Introduction to hydraulics

Katalin Bene, Ph.D, P.E.

 Ef Ef

EP EP

Under pressure Open channel

Movement Under pressure Gravitation

Cross section known Depth is unknown

Boundary condition Pressure over water level

 STEADY UNIFORM FLOW– Brays B.

Brays Bayou

Concrete Channel
UNSTEADY FLOW
Gravity Waves

Surges
Open Channel Flow
• Liquid (water) flow with a ____
free________
surface (interface
between water and air)
• relevant for
• natural channels: rivers, streams
• engineered channels: canals, sewer
lines or culverts (partially full), storm drains
• of interest to hydraulic engineers
• location of free surface
• velocity distribution
• discharge - stage (______)
depth relationships
• optimal channel design
Topics in Open Channel Flow
• Uniform Flow normal depth
• Discharge-Depth relationships
• Channel transitions
• Control structures (sluice gates, weirs…)
• Rapid changes in bottom elevation or cross section
• Critical, Subcritical and Supercritical Flow
• Hydraulic Jump
• Gradually Varied Flow
• Classification of flows
• Surface profiles
 Classification of Flows
• Steady and Unsteady (Temporal)
• Steady: velocity at a given point does not change with time
• Uniform, Gradually-Rapidly Varied, and Nonuniform(Spatial)
• Uniform: velocity at a given time does not change within a given
length of a channel
• Gradually varied: gradual changes in velocity with distance
• Laminar and Turbulent
• Laminar: flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top
of each other
• Turbulent: packets of liquid move in irregular paths
 Uniform flow
• Steady (Q, v, h does not change at location)
• Steady, uniform (location-time)
h, v does not change along the channel

Steady state-uniform
1

2
3
Q1=Q2=Q3=const.
A1=A2=A3=const.
v1=v2=v3=const.
y1=y2=y3=const.
Steady state-gradually varied

• Depth changes along channel, but not in time. Two types; (a) gradually
changing, or (b) rapidly changing.

Rapid Gradually
Dams, sluice gate

Gradually varied Rapid

1
2
3
y
1
2

Q1=Q2=Q3=const. 3
A1<A2<A3
v1>v2>v3
y1<y2<y3

Hydraulic jump, dam

Classifications of open-channel flow: (a) gradually varied flow (GVF), rapidly varied flow (RVF), and uniform flow (UF);
(b) unsteady varied flow; (c) unsteady varied flow
 Unsteady
• The hydraulic parameters (h, v) are changing in any cross section, with time.

Rapidly changing

Gradually changing 1 2 n

1
2
3
n

1
1 2 n
2
3
Q1≠Q2≠……Qn Q1≠Q2≠……Qn
A1≠A2≠……..An A1≠A2≠……..An
v1≠v2≠……...vn n v1≠v2≠……...vn

Floodwave Rapid opening or closing of

sluice gate
UNSTEADY FLOW
Gravity Waves

Surges
Introductory Concepts
 Hydraulic Radius and Reynolds Number in Open-Channel
Flow
• The characteristic dimension of open channels is the
hydraulic radius, defined as the ratio of the net cross-
sectional area of a flow stream to the wetted perimeter of
the section.
• That is,

• The unit for R is the meter in the SI unit system and feet in
the English system.
 Example
Determine the hydraulic radius of the trapezoidal section
shown in if W=1.22 m, X=0.305 m, and D=0.61 m.
 Example
Determine the hydraulic radius of the trapezoidal section
shown in if W=1.22 m, X=0.305 m, and D=0.61 m.

The net flow area is

To find the wetted perimeter, we must determine the
value of L:

Thus
 Classification of Open-Channel Flow
• Recall that the Reynolds number for closed circular cross
sections running full is

where v = Average velocity of flow, D = pipe diameter, and v

= Kinematic viscosity of the fluid.
• The Reynolds number for open-channel flow is then
 Kinds of Open-Channel Flow
• The Reynolds number and the terms laminar and turbulent
are not sufficient to characterize all kinds of open-channel
flow.
• In addition to the viscosity-versus-inertial effects, the ratio
of inertial forces to gravity forces is also important, given by
the Froude number defined as

