Understanding Developmental Psychology

The study of developmental psychology is essential to understanding how

humans learn, mature and adapt. 

Throughout their lives, humans go through various stages of development.

Developmental psychologists study how people grow, develop and adapt at
different life stages. They conduct research designed to help people reach
their full potential — for example, studying the difference between learning
styles in babies and adults.

Developmental Psychology Applied

Developmental psychologists study human growth and development over the

lifespan, including physical, cognitive, social, intellectual, perceptual,
personality and emotional growth. 

Developmental psychologists working in colleges and universities tend to focus

primarily on research or teaching. Others working in more applied settings like
health care facilities or clinics help to assess, evaluate and treat people living
with developmental disabilities. Developmental psychologists may also work in
assisted living homes for the elderly, hospitals, mental health clinics and
centers for the homeless.

Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory

Psychoanalytic theory was an enormously influential force during the first half
of the twentieth century. Those inspired and influenced by Freud went on to
expand upon Freud's ideas and develop theories of their own. Of these neo-
Freudians, Erik Erikson's ideas have become perhaps the best known.

Erikson's eight-stage theory of psychosocial development describes growth

and change throughout life, focusing on social interaction and conflicts that
arise during different stages of development.

While Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development shared some

similarities with Freud's, it is dramatically different in many ways. Rather than
focusing on sexual interest as a driving force in development, Erikson believed
that social interaction and experience played decisive roles.
His eight-stage theory of human development described this process from
infancy through death. During each stage, people are faced with a
developmental conflict that impacts later functioning and further growth.

Although many theorists are responsible for contributing to the Developmental

Tasks Theory, it was Robert J. Havighurst who elaborated on this theory in the
most systematic and extensive manner.

Havighurst’s main assertion is that development is continuous throughout the

entire lifespan, occurring in stages, where an individual moves from one stage
to the next by means of successful resolution of problems or performance of
developmental tasks. These tasks are typically encountered by most people in
the culture where the individual belongs.

When people successfully accomplish and master these developmental tasks,

they feel pride and satisfaction, and consequently earn the approval of their
community or society. This success provides a sound foundation which allows
them to accomplish developmental tasks that they will encounter at later
stages.

Conversely, when people fail to accomplishing a developmental task, they’re

often unhappy and are not accorded the desired approval by society, resulting
in the subsequent experience of difficulty when faced with succeeding
developmental tasks.

Havighurst’s Developmental Tasks Theory suggests that we are active learners

who continually interact with a similarly active social environment.

Havighurst proposed a bio psychosocial model of development, wherein the

developmental tasks at each stage are influenced by an individual’s biology
(physiological maturation and genetic makeup), his psychology (personal
values and goals), as well as his sociology (specific culture to which the
individual belongs).

Some developmental tasks evolve out of the biological character of humans

and are therefore faced similarly by all individuals from any culture. An
example of this is learning how to walk for infants. Being a skill that depends
on maturation and genetically determined factors, the mechanics involved in
learning how to walk are virtually the same and occur at generally the same
time for children from all cultures.

Other developmental tasks that stem from biological mechanisms include

learning to talk, exercising control over bodily functions, learning skills typically
utilized in children’s games, and coping with physiological changes related to
aging, to name a few.

Havighurst pointed out the importance of sensitive periods which he

considered to be the ideal teachable moments during which an individual
demonstrates maturation at a level that is most conducive to learning and
successfully performing the developmental tasks.

Psychological factors that emerge from the individual’s maturing personality

and psyche are embodied in personal values and goals. These values and
goals are another source of some developmental tasks such as establishing
one’s self-concept, developing relationships with peers of both sexes and
adjusting to retirement or to the loss of a spouse.

There are other developmental tasks, however, that arise from the unique
cultural standards of a given society and as such, may be observed in different
forms in varying societies or, alternatively, may be observed is some cultures
but not in others. One such task would be preparing oneself for an occupation.

