DEFICIENCIES IN THE USE OF POST-LIQUEFACTION

STRENGTH

Jian Chu
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

Dariusz Wanatowski
Nottingham Centre for Geomechanics, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom

ABSTRACT:

Loose sand can liquefy under either dynamic or static load. Liquefaction of sand or
tailings leads to the failure of granular slopes or tailings dams. One of the design
approaches adopted for granular slopes or tailings dams is to use the so-called post-
liquefaction undrained shear strength. However, this post-liquefaction strength cannot be
determined properly by laboratory tests. This leads to questions on the validity of the
design approach using the post-liquefaction strength. In this paper, the deficiencies
associated with the post-liquefaction strength approach for granular slopes or tailings
dams are identified. An alternative approach using the conditions for instability is
suggested.

1 INTRODUCTION

Flow failures in the form of a sudden loss of strength followed by a very rapid development of large
deformations can occur for granular soil slopes or tailings dams. The effects of flow failure are often
much more dramatic and devastating than other types of landslides as the failure can occur with little
warning. Examples of such flow failures include Fort Peck Dam (Casagrande 1965), Helsinki Harbour
(Andresen and Bjerrum 1976), Nerlerk berm (Sladen et al. 1985), Wachusett Dam (Olson et al. 2000),
West Guide Bund failure in Bangladesh (Hight et al. 1999), and the failures of some tailings dams
such as the Gypsum Tailings Impoundment at East Texas (Kleiner 1976) or the Merriespruit Tailings
Dam in South Africa (Fourie et al. 2001). Most of these failures are often considered to be triggered by
static liquefaction or instability of granular soils occurring under undrained conditions. Here, static
liquefaction refers to a phenomenon in which loose sand loses a large percentage of its shear resistance
and flows in a liquid manner when it is subjected to undrained monotonic loading and instability a
behaviour in which large plastic strains are generated rapidly due to the inability of a soil element to
sustain a given stress.
Liquefaction of sand is often described using the behaviour of loose sand under undrained conditions
as shown in Fig. 1 (Davies et al. 2002). For the design of granular soil slopes or tailings dams, two ap-
proaches, the effective stress analysis (ESA) and the undrained strength analysis (USA), have been
adopted in practice. According to Martin and McRoberts (1998), in the ESA method, effective stresses
during shear are assumed unchanged from those that existed immediately prior to the onset of shear. In
other words, failure is calculated as the failure shear stress corresponds to the in-situ effective stresses
using the effective failure envelope, at point F, as marked in Fig. 1a. This method may be applicable to
dense, dilative soil where the excess pore pressure generated during shear is very small or negative.
However, for loose, contractive soil where positive excess pore pressure is generated, this method is
unconservative, as failure occurs at point P, not at point F, as shown in Fig. 1a. In the USA method,
the undrained shear strength is defined as the residual strength, or the steady state strength, or the post-
liquefaction strength, Sus, as shown in Fig. 1a. This approach is also called the steady state method
(Poulos et al. 1985). As elaborated by Martin and McRoberts (1998), for contractive materials, design
analyses must include both undrained strength analysis (USA) and effective stress analysis (ESA),

Paper Number XXX

with design controlled by the analysis type giving the lowest factor of safety. For dilative or fully
drained materials, only ESA is required.

(a) (b)
Figure 1 Response of loose, saturated cohesionless tailings under monotonic and cyclic loading (after
Davies et al. 2002)
However, the use of post-liquefaction strength as the residual strength is problematic. In this paper, the
deficiencies related to the use of post-liquefaction strength are discussed. An alternative approach
using the stress ratio of instability line that defines the instability condition for loose sand under both
drained and undrained conditions or the peak strength ratio are suggested.