FR

where yh called the hydraulic depth, is given by

and T is the width of the free surface of the fluid at the top
of the channel.
In summary: Open Channel
Flow
Dimensionless Parameters
Laminar flow low Reynolds number. Layered flow
Turbulent floe high Reynolds Number. Mixing
vL
Re =
where 
L- is characteristic length
ν-is kinematic viscosity or μ/ρ dynamic viscosity over density
Froude Number
v
Fr =
gL

Subcritical- Froude number<1

Critical- Froude number=1
Supercritical- Froude number > 1
 1
a
z

Common Geometric Properties Cot a = z/1

Fundamental equations

•Continuity-Conservation of mass
matter can neither be created nor destroyed
•Energy-Conservation of energy
first law of thermodynamics that energy must at all times be conserved
•Momentum equations-principle of conservation of linear
momentum
Newton's second law of motion
 Fundamentals
•Continuity-Conservation of mass
matter can neither be created nor destroyed

dm1 dm2
=
dt dt

dV1 dV
 = 2
dt dt
A1ds1 A ds
 = 2 2
dt dt

  A1v1 =   A2v2

Q1=Q2
 Energy-Conservation of energy
first law of thermodynamics that energy must at all times be conserved
Total energy=kinetic energy (W), work (Wp), potential energy (Wg)

m  v22 m  v12 Em =
1
 m  v2
− =W
2 2 2

(m =   V =   A  s1 =   A1  v1  dt1)

  A1v1 =   A2v2 = Q1 = Q2 = Q

v22 − v12
  Q  dt  =W
2

Wp (work done) = p1  A1  v1  dt − p2  A2  v2  dt = p1  Q  dt − p2  Q  dt

If no energy supplied, and

imcompressible fluid

v12
p1 p2 v22
z1 + + = z2 + + = cons tan t
Wg = G  lG = γ  V  (z1 − z2 )  2g  2g
 •Energy-Conservation of energy
first law of thermodynamics that energy must at all times be conserved

Given: The velocity of the upstream end of a rectangular channel 1 m wide is 3.0 m/s,
and the flow depth is 2.0 m. The depth at the downstream end is 1.7 m. The elevation
at section 1 is 500 m and at 2 is 499.90 m. Determine the headloss due to friction.
Assume the kinetic energy correction factor is 1.0.

Find:
(a) Headloss (hL)
•Momentum equations-principle of conservation of linear
momentum
Newton's second law of motion

 

 dv
F = ma = m
dt

dv  v v 
m = mv + 
dt  s t 
Steady Flow
dv  v 
m = m v 
dt  x 
dv  v 
m = Ax   v 
dt  x 

F x = Qv  F = P1 A1 − P2 A2 + Wx
x
For a bridge widening project, an existing city watermain must be relocated. The
water main is 300 mm in diameter and carries 0.142 m3/s. Relocation of the water
main will require a 45 degree bend in the pipe. The pressure in the pipe at the
location of the bend is 689 464 N/m2. Determine the forces that an anchor on the
pipe at the bend needs to withstand.
 Open Channel Flow
Flow Classification (Time-Space)
• Uniform flow - Manning’s Eqn in a prismatic
channel - Q, v, y, A, P, B, S and roughness are
all constant
• Critical flow - Specific Energy Eqn (Froude
No.)
• Non-uniform flow - gradually varied flow
rapidly varied - determination of floodplains
• Unsteady and Non-uniform flow - flood
waves
 STEADY UNIFORM FLOW– Brays B.

Brays Bayou

Concrete Channel
Uniform Depth Channel Flow

• Many channels are designed to carry fluid at a uniform depth all

along their length.
Irrigation canals.
Nature channels such as rivers and creeks.
• Uniform depth flow (dy/dx=0) can be accomplished by adjusting the
bottom slope, S0, so that it precisely equal the slope of the energy
line, Sf.
• A balance between the potential energy lost by the fluid as it coasts
downhill and the energy that is dissipated by viscous effects (head
loss) associated with shear stress throughout the fluid.
Typical velocity and shear stress distributions
in an open channel:

(a) velocity distribution throughout the cross section. (b) shear

stress distribution on the wetted perimeter
 STEADY UNIFORM FLOW
Momentum equation F
x = ma x
Forces=pressure+weight+shear
− −

