Advanced Materials

Characterization Workshop

Scanning Electron Microscopy

(SEM)
Wacek Swiech
Jim Mabon
Vania Petrova
Mike Marshall
Ivan Petrov
Supported by the U.S. Department of Energy under grants DEFG02-07-ER46453 and DEFG02-07-ER46471
© 2008 University of Illinois Board of Trustees. All rights reserved.

Basic Comparison to Optical Microscopy

Sequentioal Acquisition
Parallel Acquisition

Optical SEM (secondary electron)

The higher resolution and depth of focus available with the SEM are clearly observed,
electrons have small mass (m0).
de Broglie : λ = h p −1
U (V) λrelat (x102 nm) v (x107 m/s)
500 5.48 1.33 eU = m0 v 2 / 2 ⇒ p = m0 v = h (2m0 eU )1/ 2
1,000 3.88 1.87 hence : λnon − rel = h (2m0 eU ) −1/ 2
5,000 1.73 4.16
λrelat = h [2m0 eU (1 + eU (2m0 c 2 )−1 )]−1/2
10,000 1.22 5.85
30,000 0.70 9.84 (≈c/3!) From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
2 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
 What does the SEM do?
• An instrument for observing and
analyzing the surface microstructure
of a bulk sample using a finely
focused beam of energetic electrons
• An electron-optical system is used
to form the electron probe which is
scanned across the surface of the
sample (raster pattern).
• Various signals are generated
through the interaction of this beam
Many Applications: with the sample. These signals are
collected by appropriate detectors.
Most widely employed microscopy
• The signal amplitude obtained at
technique other then optical microscopy
each position in the raster pattern is
Surface morphology (SE, BSE, FSE) assembled to form an image.
Composition analysis (X-EDS, WDS)
Crystallography (electron diffraction and
channeling techniques)
Optical properties (cathodoluminescence CL)
Many other more specialized applications
Animation from A Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis,
3 Oxford Microanalytical Instruments

Secondary and Backscattered Electrons

Energy Distribution of Emitted Electrons

Secondary electrons are Backscattered electrons

low energy electrons are primary beam
ejected from the specimen electrons scattered back
atoms by the energetic out of the sample.
primary beam
Adapted From L. Reimer, Scanning Electron Microscopy,
4 2nd edition, Springer Verlag
 Electron Beam / Specimen Interactions
CL Incident Ib, E =0.5-30 keV, α = 0.2-1o
Beam
UV/Visible/IR Secondary
EDS/WDS Light electrons (SE)
Characteristic X- Auger electrons Imaging
rays
Backscattered
Bremsstrahlung electrons (BSE)
X-rays

Elastic Scattering
Inelastic Scattering
Micrometer-size Interaction Volume

Heat

Isc Imaging
Specimen Current

Isc = Ib− ηIb − δIb = Ib (1−(η+δ))

5

Monte-Carlo simulations of electron scattering

C

15 keV
Al
PMMA @ 20kV
Everhart et.al. (1972)

15 keV
Ti Ti Ti
1 μm

5 keV 15 keV 25 keV

• Determine effective lateral or depth
resolution for a particular signal in a
defined sample
• Simulate X-ray generation / X-ray
spectra in a defined sample
• Simulate image contrast
W Simulations are very useful for
testing if a measurement is
possible or interpreting results
Animation from A Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis,
15 keV Oxford Microanalytical Instruments

6 Monte Carlo Calculations, CASINO

 Sequential Image Acquisition in SEM

• The scan of the electron

beam and the screen raster
are synchronized with
intensity proportional to the
collected signal
• Magnification is given by
the ratio of the length of the
M = Ldisplay/Lspecimen line on display device to
length scanned on the real
sample

Animations from, The Oxford Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis, Figure from Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
7 Oxford Instruments Microanalysis Group Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

Typical SEM Column / Vacuum Conditions

JEOL 6060LV • An SEM specimen chamber typically
operates at high vacuum conditions:
Vacuum <10-4 Pa (NOT UHV)

• Usually operate with beam voltages

of a few hundred volts up to 30 kV
typically

• Vacuum as low as <10-8 Pa in the

gun area via differential pumping
depending on type of electron
source

• Special differentially pumped

environmental or variable pressure
systems for operation up to 20 Torr
in specimen chamber are available
for samples not compatible with high
vacuum (wet, for example) and
imaging uncoated non-conductive
samples
Courtesy JEOL USA
8
 Thermionic Sources- Tungsten Filament / LaB6
W LaB6

http://www.feibeamtech.com/pages/schottky.html

Schematic of a generalized
W-Hairpin electron source
From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
9 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

