because of the heat transfer from the hot to
the cold water. The hot water is losing energy, so its slope is negative.
The cold water is gaining energy, so its slope is positive. The rate at
which temperature changes is proportional to the rate at which heat is
transferred. The temperature of a sample changes more rapidly if heat
is transferred at a high rate and less rapidly if heat is transferred at a
low rate. When the two samples reach thermal equilibrium, there is no
more heat transfer and the slope is zero. So we can think of the slopes
as being a measure of the rate of heat transfer. Over the course of
time, the rate of heat transfer is decreasing. Initially heat is being
transferred at a high rate as reflected by the steeper slopes. And as
time progresses, the slopes of the lines are becoming less steep and
more gently sloped.
What variable contributes to this decrease in the heat transfer rate
over the course of time? Answer: the difference in temperature
between the two containers of water. Initially, when the rate of heat
transfer is high, the hot water has a temperature of 70°C and the cold
water has a temperature of 5°C. The two containers have a 65°C
difference in temperature. As the hot water begins to cool and the cold
water begins to warm, the difference in their temperatures decrease
and the rate of heat transfer decreases. As thermal equilibrium is
approached, their temperatures are approaching the same value. With
the temperature difference approaching zero, the rate of heat transfer
approaches zero. In conclusion, the rate of conductive heat transfer
between two locations is affected by the temperature difference
between the two locations.

Material
The first variable that we have identified as affecting the rate of conductive heat transfer is
the temperature difference between the two locations. The second variable of importance is
the materials involved in the transfer. In the previous discussed scenario, a metal can contain
high temperature water was placed within a Styrofoam cup containing low temperature
water. The heat was transferred from water through the metal to water. The materials of
importance were water, metal and water. What would happen if the heat were transferred
from hot water through glass to cold water? What would happen if the heat were transferred
from hot water through Styrofoam to cold water? Answer: the rate of heat transfer would be
different. Replacing the inner metal can with a glass jar or a Styrofoam cup would change the
rate of heat transfer. The rate of heat transfer depends on the material through which heat is
transferred.
The effect of a material upon heat transfer rates is often expressed in terms of a number
known as the thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity values are numerical values that are
determined by experiment. The higher that the value is for a particular material, the more
rapidly that heat will be transferred through that material. Materials with relatively high
thermal conductivities are referred to as thermal conductors. Materials with relatively low
thermal conductivity values are referred to as thermal insulators.

 
Area

Another variable that affects the rate of conductive heat transfer is the
area through which heat is being transferred. For instance, heat
transfer through windows of homes is dependent upon the size of the
window. More heat will be lost from a home through a larger window
than through a smaller window of the same composition and thickness.
More heat will be lost from a home through a larger roof than through
a smaller roof with the same insulation characteristics. Each individual
particle on the surface of an object is involved in the heat conduction
process. An object with a wider area has more surface particles working
to conduct heat. As such, the rate of heat transfer is directly
proportional to the surface area through which the heat is being
conducted.
 

Thickness or Distance

A final variable that affects the rate of conductive heat transfer is the
distance that the heat must be conducted. Heat escaping through a
Styrofoam cup will escape more rapidly through a thin-walled cup than
through a thick-walled cup. The rate of heat transfer is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the cup. A similar statement can be
made for heat being conducted through a layer of cellulose insulation in
the wall of a home. The thicker that the insulation is, the lower the rate
of heat transfer. Those of us who live in colder winter climates know
this principle quite well. We are told to dress in layers before going
outside. This increases the thickness of the materials through which
heat is transferred, as well as trapping pockets of air (with high
insulation ability) between the individual layers.

Rate equation
The variables are the temperature difference between the two
locations, the material present between the two locations, the area
through which the heat will be transferred, and the distance it must be
transferred. As is often the case in physics, the mathematical
relationship between these variables and the rate of heat transfer can
be expressed in the form of an equation. Let's consider the transfer of
heat through a glass window from the inside of a home with a
temperature of T1 to the outside of a home with a temperature of T2.
The window has a surface area A and a thickness d. The thermal
conductivity value of the window glass is k. The equation relating the
heat transfer rate to these variables is
Rate = k •A• (T1 - T2)/d
The units on the rate of heat transfer are Joule/second, also known as a
Watt. This equation is applicable to any situation in which heat is
transferred in the same direction across a flat rectangular wall. It
applies to conduction through windows, flat walls, slopes roofs
(without any curvature), etc.