F x = p1 A1 − p2 A2 + W sin a −  =  h1 A1 −  h2 A +  Ax sin a −  Px

dv v v
a= =v +
dt x t
Steady Flow
dv  v 
m = m v 
dt  x 
dv  v 
m = Ax   v 
dt  x 

F x = Qv
Uniform Flow (Δv=0)

F x =0
sinα=tanα=α=S
− Chezy (1768)
F = Ax sina − Px = 0 A 
x  S = τ =Kv2 v= RS
P K
 Chezy equation (1768)

• Introduced by the French engineer Antoine Chezy in 1768 while

designing a canal for the water-supply system of Paris

 2g
v= RS V = C Rh S f compare V= S f Rh
K f

where C = Chezy coefficient

m m
60 < C < 150
s s
where 60 is for rough and 150 is for smooth
also a function of Re, and surface roughness
 Manning Equation (1891)
• Most popular in U.S. for open channels
1 1/ 6
C= R = kR1 / 6
1 n
V = R 2/3
h S1/2
o

Dimensions of n? T /L
n 1/3

Bottom slope
Q = VA
1
Q = ARh2 / 3 S o1 / 2 very sensitive to n
n
 n=0,014

n=0,032

n=0,075
n=0,016
 Values of Manning n
Lined Canals n
Cem ent p laster 0.011
Untreated gu nite 0.016
Wood , p laned 0.012 n = f(surface
Wood , u np laned
Concrete, trow led
0.013
0.012 roughness,
Concrete, w ood form s, u nfinished 0.015 channel
Ru bble in cem ent 0.020
Asp halt, sm ooth 0.013 irregularity,
Asp halt, rou gh
N atural Channels
0.016
stage...)
Gravel bed s, straight 0.025
Gravel bed s p lu s large bou ld ers 0.040
Earth, straight, w ith som e grass 0.026
Earth, w ind ing, no vegetation 0.030
Earth , w ind ing w ith vegetation 0.050

d = median size of bed material

n = 0 . 0 3 8 d 1 / 6 d in m
Normal depth implies that flow rate, velocity, depth,
bottom slope, area, top width, and roughness remain
constant within a prismatic channel as shown below

UNIFORM FLOW

Q =C
V =C
y =C
S0 = C
A =C
B =C
n =C
 1
a
z

Common Geometric Properties Cot a = z/1

Examples
Given: Trapezoidal earth channel B = 2 m, sideslope 1V:2H, S = 0.003 m/m,
normal depth y= 0.5 m, n = 0.015.

Find: Velocity (V) and discharge (Q)

Given: A concrete trapezoidal channel B = 5 m, sideslopes = 1V:2H, n =

0.013,slope = 0.001, Q = 30 m3/s

Find: Normal depth (y) and velocity (v)

 Trapezoidal earth channel B = 2 m, sideslope 1V:2H, S
= 0.003 m/m, normal depth y= 0.5 m, n = 0.015.
Find: Velocity (V) and discharge (Q)

A = (5 + 2 y) y = 18m2
P = 5 + 2 y 1 + 2 2 = 13,94m
1 2m
2 A 18
R= = = 1,29m
5m P 13,94

1 1
Q = A   R 2 / 3 I = 18  1,292 / 3  0,001 = 45m 3 / s
n 0,015
Average slope Q 45
v= = = 2,5m / s
A 18
Re number, flow type
vR 2,5 1,29
Re = = = 2,83 106
 1,14 10 −6

large Re number, turbulent flow, Manning equation can be used

Calculate depth, flow given

1 ?
2 1
5m
Q = A   R2/3 I
n

A = (5 + 2 y) y
P = 5 + 2 y 1 + 22
A (5 + 2 y ) y
R= =
P 5 + 2 y 1 + 22
Cot a = z/1
 2/3
1   (5 + 2 y ) y


Q = (5 + 2 y ) y  0,001
0,015 
 5 + 2 y 1+ 2
2 

 ((5 + 2 y ) y )5 / 3 
30 = 2,108   

 5 (
+ 2 y 1 + 2 2
)
2 / 3 


(a) Iteration
Excel help
=(C5*D9+C6*D9^2)*((C5*D9+C6*D9^2)/(C5+2*D9*GYÖK(1+C6^2)))
^(2/3)*1/C3*C4^0,5
Example
Pipe flow Q=4 m3/s, the diameter D=1,5m. Concrete pipe, slope S=1%. Manning
n=0,015

