Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY OF PAPER BATTERY

The creation of this unique Nano composite paper drew from a diverse pool of disciplines,
requiring expertise in materials science, energy storage and chemistry. In August 2007, a
research team at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (led by Drs. Robert Linhardt, the Ann and John
H. Broadbent Senior Constellation Professor of Biocatalysis and Metabolic Engineering at
Rensselaer; Pulickel M. Ajayan, professor of materials science and engineering; and Omkaram
Nalamasu, professor of chemistry with a joint appointment in materials science and engineering)
developed the paper battery.

Senior research specialist Victor Pushparaj, along with postdoctoral research associates
Shaijumon M. Manikoth, Ashavani Kumar and Saravanababu Murugesan, were co-authors and
lead researchers of the project. Other co-authors include research associate Lijie Ci and
Rensselaer Nanotechnology Center Laboratory Manager Robert Vajtai.

1.2 INTRODUCTION OF BATTERY

The continuously advancing technology of portable electronic devices requires more flexible
batteries to power them. Batteries power a wide range of electronic devices including phones,
laptop computers and medical devices such as cardiac pacemakers and defibrillators. With the
ever increasing demand for efficiency and design, there is a need for ultrathin, safe and flexible
energy storage options. A paper battery is a flexible, ultra- thin energy storage and production
device formed by combining carbon nanotubes with a conventional sheet of cellulose based
paper. A paper battery acts as both a high energy battery and super capacitor, combining two
components that are separate in traditional electronics.

This combination allows the battery to provide long term, steady power production and bursts of
energy. Through the use of super capacitors, batteries can be made that will deliver renewable
energy from bodily fluids such as blood or sweat. This technology can be greatly utilized by
medical devices. It combines two essential materials, cellulose and carbon nanotubes (CNTs),

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that fit the characteristics of spacer and electrode and provide inherent flexibility as well as
porosity to the system. Cellulose, the main constituent of paper and an inexpensive insulating
separator structure with excellent biocompatibility, can be made with adjustable porosity. CNTs,
a structure with extreme flexibility, have already been widely used as electrodes in
electrochemical devices.

By proper integration the output power of paper batteries can be adapted to required level of
voltage–current. This cellulose based spacer is compatible with many possible electrolytes.
Researchers used ionic liquid, essentially a liquid salt, as the battery’s electrolyte, as well as
naturally occurring electrolytes such as human sweat, blood and urine.

Due to the flexible nature of the cellulose and nanotubes, this power source can be easily
modified or placed in the body or various medical devices. The need for surgery to replace
batteries on internal medical devices would be nonexistent. This is because super capacitor does
not show a loss in power dissipation over time like normal chemical batteries do. Patients with
implanted medical devices will also benefit from the flexibility because previous devices may
cause discomfort for person due to a larger solid power source.

As this technology is adapted it will prove to be extremely useful and could even save not only
cost but lives also.

Flexible, lightweight, and higher capacity lithium-ion batteries using highly conductive
materials, such as carbon nanotubes (CNT), have been reported. While CNT based current
collectors increase electron mobility and substrate flexibility, they require a large amount of CNT
which results in increased fabrication costs. Current collectors consisting of a thin CNT layer on
a paper substrate have previously been reported to overcome the production costs. These devices
reported by Huetal. Use thin carbon nanotube sheets (also known as Bucky papers) or thin film
of CNT coated on paper sheets as current collectors that replace traditionally used materials,
such as aluminum and copper. Through the use of a CNT layer on a paper substrate as a current
collector, LiMn2O4 and Li4Ti5O12 electrodes with discharge capacities of 110 and 149 mAh/g,
and a 98.5% columbic efficiency were reported. Free-standing light weight (0.2 mg/cm2) carbon
nanotube thin films fabricated through a simple coating and peeling process were used as both
anode and cathode current collectors. The CNT-based current collectors were shown to have

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robust mechanical flexibility and higher energy density with a CNT/LTO electrode initial
discharge capacity of 147mAh/g and a columbic efficiency of 94–97%. CNT current collector-
based thin and flexible batteries have a wide range of device applications such as flexible
electronics, bioassays, and displays.