Q.2 Introduction to Conduction, conduction rate

equation, boundary and initial conditions.
Why do our clothes get hot when we iron them? This is because heat is
transferred from our hot iron to our clothes when they come in contact
with each other. How is it that we have electricity in our homes? This is
because the electric current travels through wires that conduct
electricity. How is it possible to transfer heat between objects and for
us to have electricity? This is all because of a very important process
called conduction.
Conduction is the transfer of energy in the form of heat or electricity
from one atom to another within an object by direct contact.
Conduction occurs in solids, liquids, and gases. However, solids transfer
energy most efficiently since the molecules in solids are most tightly
packed, and the molecules are closer together, as shown in this figure.
For liquids and gases, the density of the particles are generally lower
than those of solids and the particles are farther apart, so the energy
transfer is less efficient.

There are two main types of conduction:

Conduction of heat occurs when molecules increase in temperature;
they vibrate, and this vibration and movement passes the heat energy
to the surrounding molecules. Some examples of conduction of heat
are accidentally touching a hot pot, or when a heating pad is applied to
you directly and warms your muscles.
Conduction of electricity occurs due to the movement of electrically
charged particles through a medium. This movement can result in an
electric current, which may be carried by electrons or ions. An example
of electrical conduction is when you accidentally get electrocuted when
you touch a live wire because your body contains water, which is a
conductor of electricity. Another example is when electricity passes
through wires, which are conductors, so we can watch TV or use a
computer.

The picture on the left shows what happens if you leave a metal spoon
inside a cup with hot liquid. The spoon is at room temperature at first
when we touch it, but as the spoon has longer contact with the hot
water, the spoon becomes hot to the touch. This is because the heat
from the liquid is transferred to the spoon due to conduction of heat.
The picture on the right shows a light bulb that is turned on because
electricity travels through the wires due to the conduction of electricity.

Good Conductors of Heat and Electricity

In general, if an object is a good conductor of heat, it usually follows
that the object is also a good conductor of electricity. Materials are
classified as good conductors if they allow the flow of charged particles
and electrical energy to freely pass through them.
Some examples of good conductors are generally metals, such as silver,
copper, iron, and aluminum. Their degree of conductivity differs based
on the type of metal. Metals are generally good conductors because at
least one electron per atom is free to move about between atoms and
transfer heat and electricity. In the list of conductors, silver is generally
the best conductor.
Conduction rate equation
We will start by examining conduction heat transfer. We must first
determine how to relate the heat transfer to other properties (either
mechanical, thermal, or geometrical). The answer to this is rooted in
experiment, but it can be motivated by considering heat flow along a
``bar'' between two heat reservoirs at   ,   as shown in Figure. It is

plausible that the heat transfer rate,   , is a function of the

temperature of the two reservoirs, the bar geometry and the bar
properties. (Are there other factors that should be considered? If so,
what?). This can be expressed as

It also seems reasonable to postulate that   should depend on the

temperature difference   . If   is zero, then the heat
transfer should also be zero. The temperature dependence can
therefore be expressed as
An argument for the general form of   can be made from physical
considerations. One requirement, as said, is   if   . Using a
McLaurin series expansion, as follows,

If we define   and   , we find that (for small   ),

We know that   . The derivative evaluated at   (thermal

equilibrium) is a measurable property of the bar. In addition, we know

that   if   or   . It also seems reasonable

that if we had two bars of the same area, we would have twice the heat
transfer, so that we can postulate that   is proportional to the area.
Finally, although the argument is by no means rigorous, experience

leads us to believe that as   increases   should get smaller. All of

these lead to the generalization (made by Fourier in 1807) that, for the
bar, the derivative in Equation (has the form

In Equation (16.5),   is a proportionality factor that is a function of the

material and the temperature,   is the cross-sectional area and   is
the length of the bar. In the limit for any temperature difference   
across a length   as both   ,   , we can say

A more useful quantity to work with is the heat transfer per unit area,
defined as
The quantity   is called the heat flux and its units are Watts/m2. The
expression in (16.6) can be written in terms of heat flux as

Equation (16.8) is the one-dimensional form of Fourier's law of heat

conduction. The proportionality constant   is called the thermal
conductivity. Its units are   . Thermal conductivity is a well-
tabulated property for a large number of materials. Some values for
familiar materials are given in Table 16.1; others can be found in the
references. The thermal conductivity is a function of temperature and
the values shown in Table 16.1 are for room
temperature.

