Maintenance of ICE

Maintenance Basics

Dr. Tamer Mansour

Eng. Mohamed Elsabahy
Contents
 Maintenance Definition, Activities and Objectives
 Maintenance Classifications
 Failures
 Maintainability, Reliability and Availability
 Troubleshooting
Objectives
By the end of the lecture students should be able to:
 Define maintenance.
 List maintenance activities and objectives.
 Classify maintenance types.
 Recognize advantages, disadvantages and the use of each maintenance type.
 Be familiar with failure definition, failure classifications, sources and estimation.
 Differentiate between definitions such as maintainability, reliability, availability.
Maintenance Definition, Activities and Objectives
Maintenance Definition
The combination of all technical and administrative actions, including supervision actions, intended to retain an
item in, or restore it to, a state in which it can perform a required function.

Maintenance is a set of organized activities that are carried out in order to keep an item in its best operational
condition with minimum cost acquired.

Maintenance Activities
Activities of maintenance function could be either repair or replacement activities, which are necessary for an
item to reach its acceptable productivity condition and these activities, should be carried out with a minimum
possible cost.
Maintenance Objectives
• Maximizing production or increasing facilities availability at the lowest cost and at the highest quality and
safety standards.
• Reducing breakdowns and emergency shutdowns.
• Optimizing resources utilization.
• Reducing downtime.
• Improving spares stock control.
• Improving equipment efficiency and reducing scrap rate.
• Minimizing energy usage.
• Optimizing the useful life of equipment.
• Providing reliable cost and budgetary control.
• Identifying and implementing cost reductions.

Maintenance objectives should be consistent with and subordinate to production goals. The relation between
maintenance objectives and production goals is reflected in the action of keeping production machines and facilities
in the best possible condition.
Maintenance Classifications
Types
1. Run to Failure Maintenance (RTF)

2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)

3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)

4. Improvement Maintenance (IM)

5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)

Classification
Types ➔1. Run to Failure Maintenance (RTF)
❑ The required repair, replacement, or restore action performed on a machine or a facility after the
occurrence of a failure in order to bring this machine or facility to at least its minimum acceptable condition.

❑ It is the oldest type of maintenance.

❑ It is subdivided into two types:

• Emergency maintenance: it is carried out as fast as possible in order to bring a failed machine or facility to
a safe and operationally efficient condition.
• Breakdown maintenance: it is performed after the occurrence of an advanced considered failure for which
advanced provision has been made in the form of repair method, spares, materials, labour and equipment.
Types ➔1. Run to Failure Maintenance (RTF)
This type of maintenance is useful in the following situations:
1. The failure of a component in a system is unpredictable.
2. The cost of performing run to failure maintenance activities is lower than performing other activities of
other types of maintenance.
3. The equipment failure priority is too low in order to include the activities of preventing it within the planned
maintenance budget.

Disadvantages:
1. Its activities are expensive in terms of both direct and indirect cost.
2. Using this type of maintenance, the occurrence of a failure in a component can cause failures in other
components in the same equipment, which leads to low production availability.
3. Its activities are very difficult to plan and schedule in advance.
Types ➔2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
It is a set of activities that are performed on plant equipment, machinery, and systems before the occurrence of a
failure in order to protect them and to prevent or eliminate any degradation in their operating conditions.

Or

The maintenance carried out at predetermined intervals or according to prescribed criteria and intended to reduce
the probability of failure or the degradation of the functioning and the effects limited.