Achieving commercially competitive CNT based current collectors will require further reduction
in CNT utilization. Devices presented in this paper use current collectors that are fabricated from
wood microfibers, each coated with CNT through layer-by-layer (LBL) Nano assembly. This
technique allows the construction of composite multilayered coatings in Nano scale, which
brings novel properties to the substrate (wood microfibers) through the alternate deposition of
oppositely charged polyelectrolytes and/or nanoparticles. In the presented method, the
microfibers are individually coated with CNT and transformed into a paper which preserves the
important characteristics of the paper, such as texture and porous structure allowing high surface
area and stronger binding with electrode materials. This method also results in a significant
reduction of CNT utilization (0.2% by wt.). Moreover, using the LBL process, a uniform (since
each wood microfiber is coated) and precisely controlled (through the number of layers coated
with defined thickness) conductivity of the current collectors are achieved. The fabrication and
use of CNT-microfiber paper as current collectors in Li-ion batteries represents the novel aspect
of this paper. The LBL coating of wood microfibers with CNT, the fabrication of CNT-
microfiber paper, and their assembly into batteries as current collectors is discussed.

1.3 Introduction of Ordinary Battery

Ordinary paper could one day be used as a lightweight battery to power the devices that are now
enabling the printed word to be eclipsed by email e-books an online news. Scientists at Stanford
University in California reported on Monday they have successfully turned paper coated with ink
made of silver and carbon Nano materials into a "paper battery" that holds promise for new types
of lightweight, high-performance energy storage.

The same feature that helps ink adhere to paper allows it to hold onto the single-walled carbon
nanotubes and silver Nano wire films. Earlier research found that silicon Nano wires could be
used to make batteries 10 times as powerful as lithium-ion batteries now used to power devices
such as laptop computers.

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 Figure 1.1- Ordinary battery

"Taking advantage of the mature paper technology, low cost, light and high performance energy
storage are realized by using conductive paper as current collectors and electrodes," the scientists
said in research published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

This type of battery could be useful in powering electric or hybrid vehicles, would make
electronics lighter weight and longer lasting, and might even lead someday to paper electronics,
the scientists said. Battery weight and life have been an obstacle to commercial viability of
electric-powered cars and trucks. "Society really needs a low-cost, high-performance energy
storage device, such as batteries and simple super capacitors," Stanford assistant professor of
materials science and engineering and paper co-author Yi Cui said. Cui said in an e-mail that in
addition to being useful for portable electronics and wearable electronics, "Our paper super
capacitors can be used for all kinds of applications that require instant high power.” Current
collectors consisting of a thin CNT layer on a paper substrate have previously been reported to
overcome the production costs. These devices reported by Huetal. Use thin carbon nanotube
sheets (also known as Bucky papers) or thin film of CNT coated on paper sheets as current
collectors that replace traditionally used materials, such as aluminum and copper. This
technology can be greatly utilized by medical devices. It combines two essential materials,
cellulose and carbon nanotubes (CNTs), that fit the characteristics of spacer and electrode and
provide inherent flexibility as well as porosity to the system.

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 Figure 1.2- Conventional battery

"Since our paper batteries and super capacitors can be very low cost, they are also good for grid-
connected energy storage," he said. Peidong Yang, professor of chemistry at the University of
California Berkeley, said the technology could be commercialized within a short time.

1.4 Introduction of Paper Battery

A paper battery is a flexible, ultra-thin energy storage and production device formed by
combining carbon nanotube with a conventional sheet of cellulose-based paper. A paper battery
acts as both a high-energy battery and super capacitor, combining two components that are
separate in traditional electronics. This combination allows the battery to provide both long-term,
steady power production and bursts of energy. Non-toxic, flexible paper batteries have the
potential to power the next generation of electronics, medical devices and hybrid vehicles,
allowing for radical new designs and medical technologies. When two sheets are combined, with
the cellulose sides facing inwards, a super capacitor is formed that can be activated by the
addition of the ionic liquid. This liquid acts as an electrolyte and may include salt-laden solutions
like human blood, sweat or urine. The high cellulose content (over 90%) and lack of toxic
chemicals in paper batteries makes the device both bio-compatible and environmentally friendly,
especially when compared to the traditional lithium ion battery used in many present-day
electronic devices and laptops.