Boundary conditions and initial conditions

As you all know, solutions to ordinary differential equations are usually not unique
(integration constants appear in many places). This is of course equally a problem for
PDE’s. PDE’s are usually specified through a set of boundary or initial conditions. A
boundary condition expresses the behavior of a function on the boundary (border) of its
area of definition. An initial condition is like a boundary condition, but then for the time-
direction. Not all boundary conditions allow for solutions, but usually the physics
suggests what makes sense. Let me remind you of the situation for ordinary differential
equations, one you should all be familiar with, a particle under the influence of a
constant force,
This contains two integration constants. Standard practice would be to
specify ∂x∂t(t=0)=v0∂x∂t(t=0)=v0 and x(t=0)=x0x(t=0)=x0. These
are linear initial conditions (linear since they only involve xx and its derivatives
linearly), which have at most a first derivative in them. This one order difference
between boundary condition and equation persists to PDE’s. It is kind of obviously that
since the equation already involves that derivative, we can not specify the same
derivative in a different equation.

The important difference between the arbitrariness of integration constants in PDE’s

and ODE’s is that whereas solutions of ODE’s these are really constants, solutions of
PDE’s contain arbitrary functions.

Lets take an example

This can be used to eliminate ff from the first of the equations, giving

which has the general solution u=yf(x)u=yf(x).

One can construct more complicated examples. Consider

u(x,y)=f(x+y)+g(x−y)
which gives on double differentiation

The problem is that without additional conditions the arbitrariness in the solutions
makes it almost useless (if possible) to write down the general solution. We need
additional conditions, that reduce this freedom. In most physical problems these are
boundary conditions, that describes how the system behaves on its boundaries (for all
times) and initial conditions, that specify the state of the system for an initial
time t=0t=0. In the ODE problem discussed before we have two initial conditions
(velocity and position at time t=0t=0).
Q.3 one dimensional, steady state conduction. Plane wall,
radial system, conduction with thermal energy generation,
heat transfer from extended surfaces.
 Steady-State One-Dimensional Conduction

Figure1: One-dimensional heat conduction

For one-dimensional heat conduction (temperature depending on one variable

only), we can devise a basic description of the process. The first law in control
volume form (steady flow energy equation) with no shaft work and no mass

flow reduces to the statement that   for all surfaces   (no heat transfer
on top or bottom of Figure 16.3). From Equation (16.6), the heat transfer rate
in at the left (at   ) is

(1)
The heat transfer rate on the right is

(2)

Using the conditions on the overall heat flow and the expressions in (16.9)
and (16.10)

(3)

Taking the limit as   approaches zero we obtain

(3)

or

(4)

If   is constant (i.e. if the properties of the bar are independent of
temperature), this reduces to
 (5)

or (using the chain rule)

(6)

Equation (6) or (5) describes the temperature field for quasi-one-dimensional

steady state (no time dependence) heat transfer. We now apply this to an
example.

Example: Heat transfer through a plane slab

Figure: Temperature boundary conditions for a slab

For this configuration (Figure .4), the area is not a function of   ,

i.e.   . Equation (5) thus becomes
Equation (6) can be integrated immediately to yield

and

Equation (8) is an expression for the temperature field where   and   are

constants of integration. For a second order equation, such as (16.16), we
need two boundary conditions to determine   and   . One such set of
boundary conditions can be the specification of the temperatures at both sides

of the slab as shown in Figure say   ;   .

The condition   implies that   . The condition   implies

that   , or   . With these expressions for   and   

the temperature distribution can be written as

This linear variation in temperature is shown in Figure 16.5 for a situation in

which   .
 Figure 16.5: Temperature distribution through a slab

The heat flux   is also of interest. This is given by

Plane wall radial system

One-dimensional heat conduction can occur in different

geometric configurations. The figure on the right shows heat
conduction in a plane wall and in a hollow cylinder or sphere.
The energy equationin different geometric configurations can be
expressed as:
Plane wall:

Hollow cylinder:

Hollow sphere:

Equations (1) – (3) can be represented using the following general

form (Arpaci, 1966):

Fig. 2 Generalized 1-D heat conduction problem.