An individual who belongs to an agricultural community, for instance, might

make the preparations for an occupation such as becoming a farmer at an
early age, possibly in middle childhood or in adolescence. Members of an
industrialized society, on the other hand, require longer and more specialized
preparation for an occupation. Therefore, they tend to embark on this
developmental task sometime during early adulthood. Other culturally-based
developmental tasks include achieving gender-appropriate roles and becoming
a responsible citizen.

An enumeration of developmental tasks, therefore, will differ across cultures.

Nevertheless, Havighurst did propose a list of common critical developmental
tasks, categorized into six stages of development which offers a rough picture
of what these specific developmental tasks are. Below is a partial list of
Havighurst’s developmental tasks.

Infancy and Early Childhood – birth to 5 years

Learning to walk
Learning to control bodily wastes

Learning to talk

Learning to form relationships with family members

Middle Childhood – 6 – 12 years

Learning physical skills for playing games

Developing school-related skills such as reading , writing, and counting

Developing conscience and values

Attaining independence

Adolescence – 13 – 17 years

Establishing emotional independence from parents

Equipping self with skills needed for productive occupation

Achieving gender-based social role

Establishing mature relationships with peers of both sexes

Early Adulthood – 18 – 35 years

Choosing a partner

Establishing a family

Managing a home

Establishing a career

Middle Age – 36 – 60 years

Maintaining economic standard of living

Performing civic and social responsibilities

Relating to spouse as a person

Adjusting to physiological changes

Later Maturity – over 60 years

Adjusting to deteriorating health and physical strength

Adjusting to retirement

Meeting social and civil obligations

Adjusting to death or loss of spouse

The assertions and principles presented by Havighurst are quite easily

understandable and clear. The applications of Havighurst’s Developmental
Tasks Theory extend to the field of education and have asserted influence
over educators and psychologists worldwide. Although the theory has its roots
in the 1930s, it continues to stimulate the insights of contemporary
psychologists, prompting the publication of new manuscripts and books based
on the concepts of the developmental task theory.

Havinghurst (1972) defines a developmental task as one that arises at a

certain period in our lives, the successful achievement of which leads
tohappiness and success with later tasks; while leads to unhappiness,
social disapproval, and difficulty with later tasks.

Havighurst uses lightly different age groupings, but the basic divisions are
quite similar to thoseused in this book. He identifies three sources of
developmental tasks(Havighurst, 1972)

Havighurst
Think about when you were a baby: you crawled around, you goo-goo-ed and ga-ga-ed, and
you cried whenever you wanted food. I'm betting that things are different now. You probably
walk more than you crawl, and you communicate with words instead of 'goo-goo' and 'ga-
ga,' and when you're hungry you probably go to the refrigerator and get food instead of
sitting and crying until someone feeds you.

Development is the process of growth and change that people go through in life. Robert J.
Havighurst was a psychologist in the 20th century who developed a theory on how people
develop through life. Let's look closer at Havighurst's theory of development: the stages of
life and the sources of developmental tasks.

Stages of Life
As we have already seen, people change a lot from when they are babies to when they are
adults. But even adults change from when they are 20 to when they are 80. Havighurst
identified six stages of life that people go through. They are:

1.) Infancy and early childhood, which lasts from birth to age 5. These are babies who are
just learning to walk and talk and figuring out the world around them.

2.) Middle childhood lasts from age 6 to age 12. During this time, children become more
self-sufficient as they go to school and make friends.

3.) Adolescence, which lasts from age 13 to age 18, comes with hormonal changes and
learning about who you are as an individual.

4.) Early adulthood lasts from age 19 to age 30 and involves finding an occupation and
often finding a life partner as well.

5.) Middle Age lasts from age 30 to age 60 and is the time when most people start a family
and settle into their adult lives.

6.) Later Maturity is the time of life after age 60. During this time, people adjust to life after
work and begin to prepare themselves for death.

As you can see, each life stage has specific developmental tasks that generally occur in that
time period. Someone in early childhood, for example, is likely not going to be starting a
family of their own, unless it's a pretend one. In contrast, someone in middle age is probably
not learning to walk and talk. That's already happened by then.