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 Figure 1.3- Carbon nanotube electrodes

Paper batteries may be folded, cut or otherwise shaped for different applications without any loss
of integrity or efficiency. Cutting one in half halves its energy production. Stacking them
multiplies power output. Early prototypes of the device are able to produce 2.5 volt s of
electricity from a sample the size of a postage stamp.

The devices are formed by combining cellulose with an infusion of aligned carbon nanotubes
that are each approximately one millionth of a centimeter thick. The carbon is what gives the
batteries their black color. These tiny filaments act like the electrode s found in a traditional
battery, conducting electricity when the paper comes into contact with an ionic liquid solution.
Ionic liquids contain no water, which means that there is nothing to freeze or evaporate in
extreme environmental conditions. As a result, paper batteries can function between -75 and 150
degrees Celsius.
One method of manufacture, developed by scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and
MIT, begins with growing the nanotubes on a silicon substrate and then impregnating the gaps in
the matrix with cellulose. Once the matrix has dried, the material can be peeled off of the
substrate, exposing one end of the carbon nanotubes to act as an electrode.

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 Figure 1.4- Paper battery

When two sheets are combined, with the cellulose sides facing inwards, a super capacitor is
formed that can be activated by the addition of the ionic liquid. This liquid acts as an electrolyte
and may include salt-laden solutions like human blood, sweat or urine. The high cellulose
content (over 90%) and lack of toxic chemicals in paper batteries makes the device both bio-
compatible and environmentally friendly, especially when compared to the traditional lithium ion
battery used in many present-day electronic devices and laptops.

As sensors are increasingly being embedded in everyday objects, there has been a corresponding
need for alternative power sources in the Internet of Things (IoT). The high cellulose content and
lack of toxic chemicals in paper batteries make them both biocompatible and environmentally
friendly, especially when compared to the lithium ion batteries used in many present-day
electronic devices.

Specialized paper batteries are expected to act as power sources for any number of devices
implanted in humans and animals, including RFID tags, drug-delivery systems and
pacemakers. In theory, a capacitor introduced into an organism could be implanted fully dry and
then be gradually exposed to bodily fluids over time to generate voltage. 

Ten years ago, scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and MIT grew nanotubes on
a silicon substrate and then impregnated gaps in the matrix with cellulose. When two sheets were

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combined with the cellulose sides facing inwards, a super capacitor could be activated with ionic
liquid forms, including salt-laden solutions like human saliva, blood, sweat or urine. 

Recently, researchers at the State University of New York printed thin layers of metals
and polymers onto a paper surface that contains freeze-dried exoelectrogens, a type of bacteria
that can transfer electrons outside the bacteria's cellular walls. Any type of bio-liquid can be used
to revive the exoelectrogens and activate the paper battery by allowing bacteria to pass through
cell membranes and make contact with external electrodes.

"Batteries and capacitors are being steadily improved, but electricity storage is much more
difficult and expensive than liquid fuels and probably will be so forever," he said. "The world is
not going to change as a result of this new invention any time soon." Professor Linhardt admitted
that the new battery is still some way from the commercial market. "The devices we're making
are only a few inches across. We would have to scale up to sheets of newspaper size to make it
commercially viable," he said. But at that scale, the voltage could be large enough to power a
car, he said. However, carbon nanotubes are very expensive, and batteries large enough to power
a car are unlikely to be cost effective. "I'm a strong enthusiast of electric vehicles, but it is going
to take time to bring the costs down," said Professor Sperling. But Professor Linhardt said
integrated devices, like the paper battery, were the direction the world was moving. "They are
ultimately easier to manufacture, more environmentally friendly and usable in a wide range of
devices," he said. The ambition is to produce the paper battery using a newspaper-type roller
printer.

"If we stack 500 sheets together in a ream, that's 500 times the voltage. If we rip the paper in half
we cut power by 50%. So we can control the power and voltage issue."