Cold Field Emission Electron Source

Sharp Single Crystal (310) Tungsten Tip

(310)

Courtesy Hitachi Instruments

Courtesy Hitachi Instruments From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

10 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
 Thermal-Field (Schottky) Emission Source

From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

~1800 K
Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

http://www.feibeamtech.com/pages/schottky.html

(100)
From Rooks and McCord,
SPIE Handbook of Microlithography
ZrO2

11

Electron Lenses

Graphic from A Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis,

Oxford Microanalytical Instruments

Limiting Parameters
Magnetic Lens
„ Spherical Aberration
„ Electromagnet coil
„ Chromatic Aberration
„ Precision machined soft
iron “pole piece” „ Astigmatism Aberration
„ Aperture diffraction
12
 Major Electron Beam Parameters

Four electron beam parameters define

the probe which determine resolution,
contrast, and depth of focus of SEM
images:

• Probe diameter – dp
• Probe current – Ip
• Probe convergence angle – αp
• Accelerating Voltage – Vo

These interdependent parameters must

be balanced by the operator to optimize
the probe conditions depending on Electron optical brightness, β, is a constant
needs: throughout the column, thus is a very
important electron source parameter
• Resolution
• Depth of Focus
• Image Quality (S/N ratio)
• Analytical Performance
From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
13 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

Origin of Depth of Focus

Distance above and
below plane of focus Quantifying Depth of
that beam becomes Focus
broadened to a
noticeable size
“blurring” in the For an observer it is taken
image that image defocus
becomes detectable when
two image elements fully
overlap, where an image
element is given by the
resolving power of the
human eye (~0.1mm).

The depth of focus can

then be described
geometrically by:

D ~ 0.2 mm / αM
Adapted from Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
14 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
 Function of Condenser Lens
De-magnify the beam obtained from the source to enable a small spot to be
obtained on the sample. Multiple lenses are more typically used in the condenser
lens system. u v 1 1 1
+ = M = v/u
Object
u v f
Image
• Ray diagram for lens
• Ray diagram for strongly excited
lens weakly
excited • Short focal length,
• Longer focal Small α1, Smaller d1
length, Small • Less beam accepted
α1, Larger d1
into objective
• More beam
accepted into aperture
objective • Lower probe current
aperture at specimen
• Higher probe
current at • Smaller focal spot at
specimen specimen
Objective • Larger focal • Higher Resolution
Aperture spot at
specimen • Lower Signal Levels
• Lower
resolution
• Higher Signal
Levels Adapted from Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray
15 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

Objective Lens / Working Distance

• Focus the electron beam on

the specimen with minimal
lens aberrations

• Short Focal Lengths(W1)

–> smaller d2, larger α2 ->
better resolution

• Longer Focal Lengths(W2)

–> larger d2, smaller α2 ->
better depth of field

• Smaller Apertures
–> smaller d2, smaller α2 ->
better resolution & better
depth of focus

• Correction coils are used to

correct asymmetries in lens
(correct astigmatism)

Adapted from Scanning Electron

Microscopy and X-Ray
Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al.
16 Plenum Press
 Lens Aberrations / Optimum Aperture Angle
Spherical Aberration
Aperture diffraction
causes a fundamental
limit to the achievable
probe size

Optimum aperture
angle determined
by combined effect
of spherical
aberration and
aperture diffraction

Adapted from Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
Chromatic Aberration
17

Lens Aberrations / Astigmatism

Lens by
Astigmatism is caused Aberrations – the
imperfections in Astigmatism
lens or other interference.
It can be corrected using additional elements called stigmators
contained inside the objective lens

Magnetostatic
quadrupole lens is
basis of a stigmator

Octupole lens stigmator

Adapted from Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

18 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
 Secondary Electron Detector / Imaging
• Faraday Cage (collector) is usually
biased a few hundred volts positive
(for collection efficiency)
• Scintillator is biased +10kV to
accelerate electrons to sufficient
energy to efficiently excite scintillating
material
• Amplified output level is directly used
to set brightness (offset) and contrast
(gain) in corresponding pixel in image

Everhart-Thornley SE detector

Contrast from predominately

angular dependence of
secondary electron yield and
edge effects.