❑ Preventive maintenance strategy is a template based strategy where periodic maintenance is carried out as per
OEM recommendation/ organizational recommendations.
❑ The schedule of the intervals is based on average statistical/anticipated lifetime to avoid failure.
❑ This includes inspection, service / replacement of the defective parts of the machine.PM may be described as the
care and servicing by individuals involved with maintenance to keep equipment/facilities in satisfactory
operational state by providing for systematic inspection, detection, and correction of incipient failures either prior
to their occurrence or prior to their development into major failure.
❑ Some of the main objectives of PM are to: enhance capital equipment productive life, reduce critical equipment
breakdowns, allow better planning and scheduling of needed maintenance work, minimize production losses due
to equipment failures, and promote health and safety of maintenance personnel.
Types ➔ 2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
There are seven elements of PM as shown in Figure
Inspection: Periodically inspecting materials/items to determine their
serviceability by comparing their physical, electrical, mechanical, etc.,
characteristics (as applicable) to expected standards.
Servicing: Cleaning, lubricating, charging, preservation, etc., of items/materials
periodically to prevent the occurrence of incipient failures.
Calibration: Periodically determining the value of characteristics of an item by
comparison to a standard; it consists of the comparison of two instruments, one
of which is certified standard with known accuracy, to detect and adjust any
discrepancy in the accuracy of the material/parameter being compared to the
established standard value.
Testing: Periodically testing or checking out to determine serviceability and detect electrical/mechanical-related
degradation.
Alignment: Making changes to an item’s specified variable elements for the purpose of achieving optimum
performance.
Adjustment: Periodically adjusting specified variable elements of material for the purpose of achieving the
optimum system performance.
Installation: Periodic replacement of limited-life items or the items experiencing time cycle or wear degradation, to
maintain the specified system tolerance.
Types ➔ 2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
The factors that affect the efficiency of this type of maintenance:
1. The need for an adequate number of staff in the maintenance department in order to perform this type of
maintenance.
2. The right choice of production equipment and machinery that is suitable for the working environment and that
can tolerate the workload of this environment.
3. The required staff qualifications and skills, which can be gained through training.
4. The support and commitment from executive management to the PM program.
5. The proper planning and scheduling of PM program.
6. The ability to properly apply the PM program.

Usage
❑ The advantage of applying preventive maintenance activities is to satisfy most of maintenance objectives.
❑ It is good for those machines and facilities which their failure would cause serious production losses.
❑ Its aim is to maintain machines and facilities in such a condition that breakdowns and emergency repairs are
minimized.
Types ➔ 2. Preventive Maintenance (PM) ➔ Subtypes
Researchers subdivided preventive maintenance into different kinds according to the nature of its activities:

• Routine maintenance which includes those maintenance activities that are repetitive and periodic in nature
such as lubrication, cleaning, and small adjustment.

• Running maintenance which includes those maintenance activities that are carried out while the machine or
equipment is running and they represent those activities that are performed before the actual preventive
maintenance activities take place.

• Opportunity maintenance which is a set of maintenance activities that are performed on a machine or a
facility when an unplanned opportunity exists during the period of performing planned maintenance activities to
other machines or facilities.

• Window maintenance which is a set of activities that are carried out when a machine or equipment is not
required for a definite period of time.

• Shutdown preventive maintenance, which is a set of preventive maintenance activities that are carried out
when the production line is in total stoppage situation.
Types ➔ 2. Preventive Maintenance (PM)
Advantages:
- Cost effective in many capital intensive processes.
- Flexibility allows for the adjustment of maintenance periodicity.
- Increased component life cycle.
- Energy savings.
- Reduced equipment or process failure.
- Estimated 12% to 18% cost savings over reactive maintenance program.

Disadvantages:
- Catastrophic failures still likely to occur.
- Labor intensive.
- Includes performance of unneeded maintenance.
- Potential for incidental damage to components in conducting unneeded maintenance.
Types ➔ 3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)
In this type, actions such as repair, replacement, or restore will be carried out after the occurrence of a failure in
order to eliminate the source of this failure or reduce the frequency of its occurrence.

Or

the maintenance carried out after recognition and intended to put an item into a state in which it can perform a
required function.

❑ The main objectives of corrective maintenance are the maximization of the effectiveness of all critical plant
systems, the elimination of breakdowns, the elimination of unnecessary repair, and the reduction of the
deviations from optimum operating conditions.