2. WHAT IS POST-LIQUEFACTION STRENGTH

Most of the studies on liquefaction of soil in the past are based on laboratory triaxial tests. When con-
ducting a triaxial test, the axial load can be applied either in a load controlled or deformation con-
trolled mode. The different loading mode may lead to different post-peak behaviour as explained in
detail by Chu and Leong (2002). For the testing of very loose sand under undrained conditions, strain-
softening occurs if the test is conducted under a deformation controlled loading mode, whereas insta-
bility takes place if the test is conducted under a load controlled loading mode. The Sus should be
measured from a test where the soil liquefies. By definition, liquefaction is a type of instability. There-
fore, the tests to study post-liquefaction behaviour should be conducted under a load controlled load-
ing modes. However, once a soil liquefies, the specimen collapses suddenly from the point where liq-
uefaction is initiated, e.g., from the peak point P in Fig. 1a. Thus the stresses and strains in the post-
peak region cannot be measured properly. The so-called post-liquefaction strength as illustrated in Fig.
1a is, in fact, measured as the post-peak strain softening behaviour for a test conducted under a defor-
mation controlled loading mode, where the specimen does not collapse, but the shear stress is reduced
gradually. Although the strength measured at the end of the test is taken as the residual or the “post-
liquefaction strength”, liquefaction does not occur in this test. It has been demonstrated experimentally
by Chu and Leong (2001) and Wanatowski and Chu (2007) that the post-peak behavior during strain
softening and instability (or liquefaction) is quite different. Therefore, the Sus obtained from tests with
strain softening may not be relevant to soil or tailings that liquefy. After liquefaction, a soil has com-
pletely changed in terms of void ratio, stress histories, soil structures and fabrics. Thus the post-
liquefaction strength can only be measured by testing liquefied soil, not on soil that has not liquefied
before test.

The differences between the post-peak liquefaction and strain softening behaviour are further ex-
plained in Fig. 2 where a comparison of two undrained plane-strain tests on two nearly identical loose
sand specimens, but one conducted under load-controlled and another deformation-controlled loading
mode is shown. It can be seen that after liquefaction occurred at the peak for Test U05L, the pore pres-
sure increased suddenly and more than 15% strain developed within minutes. The specimen had col-

2
lapsed and distorted. Therefore, the stress and strain measured after the specimen had collapsed did
not represent an element behavior anymore. Hence, the post-liquefaction strength obtained from the
load-controlled test is no longer meaningful. Even if a “strength” value is obtained, it is different from
that determined from the deformation-controlled test. Therefore, the post-liquefaction strength ob-
tained from a test exhibiting strain soften does not represent the “strength” of the soil after liquefac-
tion. Thus, the post-liquefaction strength cannot be measured properly.

250
load-controlled (U05L) 250 180

Deviatoric Stress, q (kPa)

load-controlled
deformation-controlled (U05)
Deviatoric Stress, q (kPa)

deformation-controlled
200 200 160
CSL
150 (ηcs = 1.16)
150 140
0 5 10 15

100 Instability Line 100 U05 (Strain Softening)

(ηIL = 0.89)

50 50
U05L (Instability) ● Peak state
● Peak state
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200
Mean Effective Stress, p' (kPa) Time, t (min)

(a) (b)
20 150
● Peak state load-controlled
Excess PWP, ∆u (kPa)
deformation-controlled
U05L
Axial Strain, ε1 (%)

15
U05 100 U05L U05
10

50
5
load-controlled
deformation-controlled ● Peak state
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time, t (min) Time, t (min)
(c) (d)

Figure 2 Behavior of undrained plane-strain tests on loose sand conducted under deformation con-
trolled and load-controlled loading conditions.

The same conclusion can also be made from undrained triaxial tests. One example is given in Fig. 3
where the results of two undrained tests on loose sand are compared. It can be seen that the residual
strength obtained for the deformation controlled loading test (where strain softening occurred) is dif-
ferent from that under load controlled loading test (where liquefaction occurs).

3. DEFICIENCIES
The data and discussion presented in the preceding section have revealed several deficiencies in the
post-liquefaction strength approach.

Firstly, the post-liquefaction strength cannot be determined properly or the value cannot be uniquely
obtained. Therefore, the post-liquefaction strength will not be able to be used consistently in the de-
sign. Fig. 1a shows that the post-liquefaction strength is on the CSL or the steady state line. The data
shown in Fig. 2 have indicated further that the CSL obtained for axisymmetric conditions is different

3
from that under plane-strain conditions. Therefore, the post-liquefaction strength determined using tri-
axial tests will not be able to be applied directly to slope stability design which are under plane-strain
or three-dimensional conditions, even if a post-liquefaction strength is obtained.