D 0,9

0,8

0,7

0,6
y/D=0,6
Q/Qo
y/D

0,5

0,4

y v/vo
0,3

0,2

0,1

0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2

Q/Q0 v/v0
 Closed conduit
Pipe flow Q=4 m3/s, the diameter D=1,5m. Concrete pipe, slope S=1%.
Manning n=0,015
• Graph
• Excel

Q  y
= f  θ yn 1,5m

Qtelt D
2/3
 D 2 
  2/3
1 1 D 2  4  1 1,52   1,5 
Q = AR 2 / 3 I 1/ 2 =   0,01 =     0,01 = 6,11m3 / s
n 0,015 4  D  0,015 4  4 
 
 

Q/Qfull=4/6,11=0,66 Graph y/D=0,6

yn=0,6∙1,5=0,9 m
 1

D 0,9

0,8

0,7

0,6
y/D=0,6
Q/Qo
y/D

0,5

0,4

y v/vo
0,3

0,2

0,1

0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2

Q/Q0 v/v0
 Excel program

Qn D    
= R 2/3 A θ yn 1,5m
y=  1 − cos 
2   2 
S
1
A = ( − sin  ) D 2
8

Normál vízmélység csővezetékben 1  sin  

R = 1 − D
n=
I=
0,015
0,01
4  
r= 0,75 m
Q= 4 m3/s
bal jobb yn
3,500 0,600 0,600 0,884 Célértékkeresés
Módosuló
Thétha Célérték Célcella cella Go to slide

=2*ARCCOS(1-2y/D)
What type of flow?
 STEADY NONUNIFORM FLOW
Ef
v2/2g ?
Ep ?
y
dz

Q does not change in time, but the depth of

flow varies at locations
• Rapidly varied flow (hydraulic jump)
• Gradually varied flow (channel transitions)
 Open Channel Flow: Energy Relations

velocity head a1
V12 hL = S f D x
2g
2
energy
V
a2 2 grade line
2g
hydraulic
y1 grade line
y2 water surface

S o x

x

Bottom slope (So) not necessarily equal to surface slope (Sf)

Energy relationships
p1 V12 p2 V22 Pipe flow
+ z1 + a 1 = + z2 + a 2 + hL
g 2g g 2g z - measured from
horizontal datum

From diagram on previous slide...

2 2 Turbulent flow (a  1)
V V
y1 + S o Dx + 1
= y2 + 2
+ S f Dx y - depth of flow
2g 2g
Energy Equation for Open Channel Flow
V12 V22
y1 + + S o Dx = y 2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g
Specific Energy
• The sum of the depth of flow and the velocity head is the specific
energy:
2
y - potential energy
V
E = y +
V2
2g - kinetic energy
2g

E1 + S o  x = E 2 + S f  x

If channel bottom is horizontal and no head loss

E1 = E 2
y
For a change in bottom elevation
E1 - D y = E 2
 Specific Energy
In a channel with constant discharge, Q
Q = A1V1 = A2V 2
V2 Q2
E = y + E = y + where A=f(y)
2
2g 2gA
Consider rectangular channel (A=By) and Q=qB
q2 q is the discharge per unit width of channel
E = y +
2gy 2 y A

B
3 roots (one is negative)
 Specific Energy Diagram and Evaluation of
Y vs E Critical Depth

E = y + q2/2gy2
q = const
 Froude Number
Q 2T
= Fr 2
(= 1 when y = ycr )
gA3

Nonuniform flow
Fr<1 subcritical
Fr=1 critical
Fr>1 supercritical

Rectangular
channel

v
= Fr = 1
gy
 Specific Energy: Sluice Gate
10
9
sluice gate q = 5.5 m2/s
y1 8 EGL y2 = 0.45 m
7 q2
6 E = y+ 2 V2 = 12.2 m/s
2 gy 1
5
E2 = 8 m
y