❑ The difference between corrective maintenance and preventive maintenance is that for the corrective
maintenance, the failure should occur before any corrective action is taken.

❑ Corrective maintenance is different from run to failure maintenance in that its activities are planned and
regularly taken out to keep plant’s machines and equipment in optimum operating condition.
Types ➔ 3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)
❑ The way to perform corrective maintenance activities is by conducting four important steps:
1. Fault detection.
2. Fault isolation.
3. Fault elimination.
4. Verification of fault elimination.
In the fault elimination step several actions could be taken such as adjusting, aligning, calibrating, reworking,
removing, replacing or renovation.

Corrective maintenance has several prerequisites in order to be carried out effectively:

1. Accurate identification of incipient problems.
2. Effective planning which depends on the skills of the planners, the availability of well developed maintenance
database about standard time to repair, a complete repair procedures, and the required labour skills, specific tools,
parts and equipment.
3. Proper repair procedures.
4. Adequate time to repair.
5. Verification of repair.
Types ➔ 3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)
Disadvantages
❑ High expenses involved
❑ High spare parts inventory cost
❑ High overtime labor costs
❑ High machine downtime
❑ Low production availability
Types ➔ 3. Corrective Maintenance (CM)
This type of maintenance is subdivided into three types:
• Remedial maintenance, which is a set of activities that are performed to eliminate the source of failure
without interrupting the continuity of the production process. The way to carry out this type of corrective
maintenance is by taking the item to be corrected out of the production line and replacing it with reconditioned
item or transferring its workload to its redundancy.
• Deferred maintenance, which is a set of corrective maintenance activities that are not immediately initiated
after the occurrence of a failure but are delayed in such a way that will not affect the production process.
• Shutdown corrective maintenance, which is a set of corrective maintenance activities that are performed
when the production line is in total stoppage situation.
Types ➔ 4. Improvement Maintenance (IM)
It aims at reducing or eliminating entirely the need for maintenance.

This type of maintenance is subdivided into three types as follows:

1. Design-out maintenance which is a set of activities that are used to eliminate the cause of maintenance,
simplify maintenance tasks, or raise machine performance from the maintenance point of view by redesigning
those machines and facilities which are vulnerable to frequent occurrence of failure and their long term repair
or replacement cost is very expensive.
2. Engineering services which includes construction and construction modification, removal and installation,
and rearrangement of facilities.
3. Shutdown improvement maintenance, which is a set of improvement maintenance activities that are
performed while the production line is in a complete stoppage situation.
Types ➔ 5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
❑ Predictive maintenance is a set of activities that detect changes in the physical condition of equipment
(signs of failure) in order to carry out the appropriate maintenance work for maximizing the service life of
equipment without increasing the risk of failure.

Some researchers classified predictive maintenance as a type of preventive maintenance.

❑ The main difference between preventive maintenance and predictive maintenance is that predictive
maintenance uses monitoring the condition of machines or equipment to determine the actual mean time to
failure whereas preventive maintenance depends on industrial average life statistics.

It is classified into two kinds according to the methods of detecting the signs of failure:
• Condition-based predictive maintenance: It depends on continuous or periodic condition monitoring
equipment to detect the signs of failure.
• Statistical-based predictive maintenance: It depends on statistical data from the meticulous recording
of the stoppages of the in-plant items and components in order to develop models for predicting
failures.
Types ➔ 5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
This maintenance based on the actual asset condition gauged by objective evidence of probable problem obtained
from on site, non-invasive tests and operating and condition measurements.

This is also known as Condition Based Maintenance (CBM).As the potential breakdown of a machine is predicted
through regular condition monitoring and maintenance is carried out at the optimum time.

