1
Khnum
CORNELIUS VON PILGRIM
Khnum belongs to the earliest gods represented
in ancient Egyptian sources and maintains his
importance until the last days of Egyptian reli-
gion. The Egyptian name Hnmw can be traced
back to a Semitic root meaning “ram.” Since
earliest times the god is represented zoomorphi-
cally as a maned long-haired ram with horizon-
tal, cork-screwed horns (Ovis aries Linnaeus,
1758) (Figure 1). Since the 5th Dynasty the
god has generally been represented in semi-
anthropomorphic form as a ram-headed deity
with a small square beard indicating divinity
(Figure 2). From the 18th Dynasty onward,
the Atef crown became a frequent attribute
(Figure 3). During the reign of Rameses III the
iconography changed further, and the god was
depicted with additional horns curved down-
ward and forward (ammon-horned) (Figure 3).
This was due to a change in zoological reality
rather than indicative of a closer relationship to
the god Amun; the long-haired Fezzan sheep
was introduced in Egypt during the Middle
Kingdom, leading to the eventual disappearance
Figure 1 Zoomorphic image of the god Khnum in
the hieroglyphic writing of his name. Inscription
from a sandstone architrave of Amenhotep III from
the Khnum Temple in Elephantine. Photograph
courtesy of Cornelius von Pilgrim.
The Encyclopedia of Ancient History, First Edition. Edited by Roger S. Bagnall, Kai Brodersen, Craige B. Champion, Andrew Erskine,
and Sabine R. Huebner, print pages 3745–3747.
© 2013 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2013 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
DOI: 10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah15229
of the traditional breed (Behrens 1986: 1244).
In some places, such as Elephantine, the icon-
ographical change was implemented not
earlier than in the reign of Nektanebo II.
A changed representation of the ears in semi-
anthropomorphic representations of the god,
now shown hanging backward instead of for-
ward, from the reign of Ptolemy III onward is
taken as a reflection of the introduction of
another sheep-breed in Egypt, the Asian wool
sheep, carrying the same curved horns but
without a mane.
There is no proof for any specific local
origin of this god. A local cult is known from
many places in Egypt, mainly in Upper Egypt,
but the vast majority of iconographic and
textual evidence relates to the First Cataract
(“Khnum, Lord of the Cataract”) and its
urban centers Elephantine and Aswan. Together
with Satis and Anukis, Khnum is a member
of the Cataract Triad. Major cult centers are
Hr-Wr, Hypselis (Schas-hotep), and Esna. Cult
centers are also known in Buto, Memphis,
Letopolis, Hermopolis, Tell el-Balamun, and
Akanthon. Temples dedicated to Khnum are
archaeologically attested in Elephantine
(including a cemetery of sacred rams), Aswan,
Figure 2 The god Khnum in semi-
anthropomorphic form with horizontal, cork-
screwed horns. Sandstone block from a temple of
Psametik II in Elephantine. Photograph courtesy of
Cornelius von Pilgrim.
2
Figure 3 The god Khnum with Atef-crown and
additional curved horns. Ptolemaic relief on a gran-
ite block belonging to the facade of the Khnum
Temple in Elephantine. Photograph courtesy of
Cornelius von Pilgrim.
Esna, Kom el-Deir, Kumma, and Beit el-Wali.
Khnum’s cult was also common in many
temples in Nubia.
Khnum is closely related to fertility and
the annual inundation (“Lord of the inunda-
tion,” “He who comes as inundation”) and
vegetation (“He who lets the plants grow”/
“makes the plants”) and is one of the most
important creator gods (“The father of
father of gods and goddesses”). The latter is
strikingly demonstrated in the figure of the
sitting god shaping humans (or the king) on
a potter’s-wheel. In the temple of Esna Khnum
is described as the creator of the whole
universe.
REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS
Arnold, D. (1999) Temples of the last pharaohs.
Oxford.
Badawi, A. (1937) Der Gott Chnum. Glückstadt.
Behrens, P. (1986) “Widder.” In W. Helck and E.
Otto, eds., Lexikon der Ägyptologie, vol. 6: 1243.
Wiesbaden.
Bickel, S. (1991) “L’Iconographie du dieu Khnoum.”
Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie
orientale 91: 55–67.
Delange, E. and Jaritz, H. (2010) Elephantine XXV.
Der Widderfriedhof des Chnumtempels. Mainz.
Jenni, H. (1998) Elephantine XVII. Die Dekoration
des Chnumtempels auf Elephantine durch
Nektanebos II. Mainz.
Laskowska-Kusztal, E. (2008) “Le Khnoum d’
Elephantine: Quelques pas en avant pour mieux
connaı̂tre sa personnalité.” In E. M. Engel,
V. Müller, and U. Hartung, eds., Zeichen aus dem
Sand. Streiflichter aus Ägyptens Geschichte zu
Ehren von Günter Dreyer: 453–62. Wiesbaden.
von Pilgrim, C. (2001) “Stratigraphie d’un temple :
le temple de Khnoum à Eléphantine du Nouvel
Empire à la Période Ptolémaı̈que.” Bulletin de la
Société Française d’Egyptologie 151: 35–53.