Developmental Tasks
So people go through six stages of life and each stage has developmental tasks that a person
needs to master during that period. But what dictates the developmental tasks? For
example, why does a person in early adulthood find a mate instead of someone in early
childhood? According to Havighurst, there are three sources of developmental tasks. That is,
there are three things that can cause a developmental task during a life stage. The three
sources are:

Havighurst Theory Explained

Robert Havighurst proposed that learning is a basic concept and skill that is natural
to the human condition. It is a process that doesn’t stop throughout the entire life of
an individual. The Havighurst theory suggests that human development can be
separated into six separate and distinct stages.

1. Infancy and Early Childhood

During this initial development stage, humans learn the basics of what it takes to
survive in the world. People learn to walk, talk, and gain control over their bodies.
This includes learning about gender differences, being able to eat solid foods, and
controlling how waste is eliminated from the body.

Infancy and early childhood is also the time when initial language concepts are
discovered. Children at this stage begin to realize their physical reality and can
describe basic social concepts, such as friendship.

During this stage, Havighurst also suggests that humans are preparing their minds to
be able to read one day.

2. Middle Childhood

During this development stage, children begin to learn basic physical skills. These
can be used for playing games, vocational skills, or social interactions. There is a
growing awareness of the self and a “wholesome” attitude toward what is seen in the
reflection.

At this time, children find ways to get along with peers who are of a similar age. They
begin learning gender-based roles in the society and refine the skills needed for
reading, writing, and basic mathematics. There is a development of the concepts
needed for dialing living activities, personal independence, and attitudes toward
different social groups or institutions.

This development stage is also where humans begin to develop their sense of
morality, their value scales, and their conscience.

3. Adolescence

At this stage, people seek to create relationships that have a mature quality to them.
Gender-based roles for the society are achieved and there is a gradual acceptance
of one’s personal physique and how to use it to their advantage. An emotional
independence from the family is achieved.

During this development stage, there is a movement toward planning out the aspects
of one’s life. A priority is set on defining what will be desired in a future companion,
which may include marriage. Family life becomes a priority on a group level instead
of on an individualized level.

Preparing for a career is part of this stage as well. Individuals will set ethical values
for themselves to guide their behavior and create an ideology that can lead them
toward their goals. The overall mission of this stage is to discover, desire, and then
achieve behaviors that would be considered socially responsible.

4. Early Adulthood

This is the stage of development that is commonly referred to as “settling down.” A

mate will be selected and people learn to live with their desired partner. A family may
be started and raising children becomes a priority. The focus of this stage is
ultimately to create and then manage a loving home environment.

There will also be an emphasis on furthering one’s career while looking for volunteer,
civic, or political responsibilities. Many will seek to find a welcoming social group that
reinforces the comfort that is hopefully being experienced at home.

5. Middle Age

This developmental stage is about establishing an economic standard of living and

then being able to maintain it. Children are generally in their teen years at this stage,
which gives parents a priority in shaping their perspectives during their own
developmental stages.

Leisure activities become adult-orientated instead of kid-orientated. Civic and social

responsibility is achieved. Relationships involve one’s spouse or partner just as much
as they involve personal attitudes. There are adjustments made for the physical and
psychological changes of middle age while a transition to becoming a parental
caregiver is often required.

6. Later Maturity

In this stage, people encounter a decreasing level of strength and personal health.
Retirement activities become a priority, with many needing to adjust to a lower level
of monthly income. Some may eventually need to cope with the death of a partner or
spouse.

There is a priority during this stage to join specific affiliations that are associated with
age, such as the AARP. Changing civil and social obligations occur as there is a
greater need to accept the help of a caregiver as time moves on.

At some point, developing a satisfactory physical living arrangement becomes

necessary. This arrangement may require evolving supports as an individual
continues to age.

The Havighurst theory shows that as time passes, each person goes through specific
development tasks that complete them as an individual. By recognizing each stage, it
becomes easier to support each person in what they’re attempting to accomplish.