Reactive ion etching of Al/Si(001)

19

Secondary Electron Yield

Dependence of SE yield with angle
(local) of incidence with surface

Escape probability for

SE’s as a function of depth
of generation Æ
image resolution for SE
imaging will approach the
probe size

From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

20 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
 Edge Effect on SE Yield

Adapted From L. Reimer, Scanning Electron Microscopy,

21 2nd edition, Springer Verlag

Analogy to Oblique and Diffuse Optical Illumination

• Secondary electron
yield is strongly
dependent on local
angle of incidence
with beam
• Backscattered
electrons are also
directly and indirectly
detected (image is not
pure SE)
• Together this, along
with the high depth of
focus of the SEM,
gives the familiar SEM
images with a good
perceptive sense of
surface topography

From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

22 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press
 Exceptionally High depth of Focus

10,000X original magnification 100,000X original magnification

Electrodeposited Gold Dendritic Carbon Nanotube

Structure

23

Extremely Wide Range of Magnifications

12X original magnification 500,000X original magnification

Miniature Sensor Device - Sputtered Au-Pd on Magnetic Tape

Calorimeter

24
 Backscattered Electron Detectors and Yield
Objective lens pole piece
• Solid State 4 quadrant
Backscattered Electron
detector placed annular to
bottom of objective lens
• Composition image –
electronically sum signal
from all 4 quadrants
• BSE topographic images –
Typical 4 quadrant solid state BSE detector differencing various detector
quadrants

• Backscattered electron yield

is a strongly dependent on
sample mean atomic number

Graphic from, The Oxford Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis,

25 Oxford Instruments Microanalysis Group

Backscattered Compositional Contrast

Secondary Electron Image Backscattered Electron Image

SnBi alloy
• most useful on multi-phase samples
• can be sensitive to < 0.01 average Z differences
• flat-polished specimens essential

26
 Non-Conductive Specimens - Charging

Isc = Ib− ηIb − δIb = Ib (1−(η+δ)) =0

Total emitted electron coefficient
η+δ as a function of beam energy
When η+δ=1 Æ charge balance
Upper cross-over energy, E2,
for several materials

From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

27 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

Variable Pressure (VP / LV / Environmental) SEM

• A different and simpler solution to specimen charging of un-coated non-
conductive samples is to introduce a gas (air, etc.) into the specimen chamber.

• The high energy electrons ionize the gas, thus positive ions are available to
dynamically neutralize any charge on the sample.

• Available in both Schottky and Thermionic (Tungsten) instruments

@ high Uncoated Dysprosium Niobium Oxide Ceramic @ 20 Pa

28 vacuum air
 JEOL JSM-7000F Analytical Scanning Electron Microscope

EDS
EBSD

WDS
CL

• Energy-Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) – solid state detector simultaneously measures all

energies of X-ray photons
• Wavelength Dispersive Spectroscopy (WDS) – sequentially measures intensity vs X-ray
wavelength (energy). Superior energy resolution and detection limits (P/B ratio).
• Electron Backscattered Diffraction (EBSD) – acquires electron diffraction information
from surface of highly tilted bulk sample with lateral resolution of 10’s of nm
• Cathodoluminesence (CL) – optical emission spectrometer and imaging system for 300-
1,700nm. Liquid He cooled stage module.
29

Characteristic X-ray Generation

• A scattering event kicks out

an electron from K,L,M, or N
shell of atom in specimen
• An electron from an outer
shell falls to fill in the
vacancy
• Energy difference results in
release of an X-ray of
characteristic
energy/wavelength or an
Auger electron
X-ray vs. Auger Generation

Graphic from, The Oxford Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis, Atomic Number

30 Oxford Instruments Microanalysis Group
 Energies of Characteristic X-rays to 20 keV

From Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray

31 Microanalysis, Joseph I. Goldstein et al. Plenum Press

Energy Dispersive X-ray Detector: Si(Li)

FET
charge
Si(Li)
Copper Rod sensitive Detector
(at Liq. N2 amplifier
Temperature) X-ray Window