where s is space variable and A(s) can be viewed as the heat

transfer area. The heat transfer area in a plane wall,
hollow cylinder and sphere are A(s) = LW, 2πsL, and 2πs2,
respectively (where W is the width of the plane wall, and L is
length of the plane wall or cylinder). Figure 2 represents the
general one-dimensional heat conduction problem.
Equation (4) can also be rewritten as

or

which means the heat transfer rate at different cross-sections is a

constant. It should be pointed out that the heat flux q''(s) =
− kdT / ds is not a constant unless the cross-sectional area A(s) is
constant. If the thermal conductivity is independent from
temperature, the temperature distribution can be obtained by
integrating eq. (4) twice:

where a and b are unspecified integral constants. If the

temperatures of both inner and outer surfaces are specified, i.e.,

The integral constants a and b in eq. (7) can be determined from

eqs. (8) and (9), and the temperature becomes

Thermal Resistance
The rate of heat transfer can be obtained using Fourier’s law:

which can be rewritten as

where
Figure 3: Analogy between conductions of electricity and heat
is the thermal resistance for heat conduction. Equation (12) is
similar to Ohm’s law

where V1 and V2 are, respectively, the electrical potential at two

ends of the electrical resistance, R, and I is the current through
the electrical resistance (see Fig. 3).
If the boundary conditions at the inner and outer surfaces are
convective conditions, i.e.,

where hi and ho are heat transfer coefficients at the inner and

outer surfaces, respectively. The temperatures of the fluids that
are in contact with the inner and outer surfaces are Ti and To,
respectively. If the temperatures of the inner and outer walls are
represented by T1 and T2, (both of them are unknown) eq. (12) is
still valid. By multiplying eqs. (15) and (16) by the heat transfer
areas at the inner and outer surfaces, A1 and A2, one obtains

Under steady state condition, the heat transfer rate obtained

from eqs. (12), (17) and (18) are identical. By
eliminating T1 and T2 from these equations, the following
expression for heat transfer rate is obtained:

where

are convective thermal resistances between inner fluid and inner

wall and between outer fluid and outer wall, respectively.
Equation (19) can be viewed as a system with three thermal
resistances connected in series. Equation (19) can also be written
as

where Uo is the overall- coefficient of heat transfer based on the

outer surface area. Comparing eqs. (19) and (22) yields

or
For the heat conduction in three different coordinates as shown
in eqs. (1) – (3), the overall coefficients for heat transfer are

If the conducting wall shown in Fig. 1 has multiple layers and each
layer has different thermal conductivity, there will be multiple
conduction thermal resistances between two convection thermal
resistances. If the number of layers is represented by N, the
overall coefficient of heat transfer will be expressed as

where A1 and AN + 1 are the areas of the inner and outer surfaces,

respectively; and ki is the thermal conductivity of
the ith layer (si < s < si + 1). The heat transfer rate becomes

or

Conduction with Heat Generation

The temperature distribution in a medium was determined
solely by conditions at the boundaries of the medium. But in
engineering we can often meet a problem, in which internal
heat sources are significant and determines the temperature
distribution together with boundary conditions.
In nuclear engineering, these problems are of the highest
importance, since most the heat generated in nuclear fuel is
released inside the fuel pellets and the temperature
distribution is determined primarily by heat generation
distribution. Note that, as can be seen from the description
of the individual components of the total energy released
during the fission reaction, there is significant amount of
energy generated outside the nuclear fuel (outside fuel
rods). Especially the kinetic energy of prompt neutrons is
largely generated in the coolant (moderator). This
phenomenon needs to be included in the nuclear
calculations.
Thermal energy sources in power operation of pressurized water
 reactor

For LWR, it is generally accepted that about 2.5% of total energy

is recovered in the moderator. This fraction of energy depends on
the materials, their arrangement within the reactor, and thus on
the reactor type.

Note that, heat generation is a volumetric phenomenon.

That is, it occurs throughout the body of a medium.
Therefore, the rate of heat generation in a medium is usually
specified per unit volume and is denoted by gV [W/m3].
The temperature distribution and accordingly the heat
flux is primarily determined by:
 Geometry and boundary conditions. Different
geometry leads to completely different temperature
field.
 Heat generation rate. The temperature drop through
the body will increase with increased heat generation.
 Thermal conductivity of the medium. Higher thermal
conductivity will lead to lower temperature drop .