It has obvious advantages compared with either run-to-break or preventive maintenance, but does require having
access to reliable condition monitoring techniques, which not only are able to determine current condition, but also
give reasonable predictions of remaining useful life.
Types ➔ 5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
Condition Monitoring Methods Condition monitoring is based on being able to monitor the current condition and
predict the future condition of machines while in operation.
Thus it means that information must be obtained externally about internal effects while the machines are in
operation.
Predictive Maintenance (PdM) monitors the performance and condition of equipment or systems to detect/trend
degradation.
Techniques include:
1. Vibration monitoring
2. Thermographic inspection
3. Oil analysis
4. Visual inspection
5. Shock pulse
6. Ultrasonic leak detectors
7. Electrical insulation (A. Megger tests; B. Surge comparison)
8. Performance testing
9. Wear and dimensional measurements
10. Signature analysis, time and frequency domain
11. Nondestructive testing (A. Ultrasonic; B. Borescope inspections; C. Eddy current)
Types ➔ 5. Predictive Maintenance (PDM)
Advantages:
o Maximizes equipment availability
o Some forms of inspection utilizing human senses can be
inexpensive
o Allows shutdown before severe damage occurs
o Production can be modified to extend unit life
o Cause of failure can be analyzed
Disadvantages:
o Vibration monitoring, Thermograph and Oil Debris
Analysis require specialized equipment and training.
o A period of time will be required for trends to
develop and then machine condition can be
assessed.
o depends heavily on information and the correct
interpretation of the information.

o Maintenance can be planned;

o Labor can be organized
o Spares can be assembled
Failures
Failures
Failure is defined as 'The termination of the ability of an item to perform its required function.'

Failure is any event that adversely affects system criteria. For example, the criteria could include output in a sold-
out condition, or maintenance cost or capital resources in a constrained budget cycle, environmental excursions
or safety, etc.

This can involve such failure categories as follows:

1. Catastrophic failures which result in an immediate inability of a system to achieve its function;
2. Performance failures associated with a reducing performance of the equipment.
3. When the operator deliberately takes the equipment out of service, even though it is producing, at that time,
its specified output.
Failure Classifications
The terms 'failure' or 'fault' may be viewed from different angles according to the effect which the lack of
performance has on the overall functional capability.
Such aspects as economic viability, safety, engineering complexity, speed, causal influences all provide classifications
leading to a description of failure.
Failure Classifications ➔ ENGINEERING FAILURE
There are two distinct classes of failure:
(l) Intermittent failure: failures which result in a lack of some function of the component only for a very short
period of time, the component reverting to its full operational standard immediately after failure;
(2) Permanent failure: failures which result in a lack of some function which will continue until some part of the
component is replaced.

Failure Classifications ➔ DEGREE OF FAILURE

Permanent failures may be further subdivided into the following two types:
(1) Complete failure: failure which causes the complete lack of a required function. (It should be noted that in
certain cases the limit when a lack of function is said to be complete is open to interpretation, which depends
upon the application);
(2) Partial failure: failure which leads to a lack of some function but not such as to cause a complete lack of the
required function.
Failure Classifications ➔ SPEED OF FAILURE
Both complete and partial permanent failure may be further classified according to the suddenness with which
the failure occurs:
(1) Sudden failure: failure which could not be forecast by prior testing or examination;
(2) Gradual failure: failure which could have been forecast by testing or examination.

Failure Classifications ➔ DEGREE AND SPEED OF FAILURE

Both failure forms can be combined to give the following further classifications:
(1) Catastrophic failures: failures which are both sudden and complete;
(2) Degradation failures: failures which are both partial and gradual.
Failure Classifications ➔ CAUSE-OF FAILURE
According to the manner by which failure develops, so it be further classified:
(1) Wear-out failures: failure attributable to the normal processes of wear as expected when the device was
designed;
(2) Misuse failure: failure attributable to the application of stresses beyond the item's stated capabilities; (3)
Inherent weakness failure: failure attributable to a lack of suitability in the design or construction of the system
or component itself when ► subjected to stresses within its stated capabilities.