Because the battery consists mainly of paper and carbon, it could be used to power pacemakers
within the body where conventional batteries pose a toxic threat.

"I wouldn't want the ionic liquid electrolytes in my body, but it works without them," said
Professor Linhardt. "You can implant a piece of paper in the body and blood would serve as an
electrolyte."

But Professor Daniel Sperling at University of California, Davis, an expert on alternative power
sources for transport, is unconvinced.
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Widespread commercial deployment of paper batteries will rely on the development of more
inexpensive manufacturing techniques for carbon nanotubes. As a result of the potentially
transformative applications in electronics, aerospace, hybrid vehicles and medical science,
however, numerous companies and organizations are pursuing the development of paper
batteries. In addition to the developments announced in 2007 at RPI and MIT, researchers in
Singapore announced that they had developed a paper battery powered by ionic solutions in
2005. NEC has also invested in R & D into paper batteries for potential applications in its
electronic devices. Specialized paper batteries could act as power sources for any number of
devices implanted in humans and animals, including RFID tags, cosmetics, drug-delivery
systems and pacemakers. A capacitor introduced into an organism could be implanted fully dry
and then be gradually exposed to bodily fluids over time to generate voltage. Paper batteries are
also biodegradable, a need only partially addressed by current e-cycling and other electronics
disposal methods increasingly advocated for by the green computing movement.

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 Chapter- 2

MANUFACTURING OF PAPER BATTERY

2.1 Manufacturing of Carbon Nanotubes

One method of manufacture, developed by scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and

MIT, begins with growing the Nano tubes on a silicon substrate and then impregnating the gaps
in the matrix with cellulose. Once the matrix has dried, the material can be peeled off of the
substrate, exposing one end of the carbon Nano tubes to act as an electrode.

When two sheets are combined, with the cellulose sides facing inwards, a super capacitor is
formed that can be activated by the addition of the ionic liquid. This liquid acts as an electrolyte
and may include salt-laden solutions like human blood, sweat or urine. The high cellulose
content (over 90%) and lack of toxic chemicals in paper batteries makes the device both Bio
compatible and environmentally friendly, especially when compared to the traditional lithium ion
battery used in many present-day electronic devices and laptops.

Figure 2.1 carbon nanotube

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Specialized paper batteries could act as power sources for any number of devices implanted in
humans and animals, including RFID tags, cosmetics, drug-delivery systems and pacemakers. A
capacitor introduced into an organism could be implanted fully dry and then be gradually
exposed to bodily fluids over time to generate voltage. Paper batteries are also biodegradable, a
need only partially addressed by current e-cycling and other electronics disposal methods
increasingly advocated for by the green computing movement.

2.2 DEVELOPMENT

The creation of this unique Nano composite paper drew from a diverse pool of disciplines,
requiring expertise in materials science, energy storage, and chemistry. The researchers used
ionic liquid, essentially a liquid salt, as the battery’s electrolyte. The use of ionic liquid, which
contains no water, means there’s nothing in the batteries to freeze or evaporate. “This lack of
water allows the paper energy storage devices to withstand extreme temperatures,” Kumar said.
It gives the battery the ability to function in temperatures up to 300 degrees Fahrenheit and down
to 100 below zero. The use of ionic liquid also makes the battery extremely biocompatible; the
team printed paper batteries without adding any electrolytes, and demonstrated that naturally
occurring electrolytes in human sweat, blood, and urine can be used to activate the battery
device. Cellulose-based paper is a natural abundant material, biodegradable, light, and recyclable
with a well-known consolidated manufacturing process.

Figure 2.2 Paper Battery with carbon Nanotube

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These Attributes turn paper a quite interesting material to produce very cheap disposable
electronic devices with the great advantage of being environmental friendly. The recent (r)
evolution of thin-film electronic devices such as paper transistors, transparent thin-film
transistors based on semiconductor oxides, and paper memory, open the possibility to produce
low cost disposable electronics in large scale. Common to all these advances is the use of
cellulose fiber-based paper as an active material in opposition to other ink-jet printed active-
matrix display and thin-film transistors reports where paper acts only as a passive element
(substrate). Batteries in which a paper matrix is incorporated with carbon nanotube or bio-fluid
and water-activated batteries with a filter paper have been reported, but it is not known a work
where the paper itself is the core of the device performance. With the present work, we expect to
contribute to the first step of an incoming disruptive concept related to the production of self-
sustained paper electronic systems where the power supply is integrated in the electronic circuits
to fabricate fully self-sustained disposable, flexible, low cost and low electrical consumption
systems such as tags, games or displays.