Extended surface heat transfer

Extended surfaces have fins attached to the primary surface on one side of a two-fluid or a multi
fluid heat exchanger. Fins can be of a variety of geometry—plain, wavy or interrupted—and can be
attached to the inside, outside or to both sides of circular, flat or oval tubes, or parting sheets. Pins
are primarily used to increase the surface area (when the heat transfer coefficient on that fluid side
is relatively low) and consequently to increase the total rate of heat transfer. In addition, enhanced
fin geometries also increase the heat transfer coefficient compared to that for a plain fin. Fins may
also be used on the high heat transfer coefficient fluid side in a heat exchanger primarily for
structural strength (for example, for high pressure water flow through a flat tube) or to provide a
thorough mixing of a highly-viscous liquid (such as for laminar oil flow in a flat or a round tube). Fins
are attached to the primary surface by brazing, soldering, welding, adhesive bonding or mechanical
expansion, or extruded or integrally connected to tubes. Major categories of extended surface heat
exchangers are Tube-finTube-fin (Figure 1), and Tube-fin (Figure 2, individually finned tubes – Figure
2a and flat fins on an array of tubes – Figure 2b) exchangers. Note that shell-and-tube exchangers
sometimes employ individually finned tubes—low finned tubing (similar to Figure 2a but with low
height fins) [Shah (1985)].

Figure 1. 
 Figure 2. 
Basic heat transfer and pressure drop analysis methods for extended and other heat exchangers
have been described by Shah (1985). An overall design methodology for heat exchangers has also
been presented by Shah (1992). Detailed step-by-step procedures for designing extended surface
plate-fin and tube-fin type count erflow, crossflow, parallel flow and two-pass cross-counter flow
heat exchangers have been outlined by Shah (1988).
In this entry, the theoretical and experimental/analytical non dimensional heat transfer coefficients
(Nusselt Number, Nu, or Colburn factor, j) and the Fanning Friction Factor for some important
extended surface geometries are summarized and a table of fin efficiencies for some important
extended surfaces is provided.
Fin efficiency and extended surface efficiency
The concept of fin efficiency accounts for the reduction in temperature potential between the fin
and the ambient fluid due to conduction along the fin and convection from or to the fin surface,
depending on fin cooling or heating situation. The fin temperature effectiveness or fin efficiency is
defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer rate through the fin base divided by the maximum
possible heat transfer rate through the fin base, which can be obtained if the entire fin is at base
temperature (i.e., its material thermal conductivity is infinite). Since most real fins are “thin,” they
are treated as one-dimensional (1-D), with standard idealizations used for analysis [Huang and Shah
(1992)]. This 1-D fin efficiency is a function of fin geometry, fin material thermal conductivity, heat
transfer coefficient at the fin surface and fin tip boundary condition; it is not a function of the fin
base or fin tip temperature, ambient temperature or heat flux at the fin base or fin tip. Fin efficiency
formulas for some common plate-fin and tube-fin geometries of uniform fin thickness are
presented in Table 1 [Shah (1985)]. These results are not valid when the fin is thick or is subject to
variable heat transfer coefficients or variable ambient fluid temperature, nor for fins with
temperature depression at the base [see Huang and Shah (1992) for specific modifications to the
basic formula or for specific results]. In an extended surface heat exchanger, heat transfer takes
place from both the fins (ηf < 100%) and the primary surface (η f = 100%). In this case, the total heat
transfer rate is evaluated through a concept of total surface effectiveness or surface
efficiency ηo defined as:
(1)

where Af is the fin surface area, Ap is the primary surface area and A = Af + Ap. In Eq. (1), the heat
transfer coefficients of finned and unfinned surfaces are idealized to be equal. Note that η o is
always required for the determination of thermal resistances for heat exchanger analysis [Shah
(1985)].
Table 1.  Fin efficiency for plate-fin and tube-fin geometries of uniform fin thickness
Q.4 introduction to convection. convection boundary
layers, local and average coefficients, laminar and
turbulent flow

Convection Heat Transfer

Introduction

• in convective heat transfer, the bulk fluid motion of the fluid plays a major role in the overall
energy transfer process. Therefore, knowledge of the velocity distribution near a solid
surface is essential.