Failure Classifications ➔ HAZARD

Possible faults (major or minor failures) may be divided into two broad hazard groups, namely dangerous-
failures or safe-failures.
(1) Dangerous faults: (a) protection system - failure to protect when needed, (b) machine tool - failure
causing damage to work and/or operator, (c) traction system - failure to brake;
(2) Safe faults: (a) protection system - failure to operate when not needed, (b) machine tool - failure to
start, (c) traction system - failure of brakes to apply when not needed.
Failure Sources
❑ Defects may be broadly classified into those which result in a fracture and those for which fractures do
not occur.
❑ These may in turn be sub-classified according to the causes due to chemical, thermal and mechanical
influences.
❑ Further sub-classification results in the identification of creep, corrosion, fatigue and mechanical
fracture with a considerable further sub-classification of such causes of failure.

❑ Service failures
The failures experienced most frequently in machinery are fracture, excessive deformation and surface failure,
particularly corrosion deterioration.
Typical review of failures and their causes are given in the following:
• Corrosion
• Excessive deformation
• Contamination
• Fatigue
• Overheating
• Overstressing
• Seizure
• Wear
Failure Sources
Failure rate
❑ Failure rate is the time rate of change of the probability of failure.
❑ Since the latter is a function of time, failure rate is also a function of
time.
❑ However, in terms of failure rate, one can obtain physical information
as to which factor is controlling the failure behavior and/or when it is
controlling the failure behavior.
❑ The failure rate is a basic component of many more complex
reliability calculations.
❑ Depending upon the mechanical/electrical design, operating context,
environment and/or maintenance effectiveness, a machine’s failure
rate as a function of time may decline, remain constant, increase
linearly or increase geometrically ( See the Figure)
Failure rate
Failure rate ➔ Bathtub Curve
The typical machine failure rate versus time plot is given in Figure bellow.
The plot has three distinct zones: the infant mortality zone, the useful period, and the wear-out zone.
o The infant mortality zone with high failure rates occurs in the early stages of the machine.
o There could be several reasons for such high failure rates; some of them are faulty installation at the site, ignorance and
unfamiliarity of the machine operator, improper electrical power supply, no availability of a user or training manual,
improper specifications, and choice of the machine.
o Once the above reasons are sorted out, the machine’s failure rate reduces significantly; this state of the machine
continues for a considerable time, which is known as the useful life of the machine.
o Finally, toward the end of the useful period, the failure rate of the machine again increases, which can be due to
excessive wear and tear on the machine and fatigue failure of the machine component.
Failure rate ➔ Bathtub Curve
Generally, the infant mortality mode is a quality control issue, while the wear-out mode is a maintenance
issue. The random failure or constant rate mode, on the other hand, is widely used as the basis for product
reliability considerations.
❑ By maintenance the failure rates can be controlled and reduced, a time comes when the cost of
maintenance or upkeep is so high that it is better to completely replace the machine with a new one.
❑ The availability of the machine is defined as the ratio of the useful period (also known as uptime) to the
total lifespan of the machine.
❑ Maintenance engineers strive to increase the availability of a machine by decreasing the machine’s
downtime.
❑ The total lifespan of a machine is the summation of the uptime and downtime of the machine.
Failure rate ➔ Failure Patterns
Three types of failure patterns can be identified as follows:
1. Random Failure Pattern:
• This is a situation when the probability of failure of a component is constant and independent of time.
• Such components do not wear out or deteriorate under normal operating conditions.
• An example is the fuse that can be blown off whether old or new.
2. Running-in Failure Pattern:
• This term is usually refers to the period of starting a machinery when it is new or after a major overhaul,
which normally involves the changing of principal working components and parts.
• Problems of running- in may be a result of human imperfections either in design/manufacture or during
installation.
3. Wear-out Failure Pattern:
• Deterioration of machinery is expected to increase with use and its age.
• Machinery would therefore fail after some operating conditions at an age.
• Failure patterns, which exhibit wear, are represented by the Normal Probability Function.
Failure rate ➔ Estimation
Failure rate can be estimated as the inverse of Mean time between failures (MTBF) or Mean time to failure
(MTTF)
1 1
𝜆 = OR 𝜆 =
𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹 𝑀𝑇𝐵𝐹