Figure 2.3 construction of paper battery

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In achieving such goal we have fabricated batteries using commercial paper as electrolyte and
physical support of thin film electrodes. A thin film layer of a metal or metal oxide is deposited
in one side of a commercial paper sheet while in the opposite face a metal or metal oxide with
opposite electrochemical potential is also deposited. The simplest structure produced is
Cu/paper/Al but other structures such as Al paper WO TCO were also tested, leading to batteries
with open circuit voltages varying between 0.50 and 1.10 V. On the other hand, the short current
density is highly dependent on the relative humidity (RH), whose presence is important to
recharge the battery. The set of batteries characterized show stable performance after being
tested by more than 115 hours, under standard atmospheric conditions [room temperature, RT
(22 C) and 60% air humidity [RH]. In this work we also present as a proof of concept a paper
transistor in which the gate ON/OFF state is controlled by a non-encapsulated 3 V integrated
paper battery.

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 Chapter – 3

EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS

Battery or voltaic cell is a combination of many electrochemical Galvanic cells of identical type
to store chemical energy and to deliver higher voltage or higher current than with single cells.

The battery cells create a voltage difference between the terminals of each cell and hence to its
combination in battery. When an external electrical circuit is connected to the battery, then the
battery drives electrons through the circuit and electrical work is done. Since the invention of the
first Voltaic pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power source
for many household and industrial applications, and is now a multi-billion dollar industry.

A paper battery is a flexible, ultra-thin energy storage and production device formed by
combining carbon nanotube s with a conventional sheet of cellulose-based paper. A paper battery
acts as both a high-energy battery and supercapacitor , combining two components that are
separate in traditional electronics . This combination allows the battery to provide both long
term, steady power production and bursts of energy. Non-toxic, flexible paper batteries have the
potential to power the next generation of electronics, medical devices and hybrid vehicles,
allowing for radical new designs and medical technologies.

Paper batteries may be folded, cut or otherwise shaped for different applications without any loss
of integrity or efficiency. Cutting one in half halves its energy production. Stacking them
multiplies power output. Early prototypes of the device are able to produce 2.5 volt s of
electricity from a sample the size of a postage stamp

3.1 Experimental Details

The paper batteries produced have the Al/paper/Cu structure, where the metal layers were
produced by thermal evaporation at RT. The thicknesses of the metal electrodes varied between
100 and 500 nm. The electrical characteristics of the batteries were obtained through I–V curves
and also by sweep voltammetry using scanning speed of 25mV/s and the electrodes area of 1 cm.
A Keithley 617 Programmable Electrometer with a National Instruments GPIB acquisition board
were used to determine the I–V characteristics.

14
 Figure 3.1 Dependence of temperature on discharge capacity

The cyclic voltammetry was performed with a Potenciostat Gamry Instruments—Ref. 600 in a
two-electrode configuration. The electrical performances of the batteries were determined by
monitoring the current of the battery under variable RH conditions. The surface analysis of the
paper and paper batteries was performed by S-4100 Hitachi scanning electron microscopy
(SEM), with a 40 tilt angle. The electrical properties of the paper transistor controlled by the
paper battery were monitored with an Agilent 4155C semiconductor parameter analyzer and a
Cascade M150 microprobe station.

Figure 3.2 Typical series connection method

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3.2 Layer-by-Layer Coating of Wood Microfibers with CNT

The pulp used in the experiments was made from beaten, bleached Kraft softwood microfibers
(less than 1% lignin and 99% cellulose), press-dried, and shipped in bundles of 17×14 sheets,
supplied by International Paper Company (Bastrop, Louisiana). These hollow microfibers are 2–
3 mm in length and 35–50 μm in diameter.