300 300
Deformation
q, Deviator stress (kPa)

q, Deviator stress (kPa)

E

C
200 D 200

100 100

Load controlled

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 5 10 15
p', Mean normal effective stress (kPa) εa, Axial Strain (%)

(a) (b)
Figure 3 Behaviour of undrained triaxial tests on loose sand conducted under deformation controlled
and load-controlled loading conditions (after Leong 2003).

Secondly, for granular soil or tailings with relatively large permeability, the assumption of
“undrained” under static loading conditions may not be reasonable. There are cases where instability
or static liquefaction occurred under essentially drained conditions. In a recent reanalysis of the Wa-
chusett Dam failure in 1907, Olson et al. (2000) concluded that the failure was mainly triggered by
static liquefaction that occurred under completely drained conditions. Through laboratory model tests,
Eckersley (1990) observed that the pore water pressure increase in the gentle granular soil slope was a
result, rather than the cause of flowslide. In other words, the flowslide took place under a drained con-
dition. In these cases, failures appear to be triggered by a mechanism similar to static liquefaction al-
though the drainage condition prior to failure is not undrained. In this case, the undrained post-
liquefaction strength will no longer be relevant.

Experimentally, it has been shown by Chu et al. (2003) that instability can occur under drained condi-
tion. One example on loose sand is shown in Fig. 4. When a specimen is sheared along a constant
shear stress path with reduction in the mean stress under a drained condition, the specimen becomes
unstable at point B (Fig. 4a) where the axial strain and axial strain rate increases rapidly (Fig. 4b and
4d). It should be noted that the instability occurs at a stress state far below the CSL. Therefore, the use
of critical friction angle or the effective stress ratio at the steady state to the design of granular slope
can be unconservative. It should be noticed that there is not any post-liquefaction strength as a result
of drained instability because this test is conducted under a load controlled loading mode and the
specimen becomes unstable rather than going through strain softening.

Thirdly, it has been demonstrated experimentally that instability or liquefaction of sand can occur
under non-undrained, i.e., other than undrained conditions (Chu et al. 1993; Chu and Leong 2001).
Failure mechanisms related to a redistribution of void ratio within a globally undrained sand layer
(Fig. 5a) and spreading of excess pore pressure with global volume changes (Fig. 5b) have been
envisaged by NRC (1985) as Mechanisms B and C, respectively. The possibility of dilating behaviour
of soil masses prior to slope collapse is also observed in several case studies. Been et al. (1987) argued
that the Nerlerk berm failure case might have occurred for dilative sand which lies below the steady
state line. Several other cases of flow slide failure in dilative sand have also been presented by Been et
al. (1988).

4
Figure 4 Instability of loose sand along a CSD path: (a) effective stress paths; (b) confining stress, ax-
ial strain, and volumetric strain versus time curves; (c) axial and volumetric strains versus mean effec-
tive stress curves; and (d) strain rate versus time curve.

(a) (b)

Figure 5 Failure mechanisms identified by NRC (1985): (a). Mechanism B for the situation where void
redistributes within a globally undrained sand layer; (b). Mechanism C for the situation where failure
is induced by spreading of excess pore pressure with global volume changes.

5
4. INSTABILITY CONDITIONS
It is well established that when a loose sand specimen is sheared along an undrained path, an effective
stress path as typically shown in Fig. 6 will be obtained. Point A is the peak of effective stress path. If
the test is conducted under a deformation-controlled condition, strain-softening behaviour which is
characterized by a reduction in deviator stress will manifest. On the other hand, if the test is conducted
under a load-controlled condition, the specimen will become unstable at point A. The unstable behav-
iour should be referred to as static liquefaction, not the strain-softening behaviour. The line connecting
the top of the effective stress paths is termed as the instability line. The zone between the instability
line and the failure line (or the critical state line) is called the zone of potential instability, as shown in
Fig. 6 (Chu et al. 2003).