Magnetic
Electron
Trap
Collimator

Graphics from A Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis,

32 Oxford Microanalytical Instruments
 Mechanism of X-ray Energy Determination
Voltage
step Charge
X-ray event restore

Voltage
Time

Animations from, The Oxford Guide to X-Ray Microanalysis,

Oxford Instruments Microanalysis Group

• X-ray loses energy through inelastic

scattering events creating electron /
hole pairs
• High voltage bias keeps generated
pairs from re-combining
• Charge sensitive amplifier “counts”
pairs generated by X-ray
• Spectrometer calibration effectively
multiplies by energy/pair (3.8 eV) to
determine X-ray energy
33

EDS Spectral Resolution and Count Rates

Pulse processing time
constants are used to
adjust available count rate
versus spectral peak
resolution

• Long time constants are best for single

acquisition analysis for best energy resolution.
• Short time constants are best for fast
acquisition of X-ray elemental maps
(elemental distribution images) or line-scans
(intensity or concentration profiles).
• Compromise is often needed.
34
 X-ray EDS Microanalysis in the SEM
Oxford Instr.: Link-ISIS software
• Fast Parallel Detection
• Qualitative elemental
analysis
– From beryllium up on
periodic table
– Sensitivities to <0.1 wt.%
depending on matrix and
composition
• Quantitative analysis
– Possible, has many
requirements / limitations
• Digital elemental
distribution imaging and
line-scans, full spectrum
imaging
• Analysis of small volumes,
from order of μm3 to << 1
μm3 depending on
accelerating voltage,
element analyzed, and
matrix

35

EDS Full spectrum imaging

A full X-ray spectrum collected for each pixel X-ray elemental maps, phase
maps, spectra, and quantitative analysis extracted from full spectrum image

Cumulative Spectra and Quant Analysis for

each extracted phase (ex. Phase 1)
Element Line Weight % Weight % Error
OK 22.13 Stoichiometry ---
Al K 3.81 +/- 0.02
Ca K 10.26 +/- 0.04
Mn K 30.57 +/- 0.07
La L 33.23 +/- 0.09

36
Thermo Instr.: Noran System Six
 Parallel Beam WDS
Hybrid X-ray Optic containing both a
polycapillary optic (up to ~12 keV) and a
parabaloidal grazing incidence optic
(up to ~ 2.3 keV)

Comparison of EDS (SiLi) to

Parallel Beam WDS
(Thermo Instruments MaxRay)

Courtesy Thermo Instruments

Ex. Identification
of sub-micron W
Particle on Si

X-ray Optical Systems, Inc.

37 http://www.xos.com/index.php/?page_id=71&m=2&sm=3

Electron Backscattered Diffraction in the SEM (EBSD)

(022)

(202)
70°

(220)

Silicon

Courtesy HKL Technology (Oxford Instruments

Microanalysis Group)
 EBSD of GaAs Wafer

39

Microtexture in Al-Li Alloys for Future Aerospace Applications

Investigation of crystallographic aspects grain morphology and delaminations

L L
N T

N N (ST) Normal

T (LT) Transverse
L (RD) Rolling
Complimentary to
XRD texture
T
N
determination
- gives local texture
True Grain ID, Size and Shape Determination & misorientations
 Channeling / Diffraction Contrast with a Forward Scatter detector
316L Stainless Steel

Before deformation: equiaxed Deformed to uniform elongation

grains with no deformation @ 200 C, considerable strain
evident and lots of annealing contrast, individual grains no
twins longer discernable, highly
deformed structure

41

Limit of Lateral Resolution for EBSD

Literature generally
reports a lateral
resolution limit (x-
direction) of 5 – 50nm.
Resolution in the y-
direction is somewhat
less due to high tilt of
sample.

Actual resolution
obtained depends on
beam voltage, probe
size, sample material
(Z), specimen
preparation, etc.
5 μm step size = 0.01 μm Deformed Copper

42
 Phase Discrimination / Phase ID
Forward Scatter image
Z-projected Inverse Pole Figure
Image

Phase Image (Stainless Steel)

Red = FCC iron
Blue = BCC iron

43

Cathodoluminesence (CL)
Emission of light from a material during irradiation by
an energetic beam of electrons

Wavelength (nm)
Collection of emitted light Collection optic in position between OL lens and sample
Parabaloidal mirror
placed immediately
above sample (sample
surface at focal point)
Aperture for electron beam