Figure 3.3 layer by layer carbon nanotube paper battery

An aqueous dispersion of poly (3, 4 ethylene di oxythiophene)–poly (styrene sulfonate)

(PEDOTPSS) conductive polymer (3 mg/mL) and CNT (25 μg/mL) was used as the anionic
component, while poly (ethyleneimine) (PEI) (3 mg/mL) was used as cationic polyelectrolyte
component for the LBL coating of the wood microfibers. Coating microfibers with two bilayers
of PEI/CNT in alternate with one bilayer of PEI/PEDOT-PSS achieved the desired conductivity.
Following CNT-coating, the wood microfibers were assembled into flexible paper sheets
(through an in-house setup made in accordance to the Technical Association of Pulp and Paper
(TAAPI) T 205 T standard) to be used as current collectors.

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3.3 Battery Fabrication

Pastes of the electrode materials were prepared using 85% (w.t) of the active materials (Li 4Ti5O12
or LiCoO2), 10% (w.t) Super P lithium (obtained from Timcal, conductive materials made form
carbon black of 40 nm), and 5% (w.t) Poly vinylidene fluoride (PVDF). Super P lithium
increases the conductivity of the electrode paste while PVDF diluted in N-Methyl-2-Pyrrolidone
improves adherence of the material to the substrate. The electrode materials were then coated on
the current collectors by a spray coating method followed by vacuum-drying for 12 h. The
battery configuration was assembled in an Argon filled glove box and is shown in Fig. 1. The
CNT-microfiber paper, coated with lithium titanium oxide (LTO) and lithium cobalt oxide
(LCO), were cut in circular samples with diameter of 0.58 cm, which form the anode and
cathode of the developed battery. A Celgard separator film divides the anode and cathode of the
battery. The outer surfaces of the CNT-microfiber current collectors were connected to the
output of the battery. The battery assembly was soaked in lithium phosphorous fluoride (LiPF 6)
1M in an EC/DEC electrolyte solution (1:1 by volume, purchased from Novolyte), pressed, and
encapsulated in a coin cell. After assembly, the devices were kept undisturbed for 24 h allowing
them to reach stable states by completely soaking the electrode materials and the separator with
the electrolyte solution. LCO/LTO half-cells and full-cells were tested using an Arbin BT2000
battery testing system.

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 Chapter – 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The Al/paper/Cu thin batteries studied involved the use of three different classes of paper:
commercial copy white paper (WP: 0.68 g/cm , 0.118 mm thick); recycled paper (RP: 0.70
g/cm , 0.115 mm thick); tracing paper (TP: 0.58 g/cm , 0.065 mm thick). The TP is made of long
pine fibers and according to FRX (X-ray fluorescence) mainly Al 2 O3 (24%), SiO2 (37%), SO2
(15%), CaO (9%), and Na2O (4%). The role of the type of paper and electrodes thickness on the
electrical parameters of the battery, such as the Voc and Jsc are indicated in Table I, for RH of
50%–60%, using metal electrodes with different thicknesses (t1=100 nm; tot2=250 nm;t3=500
nm). Jsc for WP is ~ 40%–50% lower than of TP, and RP is one order of magnitude lower than
WP. Consequently, the Voc is reduced by merely a ~ 0.1 V when moving from WP to RP only
for thickness (t1=100 nm) while it increases for t2 and t3.

Figure 4.1 Photograph of the paper batteries with a sketch of the cross section

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The thickness of the metal layer does not play a remarkable role on electrical characteristics of
the batteries. The results show that it is enough to guarantee the step coverage of the randomly
dispersed fibers by metal or metal–oxide thin films to allow the carriers to find a continuous
pathway without the inhibition of water vapor absorption by the paper fibers. Considering that
the tracing paper is less dense and thinner than white and recycled paper, the difference on the
current density observed can be related to ions recombination either due to impurities inside the
foam/mesh-like paper structure or charge annihilation by vacant sites associated to the surface of
the paper fibers, existing in thicker papers. Other possible explanation is that the adsorption of
water vapor is favored in less dense paper. Fig. 4.1 shows a photograph and a sketch of a paper
battery analysis it contains with an Al anode while the cathode is Cu, whose difference in work
functions influences the set of chemical reactions that take place within the paper mesh structure.
The paper SEM image of Fig. 4.2 is the surface morphology of tracing paper used. There, large
(50 m). This mesh-like structure favors OHX absorption on the surface of the fibers, in line with
data depicted in Table 4.1, where the batteries produced in WP show currents one order of
magnitude lower than the ones produced in TP.