500
Failure point from
drained test 180
400 160 ec
q, Deviator Stress (kPa)

CU21 0.864
Zone of potential 140 CU26 0.888 CU21

q, Deviator Stress (kPa)

Critical state instability CU20 0.916
300 line 120 CU26
CU44 0.972
INS3 1.014 CU20
Instability line 100
200
80
CU44

60
100
A
40

20
0
0
0 100 200 300 400
0 50 100 150 200
p', Mean Effective Stress (kPa)
p', Mean Normal Effective Stress (kPa)

Figure 6. Instability line defined us- Figure 7. Variation of instability line with
ing undrained tests. void ratio

The instability line is not unique, but varies with the void ratio of sand and the applied effective mean
stress. Fig. 7 shows the effective stress paths obtained from a series of isotropic consolidated
undrained (CIU) tests conducted on specimens with different consolidation void ratios, ec, but under
the same mean effective stress. It can be seen from Fig. 7 that the smaller the ec, the higher the insta-
bility line. Fig. 7 also shows that the deviator stress in Tests CU26, CU20 and CU44 approached zero.
Therefore, the post-liquefaction strength cannot be defined from these tests. For Test CU21, the post-
liquefaction strength is as high as the peak. Note that the void ratio differences in Test CU26 and
CU21 is only 0.024. Therefore, the post-liquefaction strength is very sensitive to the void ratio of the
tested specimen. Hence, it is difficult to determine the post-liquefaction strength reliably even if it can
be defined properly. This is another deficiency of the post-liquefaction strength approach.

Based on Fig. 7, a relationship between the slope of instability line and the consolidated void ratio of
sand ec (which is equivalent to the in-situ void ratio for a slope) can be established as shown in Fig. 8
(Chu and Leong 2002). This relationship can be replotted into Fig. 9 using the state parameter Ψ to
take the effect of stress level into consideration. In Fig. 9, the same relationship established under
plane-strain conditions is also shown (Wanatowski and Chu 2007) for comparison. This relationship
can be used to assess the stability of granular soil slopes or tailing dams. However, as the relationship
established under axisymmetric conditions is different from that under plane-strain, the relationship
established using triaxial tests will have to be converted before it can be used for plane-strain problems
(Wanatowski and Chu 2007).

It should be pointed out that the relationships established in Figs. 8 or 9 are also applicable to instabil-
ity under drained conditions, as discussed in detail by Chu et al. (2003). Therefore, these relationships
can be used in slope stability analysis without specifying the drained or undrained conditions if the

6
mean stresses in the slope are reducing. For slopes under rain water infiltration or experiencing a re-
duction in lateral stresses, the effective stress path can be idealized into a constant shear stress path
(Chu et al. 2003). Knowing the state parameter of a soil element, the stress ratio or the slope of insta-
bility line, ηIL, can be determined using Fig. 8. The ηIL can be converted into an effective stress friction
angle. For example, for ψ = 0.1, ηIL = 0.63 under plane-strain conditions. This corresponds to a friction
angle of 170, which can be considered as the liquefaction friction angle. As an approximation, the
slope can then be designed with reference to this liquefaction friction angle. It should be noted that the
liquefaction friction angle is smaller than the critical state friction angle.
IL

1.6 1.6

IL
Slope of Instability Line, η

CIU triaxial tests

Slope of Instability Line, η

CU21 Triaxial (CIU)
1.4
CKoU triaxial tests Triaxial (CKoU)
1.2 Plane-strain (CKoU)
K0U4 CU26
1.2
1.0 CU20
K0U1

0.8 K0U3 CU44

0.8
0.6
Plane-strain
Triaxial
0.4
0.4
0.85 0.90 0.95 1.00
0.00 0.04 0.08 0.12
Void Ratio, ec
State Parameter, ψ

Figure 8. Relationship between the slope of Figure 9. Relationship between the slope of in-
instability line and the void ratio of sand stability line and the state parameter

5. CONCLUSIONS
Post-liquefaction undrained shear strength defined as the residual strength of an undrained test on
loose sand, Sus, has been used for the design of granular soil slopes or tailings dams. However, this ap-
proach is problematic as explained in the paper. The main deficiencies include that the Sus value can-
not be determined properly and the assumption of an undrained condition is questionable for sand or
tailings with relatively high permeability. An alternative method using the instability condition is sug-
gested in which liquefaction friction angle is defined based on instability conditions. These conditions
are applicable to liquefaction occurring under both drained and undrained conditions.

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