• the controlling equation for convection is Newton’s Law of Cooling

ΔT ⇒ 1 Rconv =
 Q˙ conv = R conv = hA(Tw − T∞) hA
where

A = total convective area, m2

h = heat transfer coefficient, W/(m2 · K)

Tw = surface temperature, ◦C

T∞ = fluid temperature, ◦C

External flow:

The flow engulfs the body with which it interacts thermally

Internal flow: the heat transfer surface surrounds and guides the convective stream

Forced convection:

flow is induced by an external source such as a pump, compressor, fan, etc.

Natural convection:

flow is induced by natural means without the assistance of an external mechanism. The flow is
initiated by a change in the density of fluids incurred as a result of heating.

Mixed convection: combined forced and natural convection

Velocity Boundary Layer

• The region of fluid flow over the plate where viscous effects

dominate is called the velocity or hydrodynamic boundary layer

• The velocity of the fluid progressively increases away from the

wall until we reach approximately 0.99 U∞ which is denoted as

the δ, the velocity boundary layer thickness. Note:

99% is an arbitrarily selected value.

Thermal Boundary Layer

• the thermal boundary layer is arbitrarily selected as the locus of

points where

T − Tw
 = 0.99
T∞ − Tw

Local and average coefficients

The local heat transfer coefficient can be written as

−kf

H hx
The average heat transfer coefficient is determined using the mean
value theorem such that

1 = L
L 0
ha vh(x

) dx

The Nusselt number is a measure of the dimensionless heat transfer

coefficient given as

Nu = f(Re,Pr)

While the Nusselt number can be determine analytically through the

conservations equations for mass, momentum and energy, it is
beyond the scope of this course. Instead we will use empirical
correlations based on experimental data where

Nux = C2 · Rem · Prn

Flow Over Plates

1. Laminar Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal (UWT)

The local value of the Nusselt number is given as

Nux = 0.332 Re1x/2 ⇒ local, laminar, UWT, Pr ≥ 0.6

Pr1/3
Where x is the distance from the leading edge
of the plate.
Hll 1/2 1/3 ⇒ average, laminar, UWT, Pr ≥ 0.6
Nul = = 0.664 rel Pr
Kf
For low Prandtl numbers, i.e. Liquid metals

Nux = 0.565 Re1x/2 ⇒ local, laminar, UWT, Pr ≤ 0.6

Pr1/2

2. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow, Isothermal

(UWT)

Local, turbulent, UWT,

Nux = 0.0296 Re0x.8 ⇒ 0.6 < Pr < 100, Rex > 500,000
Pr1/3
Average, turbulent, UWT,
Nul = 0.037 Re0L.8 ⇒ 0.6 < Pr < 100, Rex > 500,000
Pr1/3

3. Combined Laminar and Turbulent Boundary

Layer Flow, Isothermal (UWT)

Hll 0.8 1/3 Average, turbulent, UWT,

Nul = = (0.037 rel − 871) Pr ⇒ 0.6 < Pr < 60, rel > 500,000
K

4. Laminar Boundary Layer Flow,

Isoflux (UWF)

Nux = 0.453 Re1x/2 ⇒ local, laminar, UWF, Pr ≥ 0.6

Pr1/3
 5. Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow, Isoflux (UWF)

Nux = 0.0308 Re4x/5 ⇒ local, turbulent, UWF, Pr ≥ 0.6

Pr1/3
Flow Over Cylinders and Spheres

1. Boundary Layer Flow Over Circular Cylinders, Isothermal (UWT)

The Churchill-Berstein (1977) correlation for the average Nusselt

number for long (L/D > 100) cylinders is

⎡ 5/ 8 ⎤ 4/ 5 Average, UWT, Re <

∗ 1/ 2 Re D
Nu D = S + f (P r ) Re ⎣ 1+ ⎦
D D
282000 107
e · Pr > 0.2

Where SD∗ = 0.3 is the diffusive term associated with red → 0 and the

Prandtl number function is

0.62 Pr1/3
F(Pr) =
[1 + (0.4/Pr)2/3]1/4

All fluid properties are evaluated at Tf = (Tw + T∞)/2.