Figure 4.2 SEM image of the paper surface.

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 Figure 4.3 SEM image of the anode (Al) surface

For RP, two orders of magnitude difference in is observed. Voc is reduced by 0.1–0.2 V when
moving from WP to RP as electrolyte. The paper battery prototype used is non-encapsulated and
so, its electrical performance is influenced by the atmospheric constituents. This behavior was
confirmed by measuring the current of one cell in vacuum and under atmospheric pressure. The
results demonstrated a reduction of one order of magnitude in Jsc value after vacuum reaching
10 Pa. These results were reproducible after performing several tests. We attributed this behavior
to the incorporation of OH radicals from adsorbed water and its contribution to the enhancement
of current through the typical reactions of 2H2OO2+ 4H+ +4e- and/or 4OH-O2+2 H2O+4e-
and subsequent reactions with the paper fibers constituents (cellulose and ions). This was
confirmed by measuring the current variation as RH changes. The graph of Fig. 4.4 shows the
short circuit-current density variation as RH increases for TP. A variation of about three orders
of magnitude is observed when RH changes from 60% to 85%, and it is reversible, meaning that
no battery damage is verified. We conclude that this type of battery is a mixture of a secondary
battery and a fuel cell where the fuel is the water vapor and so its application requires

20
environment with RH>40 % or proper encapsulation with controlled humidity via holes through
which we can allow the battery to breathe.

Figure 4.4 Continuous measurement of the short circuit current density of the paper battery as it
is under gradual relative humidity

This is the case in applications with typically high RH, as in the food industry, where these
batteries could be used to turn electronic tags auto sustained. From the data taken, each battery
element is able to supply a power from 75 nW/cm to 350 W/cm, depending on RH. The desired
voltage and power output can be achieved by integrating in series and in parallel the battery
elements produced. In the present case, a prototype battery able to supply a 3 V was produced to

actuate the gate of a paper transistor working in the depletion mode. Fig. 4.4 shows a photograph
of the prototype made of 10 cells (with only 8 cells connected in series) and the graph of the
drain current of the paper transistor when the paper battery is connected to the gate ( 3 V) or
disconnected (0 V). The connection/disconnection were repeated during 400 s in intervals of 25 s

21
and the current was monitored continuously. The results clearly show the sustainability of the
paper battery in powering the gate of the transistor and how the results are reproducible. The
drain current of the paper transistor at 0V is 210A and at 3V is 10A, similar to the values
obtained when measuring the transfer characteristics of the same devices with a semiconductor
analyzer.

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 Chapter – 5

APPLICATION AND USES OF PAPER BATTERY

5.1 Paper Battery Properties

The properties of paper battery can be recognized from the properties of cellulose such as
excellent porosity, biodegradability, non-toxic, recyclability, high-tensile strength, good
absorption capacity, and low-shear strength and also from the properties of carbon nanotubes
such as low mass density, flexibility, high packing density, lightness, better electrical
conductivity than silicon, thin (around 0.5 to 0.7mm), and low resistance.

5.2 Advantages of Paper Battery

 Unlike the conventional batteries, paper battery can be used by folding, cutting, and
rolling.

 Paper battery functions as a battery as well as a capacitor.

 Paper battery is a modern storage device with ultra-thin in size.

 It has special properties such as more economical, biodegradable, and bio-compatible.

 Paper battery can generate electrical energy of 1.5V.

 The output voltage of paper battery can be customized based on requirement.

  The properties of cellulose and carbon nanotunes as outlined above are the great benefits
in paper battery design and development. 