4
3
2
1
2
y2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E
E1 = E 2

Given downstream depth and discharge, find upstream depth.

alternate depths (same specific energy)
y1 and y2 are ___________
 4

yc 2

y
1

Critical Flow 0
0 1 2
E
3 4

Find critical depth, yc Arbitrary cross-section

dE
= 0 T
dy dy
Q2 dA
E = y + A=f(y) y A
2gA 2 P
2
dE
= 1 - 3 dA = 0
Q dA = Tdy T=surface width
dy gA dy

Q 2Tc 2
QT V 2T A
1 = = Fr 2
= Fr 2
=D Hydraulic Depth
gAc3 gA3 gA T
Given: Determine the critical depth in a trapezoidal shaped swale with z =
1, given a discharge of 9.2 m3/s and a bottom width, B = 6 m. Also,
determine the critical velocity.

Find: Critical depth, Velocity at critical depth

Vc = [9.81 (0.55)]1/2 = 2.3 m/s

Given: Determine the critical depth in a trapezoidal shaped swale with z =
1, given a discharge of 9.2 m3/s and a bottom width, B = 6 m. Also,
determine the critical velocity.

Q 2Tc
1=
gAc3
Q 2 A3
Find: Critical depth, Velocity at critical depth
fn( ykr ) = =
g T
critical depth
left right ykr (m)
8.628 8.629 0.6001 goal seek
to value set cell by changing
Critical Flow:
Rectangular channel
Q 2Tc T
1 = T = Tc
3
gA c

Q = qT Ac = y cT Ac yc

q 2T 3 q2
1= =
3 3
gy T
c gyc3
1/ 3
q 2 
yc =   Only for rectangular channels!
g 
 

q = gy c3 Given the depth we can find the flow!

Critical Flow Relationships:
Rectangular Channels
q 2 
1/ 3
 Vc2 yc2 
yc =   yc3 =   because q = Vc y c
g   g 
   

Vc inertial force Kinetic energy

= 1 Froude number
yc g gravity force Potential energy

Vc2 yc Vc2
yc = = velocity head = 0.5 (depth)
g 2 2g
yc 2
yc =
2

E = y +
V E = yc + E
2 3
2g
 4

y
1

Critical Flow 0
0 1 2
E
3 4

• Characteristics
• Unstable surface
• Series of standing waves
• Occurrence
• Broad crested weir (and other weirs)
• Channel Controls (rapid changes in cross-section)
• Over falls
• Changes in channel slope from mild to steep
• Used for flow measurements
• ___________________________________________
Unique relationship between depth and discharge
subcritical:
h > hcr ; v < vcr
supercritical

critical
supercritical: subcritical
h < hcr ; v > vcr
Channel Transitions
5

Total Energy 4.5

H1=H2 4

∆H/∆x=0 dz/dx<0 step down

3.5
dw/dx>0 expansion
Energy Equation 3 F<1

y
2.5

Q2 dz/dx>0 step up
H = y+z+
2
dw/dx<0 contraction
2gA2 1.5

yc F=1
1
y=E F>1 Q=ct.
for Step-up or step-down 0.5

the derivative
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
dy dz Emin
0 = (1 − F ) +
2
E
dx dx
Ef
v2/2g ?
for channel contraction-expansion Ep ?
y

F 2 y dw dy dz
= (1 − F 2 )
w dx dx x
depth rectangular
(m) (b1)
0.4 1.674
0.45 1.457
0.5 1.315
0.55 1.224
0.6 1.166
0.65
0.7
1.133
1.116
Create a table
0.75
0.8
1.112
1.119
calculate specific energy (b1) for different depth
0.85 1.132 Apply equation
0.9 1.152
0.95 1.176 1.38m=E2+0.2m
1 1.204
1.05 1.235 E2=1.18m
1.1
1.15
1.268
1.304
Y2=?
1.2
1.25
1.342
1.380
From tabel
1.3 1.421 0.96m
1.35 1.462
1.4 1.504
1.45 1.547
1.5 1.591
1.55 1.635
1.6 1.680
1.65 1.725
1.7 1.771
1.75 1.817
1.8 1.863
1.85 1.910
1.9 1.956
1.95 2.004
2 2.051
Hydraulic Jump