1. Mean time between failures (MTBF)

❑ MTBF is the critical characteristic for repairable system and is the mean or average time between two successive
failures of the system.
❑ MTBF can be obtained by running an item or equipment for a predetermined length of time under specified
conditions and calculating:
The average length of time between failures
For example, an item fails six times in an operating period of 60,000 hrs, MTBF is 10, 000 hrs.
❑ However, if the identical items operating under similar conditions are studied, MTBF is given by:
MTBF = (Total operating hours of all items)/Total number of failures that occur
For example if 20 identical items operate for 5, 000 hrs during which 40 failures occur and are rectified, MTBF =
5000× 20/40 = 2, 500 hrs
❑ MTBF can also be expressed as the inverse of failure rate, λ as follows:
MTBF =1/λ
Failure rate ➔ Estimation
2. Mean time to failure (MTTF)
This is used for components or items that are not repairable such as filament lamps, fuses, resistors, capacitors, etc.

The value of MTTF can be calculated from life test results, which can be obtained by stressing a large number of
components under known conditions for a period and noting the number of failures.

MTTF = (Length of test time) / (Number of failures).

Another method which though is more accurate but costly is run to failure specified number of components under
specified conditions.
𝑛
1
𝑀𝑇𝑇𝐹 = ෍ 𝑇𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1

Where 𝑇𝑖 = length of time taken by the 𝑖 th specimen to fail 𝑛 = total number of specimens.

MTTF =1/ λ where λ is failure rate and is independent of time

Maintainability, Reliability and Availability
Maintainability
Maintainability Once a piece of equipment has failed it must be possible to get it back into an operating condition
as soon as possible, this is known as maintainability.
Reliability
The term “reliability” in engineering refers to the probability that a product, a system or a particular component will
perform without failure under the specified condition and for a specific period of time.
o Thus, it is also known as the “probability of survival”.
o To quantify reliability, a test is usually conducted to obtain a set of “time-to-failure” sample data; say {ti, i=1, N).
o The sample can then be fitted to a probability density function, f (t), or to a probability cumulative function, F (t).
o The “reliability function” is defined as: R(t) = 1- F(t).
o Hence the behavior of R(t) is conjugate to that of F(t), the cumulative probability of failure in time.
o However, failure of an engineering product, or system, may stem from such random factors as material defects,
loss of precision, accidental over load, environmental corrosion, etc.
o The effects on failure of the these random factors are only implicit in the collected data {ti, i=1,N); and it is
difficult to ascertain which factor is predominant and when it is predominant, from using F(t).
Reliability ➔ Estimation
❑ Reliability can be specified by the exponential distribution, the most basic and widely used reliability prediction
formula, models machines with the constant failure rate, or the flat section of the bathtub curve.
❑ Most industrial machines spend most of their lives in the constant failure rate, so it is widely applicable.
❑ Below is the basic equation for estimating the reliability of a machine that follows the exponential distribution,
where the failure rate is constant as a function of time:
𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝜆𝑡
Where:
R(t) = Reliability estimate for a period of time, cycles, miles, etc. (t).
e = Base of the natural logarithms (2.718281828)
λ = Failure rate (1/MTBF)