 2. Boundary Layer Flow Over Non-Circular Cylinders, Isothermal
(UWT)

The empirical formulations of Zhukauskas and Jakob are commonly

used, where

Hd
⇒ see Table 19-2 for conditions
Nud ≈= C remd Pr1/3
K
3. Boundary Layer Flow Over a Sphere,
Isothermal (UWT)

For flow over an isothermal sphere of diameter D

Average, UWT,
≤ Pr ≤ 380 2/ 3 μ∞
1/ 4
Nu D = S ∗
+ 0.4 Re 1/ 2 0.4
D D + 0 .06 Re D Pr
μw
d < 80,000

Where the
diffusive term at red → 0 is SD∗ = 2

And the dynamic viscosity of the fluid in the bulk flow, μ∞ is based
on T∞ and the dynamic viscosity of the fluid at the surface, μw, is
based on Tw. All other properties are based on T∞.
Q.5 Free convection. Physical considerations, laminar
free convection, combined free and forced convection

Free convection and physical consideration

In general, convection is either the mass transfer or the heat transfer

due to bulk movement of molecules within fluids such as gases and
liquids. Although liquids and gases are generally not very good
conductors of heat, they can transfer heat quite rapidly by convection.
Convection takes place through advection, diffusion or both.

Definition of Natural Convection

Natural convection, known also as free convection is a mechanism, or

type of mass and heat transport, in which the fluid motion is generated
only by density differences in the fluid occurring due to temperature
gradients, not by any external source (like a pump, fan, suction device,
etc.).
In natural convection, fluid surrounding a heat source receives heat and
by thermal expansion becomes less dense and rises. Thermal expansion
of the fluid plays a crucial role. In other words, heavier (denser)
components will fall, while lighter (less dense) components rise, leading
to bulk fluid movement. Natural convection can only occur in a
gravitational field or in the presence of another proper acceleration,
such as:
 acceleration
 centrifugal force
 Coriolis force
Natural convection essentially does not operate in the orbit of Earth.
For example, in the orbiting International Space Station, other heat
transfer mechanisms are required to prevent electronic components
from overheating.
 

Natural Convection – Heat Transfer

Similarly, as for forced convection, also natural convection heat transfer take place

both by thermal diffusion (the random motion of fluid molecules) and by advection, in
which matter or heat is transported by the larger-scale motion of currents in the fluid.  At
the surface, energy flow occurs purely by conduction, even in convection. It is due to the
fact, there is always a thin stagnant fluid film layer on the heat transfer surface. But in the
next layers both conduction and diffusion-mass movement in the molecular level or
macroscopic level occurs. Due to the mass movement the rate of energy transfer is higher.
Higher the rate of mass movement, thinner the stagnant fluid film layer will be and higher
will be the heat flow rate.
 

Thermal Expansion

Density of water as a function of temperature

We know that the density of gases and liquids depends on temperature, generally
decreasing (due to fluid expansion) with increasing temperature.

The magnitude of the natural convection heat transfers between a surface and a fluid is
directly related to the flow rate of the fluid induced by natural convection. The higher the
flow rate, the higher the heat transfer rate. The flow rate in case of natural convection is
established by the dynamic balance of buoyancy and friction.
Assume a plate at the temperature Twall, which is immersed in a quiescent fluid at the
temperature Tbulk, where (Twall > Tbulk). The fluid close to the plate is less dense than fluid that
is further removed. Buoyancy forces therefore induce a natural convection boundary layer
in which the heated and lighter fluid rises vertically, entraining heavier fluid from the
quiescent region. The resulting velocity distribution is unlike that associated with forced
convection boundary layers and depends also on the fluid viscosity. In particular,
the velocity is zero at the surface as well as at the boundary due to viscous forces. It must
be noted, a natural convection also develops if (Twall < Tbulk), but, in this case, fluid motion will
be downward.
The presence and magnitude of natural convection also depend on the geometry of the
problem. The presence of a fluid density gradient in a gravitational field does not ensure the
existence of natural convection currents. This problem is illustrated in the following figure,
where a fluid is enclosed by two large, horizontal plates of different temperature (T upper ≠
Tlower).
1. In case A the temperature of the lower plate is higher than the temperature of the
upper plate. In this case, the density decreases in the direction of the gravitational
force. This geometry induces fluid circulation and heat transfer occurs via natural
circulation. The heavier fluid will descend, being warmed in the process, while the
lighter fluid will rise, cooling as it moves.
2. In case B the temperature of the lower plate is lower than the temperature of the
upper plate. In this case, the density increases in the direction of the gravitational
 force. This geometry leads to stable conditions, stable temperature gradient
and does not induce fluid circulation. Heat transfer occurs solely via thermal
conduction.