•Used for energy dissipation

•Occurs when flow transitions from
supercritical to subcritical
•base of spillway
•We would like to know depth of water
downstream from jump as well as the
location of the jump
 Momentum equation
Flow changes from Supercritical to Subcritical

d (mvx )
1 2
 Fx = dt
ΔE=E1-E2

dv  v v 
E1 m = mv + 
 x t 
E2
v2 dt
J2
G
h2
p2 Steady state
v1 J1
h1
p1 hkr dv  v 
τ0
m = m v 
h1γ l p0 h2γ
dt  x 
 v 
Forces
1. Hydrodynamic pressure
 x
F = A x  v 
 x 
2. Gravitational force=0

F = Qv
3. Shear force along the channel
− x
F x =  ys1 A1 −  ys 2 A2 −  Px
neclected
Hydraulic Jump

• Flow changes from Supercritical to Subcritical

− −
F x = ma x
F x =  y1 A1 −  y2 A

F x = Qv

2 2
Q Q
+ y1 A1 = + y 2 A2
gA1 gA2
 Hydraulic jump
1 2

ΔE=E1-E2

F x = Qv E1
v2 E2
J2

P1 − P2 =  ys1 A1 −  ys 2 A2
G
h2
p2
v1 J1
h1
p1 hkr
τ0

h1γ l p0 h2γ

Q2 Q2
+ ys1 A1 = + ys 2 A2 = S1 = S 2
gA1 gA2
Specific force
1 2

2 2

y2 ΔE
kr
kr
ykr
1 y1 1

S E
  v12   v22 
E = E1 − E2 =  y1 +  −  y 2 + 
 2g   2g 
1 2

2 2

y2 ΔE
kr
kr
ykr
1 y1 1

S E

Rectangular channel A=B·y, hs=0,5·h,

Q2
+ hs1 A1 =
Q2
+ hs 2 A2 = S1 = S 2
B=1, és
Q=v1∙B·y1=v2∙B·y2 E =
(y 2 − y1 )
3

gA1 gA2 4y1y 2

y12 y 22 v12 y12  1 1  Fr21=v21/gy1 repleace, and with (y1-y2) expression
− =  − 
2 2 g  y 2 y1  both sides simplified

( )
2
 y2  y y2 1 2
  + 2 − 2 Fr12 = 0  h1  2  q 2
 y1  y1 = − 1 + 1 + 8 Fr1 h 2 = − +   +
2 h1
y1 2 2 2 g  h1
Hydraulic Jump
Given: A hydraulic jump occurs in a 5-m wide rectangular channel at a flow
depth of 0.5m. Determine the downstream water surface elevation needed to
cause the jump. Also calculate the headloss due to the jump. Given Q = 20 m3/s

y2 1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8 Fr12
y1 2
)
Fr21=v21/gy1

Find:
(1) Determine the required downstream WSEL to initiate a jump
(2) Determine the headloss across the jump

E =
(y 2 − y1 )
3

4y1y 2
A 5 m wide, rectangular channel goes from a very steep grade to a mild slope.
The design discharge is 24.8 m3/s and the normal depth and velocity on the
steep slope were calculated to be 0.33 m and 15 m/s, respectively. On the mild
slope, the normal depth and velocity were calculated to be 2.96 m and 1.68 m/s,
respectively. Determine the type of flow occurring in both channels. If a hydraulic
jump occurs, evaluate the depth downstream of the hydraulic jump, the location
of the jump, and the water surface profile classification
Given a rectangular channel. Channel width 8 m, slope S=0,4% and the
Manning number n=0.045. The flow is Q=30 m3/s. Downstream in the channel
a dam is going to be built, the expected depth at the dam is yki =6,50 m.
Determine the flow profile 2500 m upstream to the dam.