If for example, we assume a constant failure rate of 0.1 for a prime mover and running for six years without a failure,
the projected reliability is 55 percent, which is calculated as follows:
𝑅(6) = 𝑒 −0.1x 6 = 0.5488 = ~ 55%
• In other words, after six years, about 45% of the population of similar prime mover operating in similar application
can be expected to fail.
• It is worth reiterating at this point that these calculations project the probability for a population.
• Any given individual from the population could fail on the first day of operation while another individual could last
30 years.
• That is the nature of probabilistic reliability projections.
Reliability ➔ Estimation (System Reliability)
❑ Calculating System Reliability System reliability depends on the reliabilities of the various components in the
system.
❑ Therefore, to calculate the reliability of a system, the system should be divided into subsystems.
❑ A system may be connected in series or parallel.
Reliability ➔ Estimation (System Reliability - Series)
█ ► Systems in Series In the series system, the ability to employ subsystem B depends upon the operating state of
subsystem A.
► If subsystem A is not operating, the system is down regardless of the condition of subsystem B (Figure 5).

A B

❑ To calculate the system reliability for a system is series, there is the need to multiply the estimated reliability of
subsystem A at time (t) by the estimated reliability of subsystem B at time (t).

❑ The basic equation for calculating the system reliability of a simple series system is:
𝑅𝑠 𝑡 = 𝑅1 𝑡 x 𝑅2 𝑡 x 𝑅3 𝑡 x … x 𝑅𝑛(𝑡)
Where:
𝑅𝑠(𝑡) – System reliability for given time (t)
𝑅𝑛(𝑡) – Subsystem or sub-function reliability for given time (t)

❑ So, for a simple system with three subsystems, or sub-functions, each having an estimated reliability of 0.90
(90%) at time (t), the system reliability is calculated as 0.90 X 0.90 X 0.90 = 0.729, or about 73%.
Reliability ➔ Estimation (System Reliability - Parallel)
Systems in Parallel Design engineers at times incorporate redundancy into critical machines.
Reliability engineers call these parallel systems and may be designed as active parallel systems or standby parallel
systems.
The block diagram for a simple two component parallel system is shown in Figure.

To calculate the reliability of an active parallel system, where both machines are running, use the following simple
equation:
𝑅𝑠(𝑡) = 1 − (1 − 𝑅1 𝑡 ) 𝑥 (1 − 𝑅2 𝑡 ) 𝑥 … 𝑥 (1 − 𝑅𝑛 𝑡 )
Where:
𝑅𝑠(𝑡) – System reliability for given time (t)
𝑅𝑛(𝑡) – Subsystem or sub-function reliability for given time (t) The simple parallel system in our example with two
components in parallel, each having a reliability of 0.90, has a total system reliability of 1 – (0.1 X 0.1) = 0.99.
Therefore, the system reliability was significantly improved.
Availability
❑ Maintenance Managers/Engineers usually employ availability Ratio for planning purposes.
❑ The reliability of a system gives the probability a certain job can be done without system breakdown, however,
the manager needs to know how much time the system would be available over a planning period.
❑ The maintainability, which is a factor of the time required and resources needed to restore equipment in case of
failure, in conjunction with reliability determine the availability of a machine.
❑ If the average repair time is Tav , the availability of the machine, AV in terms of MTBF is AV = MTBF /(MTBF+Tav)
Availability Ratio is the portion of the total time a machine should function to that the machine actually
functions.
❑ If the total is T hours and the machine is actually in working condition for U hours while it is down for D hours,
then T = U + D Availability Ratio, AR = U/(U+D) Unavailability Ratio, UR = D/((U+D) The total time, T does not
include planned operational shutdowns due to production schedules or routine preventive maintenance.
Troubleshooting
Troubleshooting
TROUBLESHOOTING SYSTEM: Troubleshooting can be described as a logical system of investigation designed to
yield the correct cause of breakdown in the shortest possible time and with the least likelihood of error.

Troubleshooting, like most skills, can be learned, and it is not necessary to assume that it is something for which
only certain talented people are qualified.

There are three factors to keep in mind it comes to troubleshooting, when confronted with a problem, technicians
must make sure that they:
- have an adequate knowledge and understanding of the machine concerned,
- use common sense and step-by-step approach, and
- draw on their own experience and that of others when required.
Troubleshooting

Case Study: Engine Troubleshooting