Since the natural convection is strongly dependent on the

geometry, most heat transfer correlations in natural convection
are based on experimental measurements and engineers often
use proper characteristic numbers to describe natural convection
heat transfer.
 

Free Convection - Laminar and Turbulent

As was written, most heat transfer correlations in natural convection are based on
experimental measurements and engineers often use proper characteristic numbers to
describe natural convection heat transfer. The characteristic number that
describes convective heat transfer (i.e. the heat transfer coefficient) is the Nusselt number,
which is defined as the ratio of the thermal energy convected to the fluid to the thermal
energy conducted within the fluid. The Nusselt number represents the enhancement of heat
transfer through a fluid layer as a result of convection relative to conduction across the
same fluid layer. But in case of free convection, heat transfer correlations (for the Nusselt
number) are usually expressed in terms of the Rayleigh number.
The Rayleigh number is used to express heat transfer in natural convection. The magnitude
of the Rayleigh number is a good indication as to whether the natural convection boundary
layer is laminar or turbulent. The simple empirical correlations for the average Nusselt
number, Nu, in natural convection are of the form:

Nux = C. Raxn
The values of the constants C and n depend on the geometry of the surface and the flow
regime, which is characterized by the range of the Rayleigh number. The value of n is
usually n = 1/4 for laminar flow and n = 1/3 for turbulent flow.

Combined Free and Forced Convection

. In fact, there are flow regimes, in which we have to consider both forcing mechanisms.
When flow velocities are low, natural convection will also contribute in addition to
forced convection. Whether or not free convection is significant for heat transfer, it can
be checked using the following criteria:
 If Gr/Re2 >> 1 free convection prevails
 If Gr/Re2 << 1 forced convection prevails
 If Gr/Re2 ≈ 1 both should be considered
The effect of buoyancy on heat transfer in a forced flow is strongly influenced by the
direction of the buoyancy force relative to that of the flow. Natural
convection may help or hurt forced convection heat transfer, depending on the relative
directions of buoyancy-induced and the forced convection motions. Three special cases
that have been studied extensively correspond to buoyancy-induced and forced
motions:
 Assisting flow. The buoyant motion is in the same direction as the forced motion.
 Opposing flow. The buoyant motion is in the opposite direction to the forced
motion.
 Transverse flow. The buoyant motion is perpendicular to the forced motion.
It is obvious, in assisting and transverse flows, buoyancy enhances the rate of heat
transfer associated with pure forced convection. On the other hand, in opposing flows, it
decreases the rate of heat transfer. When determining the Nusselt number under
combined natural and forced convection conditions, it is tempting to add the
contributions of natural and forced convection in assisting flows and to subtract them in
opposing flows:

For the specific geometry of interest, the Nusselt numbers Nuforced and Nunatural are

determined from existing correlations for pure forced and natural (free) convection,
respectively. The best correlation of data to experiments is often obtained for exponent
n = 3, but it may vary between 3 and 4, depending on the geometry of the problem.
Natural Circulation
Natural circulation in a closed loop

Natural circulation is the circulation of fluid within piping systems or open pools that is

due to the density changes caused by temperature differences. Natural circulation does
not require any mechanical devices to maintain flow.
This phenomenon has similar nature as natural convection, but in this case the heat
transfer coefficient is not an object of study. In this case, the bulk flow through the
loop is the object of study. This phenomenon is rather a hydraulic problem than a heat
transfer problem, although in result natural circulation removes heat from source and
transports it to the heat sink and is of the highest importance in reactor safety.

References
1. https://gradeup.co/one-dimensional-heat-conduction-i-4aa23aaa-baaa-11e5-8ed3-
92993fe8bab4

2. https://math.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Differential_Equations/Book
%3A_Partial_Differential_Equations_(Walet)/03%3A_Boundary_and_Initial_Conditions
/3.02%3A_Explicit_Boundary_Conditions
3. https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-engineering/heat-transfer/convection-convective-
heat-transfer/natural-convection-free-convection/

4. file:///C:/Users/suleman%20%20zahoor/Downloads/1A-Chapter1-Sec.1.1-1.2-Color.pdf
5. file:///C:/Users/suleman%20%20zahoor/Downloads/1A-Chapter1-Sec.1.1-1.2-Color.pdf