8m

6,50m

2500m
Gradually Varied Flow

Control
Control is a channel feature, usually structural, where there is a unique
relationship between depth and discharge. A control regulates the state
of flow.
Subcritical flow is controlled by downstream conditions
Supercritical flow is controlled by upstream conditions

Classification of Water Flow profiles

Surface Profiles Zones (1, 2, 3) and the type of channel
Mild yn>yc (M, S, C, H, A)
Steep yn<yc
Critical yn=yc
Horizontal only yc
Adverse only yc
Surface Profiles
• Mild slope (yn>yc)
• in a long channel subcritical flow will occur
• Steep slope (yn<yc)
• in a long channel supercritical flow will occur
• Critical slope (yn=yc)
• in a long channel unstable flow will occur
• Horizontal slope (So=0)
• yn undefined
• Adverse slope (So<0)
• yn undefined

Note: These slopes are f(Q)!

Example
Gradually Varied Flow

V12 V 22 Energy equation for non-

y1 + + S o Dx = y2 + + S f Dx
2g 2g uniform, steady flow

ć V 22 V12 ö d y = y 2 − y1
S o dx = ( y 2 - y1 ) + ç - ÷ + S f dx
č 2g 2g ř T
ćV 2 ö dy
dy + d ç ÷ + S f dx = S o dx
č 2g ř y A
P
dy d  V 2  dx dx
+ +Sf = So

dy dy  2 g   dy dy
 Gradually Varied Flow

d  V 2  d  Q 2   − 2 Q 2  dA  − Q 2T 
= =   =   = − Fr 2
dy  2 g  dy  2 gA 2   2 gA 3  dy
 
 gA 3 
 
 2  Change in KE
dy d  V  dx dx Change in PE
+ +Sf = So
dy dy  2 g  dy dy
We are holding Q constant!
dx dx
1 − Fr + S f
2
= So
dy dy
dy So − S f
dy
1 − Fr  =
2
So − S f
=
dx dx 1 − Fr 2
Gradually Varied Flow

dy So − S f Governing equation for

=
dx 1 − Fr 2 gradually varied flow

• Gives change of water depth with distance along channel

• Note
• So and Sf are positive when sloping down in direction of flow
• y is measured from channel bottom
• dy/dx =0 means water depth is constant
• Solution-numerical methods
• Direct step
• Standard step

yn is when S o = S f
 Direct Step Method
V12 V 22
y1 + + S o x = y2 + + S f x energy equation
2g 2g

V12 V22
y1 − y 2 + − Given assumed flow depths along
2g 2 g the channel solve for x
x =
S f − So
rectangular channel prismatic channel
q q Q Q
V1 = V2 = V2 = V1 =
y1 y2 A2 A1
Direct Step Method
Friction Slope

Manning Darcy-Weisbach
n 2V 2 fV 2
S f = 4/3 Sf =
Rh 8 gRh
Direct Step
• Limitation: channel must be _________
prismatic(so that
velocity is a function of depth only and not a
function of x)
• Method
• identify type of profile (determines whether y is + or -)
• choose y and thus yn+1
• calculate hydraulic radius and velocity at yn and yn+1
• calculate friction slope yn and yn+1
• calculate average friction slope
• calculate x
 Direct Step Method

=y*b+y^2*z
V12 V22
=2*y*(1+z^2)^0.5 +b y1 − y 2 + −
2g 2g
=A/P x =
S f − So
=Q/A
=(n*V)^2/Rh^(4/3)
=y+(V^2)/(2*g)
=(G16-G15)/((F15+F16)/2-So)
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
y A P Rh V Sf E Dx x T Fr bottom surface
0.900 1.799 4.223 0.426 0.139 0.00004 0.901 0 3.799 0.065 0.000 0.900
0.870 1.687 4.089 0.412 0.148 0.00005 0.871 0.498 0.5 3.679 0.070 0.030 0.900
Given a rectangular channel. Channel width 8 m, slope S=0,4% and the
Manning number n=0.045. The flow is Q=30 m3/s. Downstream in the channel
a dam is going to be built, the expected depth at the dam is yki =6,50 m.
Determine the flow profile 2500 m upstream to the dam.