44
 Cathodoluminesence Imaging and Spectroscopy
• Optical spectroscopy from 300
to 1700 nm
• Panchromatic and
monochromatic imaging (spatial
resolution - 0.1 to 1 micron)
• Parallel Spectroscopy (CCD)
and full spectrum imaging
• Enhanced spectroscopy and/or
imaging with cooled samples
(liq. He)
• Applications include:
– Semiconductor bulk materials
– Semiconductor epitaxial layers
– Quantum wells, dots, wires
– Opto-electronic materials
– Phosphors
– Diamond and diamond films
– Ceramics
– Geological materials
– Biological applications
45 (fluorescent tags)

Pan-Chromatic CL imaging of GaN

Defects (dislocations) are

observed as points or lines of
reduced emission

46
 Monochromatic CL imaging of GaN Pyramids
SEM CL Image composite

550 nm

Typical CL spectra 550 nm

CL imaging of
cross-sectional
view

SEM
The strongest yellow emission
comes from the apex of the
elongated hexagonal structure.
47 Results courtesy of Xiuling Li , Paul W. Bohn, and J. J. Coleman, UIUC

The Dual-Beam Focused Ion Beam (DB-FIB)

Ion Electron The FEI Dual-Beam DB-235 Focused
column column Ion Beam and FEG-SEM has a high
resolution imaging (7nm) Ga+ ion column
for site-specific cross-sectioning, TEM
sample preparation, and nano-
fabrication. The Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM) column provides high
resolution (2.5 nm) imaging prior to,
Pt during, and after milling with the ion
doser beam. The instrument is equipped with
beam activated Pt deposition and 2 in-
situ nanomanipulators: Omniprobe for
TEM sample preparation and Zyvex for
multiprobe experiments.
• site –specific cross-sectioning and imaging
* Serial sections and 3-D reconstruction are an extension of this method
• site –specific preparation of specimens for Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)
• site –specific preparation of specimens for EBSD
• nano-fabrication (micro-machining and beam-induced deposition)
• modification of electrical routing on semiconductor devices
• failure analysis
• mask repair
48
 The Focused Ion Beam (FIB) Column
Layout
Ion of the
Microscopy: Ions and Liquid Metal Ion Source
Electrons
Focused Ion Beam column

The gallium ion beam hits the specimen

thereby releasing secondary
electrons, secondary ions and neutral
particles (e.g. milling).
The detector collects secondary electrons
or ions to form an image.
For deposition and enhanced etching:
gases can be injected to the system.

49

Ion/Electron Beam Induced Deposition

IBID and EBID

ƒ Precursor molecules
adsorb on surface
ƒ Precursor is
decomposed by ion
or electron beam
impinging on surface
ƒ Deposited film is left
on surface
ƒ Volatile reaction
products are
released

Pt, W, and Au are common metals

Similarly, reactive gases, can be SiOx can be deposited as an insulator
injected for enhanced etching in
milling and improving aspect ratio for
milled features
50
 The DB-FIB Specimen Chamber

FIB Column Electron Column

Pt Injection Needle

Specimen Stage
(chamber door open)

CDEM detector

ET & TLD
electron detectors

51

Polished Cross–Section of Semiconductor

1. Locate area of interest

2. Deposit Pt Protection
Layer

3. Mill “stair step” trench

(20nA), face (1nA)
cross-section, and
polish (0.1nA) - all with
ion beam

4. Image features with

SEM or Ion beam

52
 TEM Sample Preparation w/ Omniprobe
• Step 1 - Locate the area of
interest (site – specific)
• Step 2 - Deposit a protective
platinum layer
• Step 3 - Mill initial trenches
• – e-beam view after Step 3
• Step 5 - Perform “frame cuts“
and “weld" manipulator needle to
sample
• Step 6 – Mill to release from
substrate and transfer to grid
• Step 7 – "Weld" sample to a Cu
TEM half-grid and FIB cut
manipulator needle free
• Step 8 - FIB ion polish to
electron transparency

53

“Pre-Thinned” TEM Sample prepared by FIB

Diced Wafer with Thin Film Prethinned Section

Grind to 30 Microns
Dice to 2.5 mm

Prethinned TEM Sample on Half Grid After Thinning

Ion Beam Direction
Pt Protection
Layer TEM Direction

Half Grid TEM Direction

54
 “Pre-Thinned” TEM Sample prepared by FIB
Drawing of typical
“pre- thinned”
specimen for FIB
TEM sample
preparation

55

Software for Controlled Patterning in FEI–DB235

Developed by Jim Mabon

56
 Precisely controlled etching and deposition
Etched or deposited structures using grey-scale bitmaps (more complex,
parallel process) or scripting language (sequential, unlimited # of points).