  It is bio-compatible and hence they can easily adopted by our immune system.

  They can be re-used and re-cycled by using techniques of existing paper recycling.

  The paper batteries are rechargeable using all electrolytes. 

  It is durable and operates in wide temperature range.

  There is no leakage problem as no leaky fluids are used in its design.

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   It does not overheat even under extreme conditions due to low resistance characteristics. 

  Flexible and light in weight.

  Paper battery with desired shapes and sizes can be manufactured.

  Output voltage is customizable due to the fact that CNT (carbon nanotubes) concentration
can be varied and stacking/slicing can be changed.

5.3 Disadvantages of Paper Battery

 The carbon nanotubes used in paper battery are very expensive.
 The paper battery wastage may damage lungs if it is inhaled.
 The e-wastage is generated by paper batteries.
5.4 In Cosmetics
 Anti-aging and wrinkles
 Dark spots / Discoloration
 Skin lightening / Whitening
 Firming and lifting
 Moisturizing

5.5 Paper battery Applications

 It can be used in electronics for charging various devices e.g. laptop, cameras, mobile
phones, calculators etc. 
 It can be used in wireless devices e.g. mouse, keyboard, speakers, bluetooth headsets etc. 
 It can be used in medical applications such as artificial tissues, cosmetics, glucose meters,
sugar meters etc. 
 It can be used in aircrafts and automobiles as hybrid car batteries, guided missiles etc. 

5.6 USES OF PAPER BATTERY

The paper-like quality of the battery combined with the structure of the nanotubes embedded
within gives them their light weight and low cost, making them attractive for portable
electronics, aircraft, automobiles, and toys (such as model aircraft), while their ability to use
electrolytes in blood make them potentially useful for medical devices such as pacemakers.

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The medical uses are particularly attractive because they do not contain any toxic materials and
can be biodegradable; a major drawback of chemical cells However, Professor Sperling cautions
that commercial applications may be a long way away, because nanotubes are still relatively
expensive to fabricate. Currently they are making devices a few inches in size.

In order to be commercially viable, they would like to be able to make them newspaper size; a
size which, taken all together would be powerful enough to power a car.

5.7 DURABILITY

The use of carbon nanotubes gives the paper battery extreme flexibility; the sheets can be rolled,
twisted, folded, or cut into numerous shapes with no loss of integrity or efficiency, or stacked,
like printer paper (or a Voltaic pile), to boost total output. As well, they can be made in a variety
of sizes, from postage stamp to broadsheet. “It’s essentially a regular piece of paper, but ‘it’s
made in a very intelligent way,” said Linhardt, “We’re not putting pieces together — it’s a
single, integrated device,”

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 CONCLUSION

In this paper we show the functionality of a non-encapsulated thin-film battery using paper as
electrolyte and also as physical support. Batteries able to supply a Voc≈70V and Jsc>100nA/cm 2
at RH>60% were fabricated using respectively as anode and cathode thin metal films of Al and
Cu as thin as 100 nm. The battery is self-rechargeable when exposed to relative humidity above
40%, being Jsc highly influenced by RH>60%. In this case, Jsc varies from 150 nA/cm2 to 0.8
mA/cm2 , as RH varies from 60% to 85%. This constitutes the first step towards future fully
integrated self-sustained flexible, cheap and disposable electronic devices, with great emphasis
on the so-called paper electronics. Battery power is used all over the world, every day.  In this
experiment on battery power, the four most commonly used alkaline batteries, AAA, AA, C, and
D, were each connected to its own light bulb and toggle switch. I hypothesized that the D battery
would outlast the other three batteries and power its light bulb the longest because the D battery
is largest in size and, therefore must contain the most power.  After the experiment was
conducted, it was concluded that my hypothesis was correct.  The D battery does have the most
power as it outlasted the other three alkaline batteries.  Because of its size, it may not fit well in
smaller devices, thus, the smaller batteries are used.  An extension to this experiment may be to
test the life of different brands of one size of alkaline batteries.  Since the smallest commonly
used alkaline battery is the AAA, researching the life span of various brands of AAA batteries to
determine which brand lasts the longest.

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