Pt Flower
30 nm Pt dot array
500 nm

57

FIB patterning by etching and/or deposition

Bitmap Script

Photonic Array: A seed layer for photonic Pt Dot: This Platinum dot is used as an etch
cell crystal growth nucleation fabricated mask in porous silicon experiments.
(etching) with the FIB. P. Bohn
J. Lewis, P. Braun
58
 FIB & AFM
Step 1: Step 2:
Micro-structures by FIB fabrication Ge growth on extra large-miscut Si
θ : 5.5º θ : 13.7º
ϕ
θ [110]

5μm

ϕ : 75°
Step 3: θ : 28.2º
Isolate specified orientation

θ ϕ
[110]
1μm

ϕ
[110]

Exploration of novel orientations in Si crystalline structure:

Ge nanostructure growth on Si K. Ohmori, Y.-L. Foo, S. Hong, J.-G. Wen, J.E.
59 Greene, and I. Petrov, Nanoletters, 5 369 2005

Ge nanowires on Si(173 100 373)

θ : 28.2º [110] Z-contrast STEM image

20 nm

(517)
(113) (111)
ϕ p : 75° Si substrate [12 1]
4 μm Long straight Ge nanowires on Si(173 100 373)
period: 60 nm
width: ~40 nm
azimuthal direction ϕd: 114º

Hill-valley structure composed of

(113)&(517) facets
ϕd Plane index: (k 100 200+k)
[110]
K. Ohmori, Y.-L. Foo, S. Hong, J.-G. Wen, J.E. Greene, and I. Petrov,
500 nm Nanoletters, 5 369 2005

60
 Summary: Scanning Electron Microscopy

• Remarkable depth of focus

• Imaging from millimeters to a nanometer
• Chemical composition with 0.1-1 μm resolution
• Crystallography using electron EBSD
• Optical properties on a micrometer scale (via CL)

61

Summary: Focus Ion Beam Microscopy

• Site –specific cross-sectioning imaging and EBSD

– Serial sections and 3-D reconstruction are an
extension of this method
• Site –specific preparation of specimens for
transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
• Nano-fabrication (micro-machining and beam-induced
deposition)
• Modification of the electrical routing on semiconductor
devices

62
 References

• Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-ray Microanalysis by Joseph Goldstein, Dale E.

Newbury, David C. Joy, and Charles E. Lyman (Hardcover - Feb 2003)
• Scanning Electron Microscopy: Physics of Image Formation and Microanalysis (Springer
Series in Optical Sciences) by Ludwig Reimer and P.W. Hawkes (Hardcover - Oct 16, 1998)
• Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis in the Electron Microscope (Microscopy Handbooks) by DC
Bell (Paperback - Jan 1, 2003)
• Physical Principles of Electron Microscopy: An Introduction to TEM, SEM, and AEM by Ray
F. Egerton (Hardcover - April 25, 2008)
• Advanced Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis by Patrick Echlin, C.E.
Fiori, Joseph Goldstein, and David C. Joy (Hardcover - Mar 31, 1986)
• Monte Carlo Modeling for Electron Microscopy and Microanalysis (Oxford Series in Optical
and Imaging Sciences) by David C. Joy (Hardcover - April 13, 1995)
• Electron Backscatter Diffraction in Materials Science by Adam J. Schwartz, Mukul Kumar,
David P. Field, and Brent L. Adams (Hardcover - Sep 30, 2000)
• Introduction to Texture Analysis: Macrotexture, Microtexture and Orientation Mapping by
Valerie Randle and Olaf Engler (Hardcover - Aug 7, 2000)
• Electron backscattered diffraction: an EBSD system added to an SEM is a valuable new
tool in the materials characterization arsenal: An article from: Advanced Materials & Processes
by Tim Maitland (Jul 31, 2005)
• Cathodoluminescence Microscopy of Inorganic Solids by B.G. Yacobi and D.B. Holt
(Hardcover - Feb 28, 1990)
• Introduction to Focused Ion Beams: Instrumentation, Theory, Techniques and Practice by
Lucille A. Giannuzzi and Fred A. Stevie (Hardcover - Nov 19, 2004)

63

Acknowledgements

Sponsors:

Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory is

supported by the U.S. Department of Energy
under grant DEFG02-07-ER46453 and DEFG02-07-46471

64