8m

6,50m

2500m
1. Determine normal-critical depth

yn=2,1386 m, and ycr=1,1275 m

Channel type: yn>ycr →mild, M
Flowprofile type: ydam>yn→ M1
Control depth at dam ycr<6.50 subcritical
Subcritical flow control downstream
Determine flow profile starting and ending elevations 2,1386<y<6,50
 Standard Step
• Given a depth at one location, determine the depth at a
second location
• Step size (x) must be small enough so that changes in
water depth aren’t very large. Otherwise estimates of
the friction slope and the velocity head are inaccurate
• Can solve in upstream or downstream direction
• upstream for subcritical
• downstream for supercritical
• Find a depth that satisfies the energy equation

V12 V 22
y1 + + S o x = y2 + + S f x
2g 2g
Orifice flow

v12 p 0 v 22 p 0
+ +H= + + 0 + hv
2g γ 2g γ
v 22
H= + hv
2g
v 22 v 22
H= + 
2g 2g
v 22
H = (1 +  ) 
2g

1
v2 =  2g  H
1+ ξ
Orifice flow

1
v2 =  2g  H
1+ ξ

v 2 =   2g  H
about d/2 distance the flow
diameter is minimal (Ac)

A 2  AC AC = ψ  A 2

Q = AC  v 2 = ψ  A 2  v 2

Q = ψ   A2  2  g  H Q =   A2  2  g  H
 Orifice flow
Q =   A2  2  g  H Large diameter

dQ =   (x (h )  dh )  2  g  h
h2

Q =    x (h )  2  g  h  dh
h1
h2


Q =   2  g  x (h )  h  dh
h1
h2
 3
h2
h2 
Q =  b 2g   h  dh =   b  2  g    =
3
h1  
 3 3  2  h1
2  
=    b  2  g   h 22 − h12 
3  
 
 hv= E1=E2
hv=
h
1 H 2
v12 v 22
H+ +0 = +H −h+0
2g 2g

v2 = 2  g (h + hv)

Q = A2 v2 =   A 2  2  g (h + hv)
H
2  3 3

Q= 2g(h + hv)  b  dh =  b  2  g   (H + hv ) − h v 
2 2

0
3  
When the distance < 3H,
v1≠0

When the distance >> 3H, v1=0 hv=0

H
2
Q =    b  2  g  h  dh =    2  g b  H 2 / 3
0
3
Bazin

3
2
Q =   b 2 g h 2
3
Poncelet

3
2
Q =   b 2 g h 2
3
- ha : b ill. M > 3h, oldalkontrakció > 2h

Q = 1,86 b∙H3/2
- ha : α = 90o:

Q = 1,4∙H5/2
Riser
 Parchal flumes

3
μ
Q= b 2g h 2
3
St Venant Equations
Reading: Sections 9.1 – 9.2
 Distributed Flow routing in channels
• Distributed Routing
• St. Venant equations
• Continuity equation

Q A
+ =0
x t
• Momentum Equation

1 Q 1   Q 2  y
+   + g − g ( So − S f ) = 0
A t A x  A  x

What are all these terms, and where are they coming from?
Continuity Equation (2)

Q A
+ =0 Conservation form
x t

(Vy ) y
+ =0
x t
Non-conservation form (velocity is dependent
variable)
y V y
V +y + =0
x x t
Continuity Equation
Q = inflow to the control volume
q = lateral inflow

Q Rate of change of flow

x with distance
Q
Q+ dx Outflow from the C.V.
x

( Adx) Change in mass

t

Elevation View
Reynolds transport theorem

d
0= 
dt c.v.
d +  V .dA
c. s .

Plan View
 Momentum Equation

• From Newton’s 2nd Law:

• Net force = time rate of change of momentum

d
 F = dt Vd + VV .dA
c .v . c. s .

Sum of forces on
the C.V.

Momentum stored Momentum flow

within the C.V across the C. S.
Forces acting on the C.V.
• Fg = Gravity force due to weight
of water in the C.V.
• Ff = friction force due to shear
stress along the bottom and
sides of the C.V.
• Fe = contraction/expansion
force due to abrupt changes in
the channel cross-section
• Fw = wind shear force due to
frictional resistance of wind at
Elevation View
the water surface
• Fp = unbalanced pressure forces
due to hydrostatic forces on the
left and right hand side of the
C.V. and pressure force exerted
by banks

Plan View
Momentum Equation
d
 F = dt Vd + VV .dA
c .v . c. s .

Sum of forces on
the C.V.

Momentum stored Momentum flow

within the C.V across the C. S.

1 Q 1   Q 2  y
+   + g − g ( So − S f ) = 0
A t A x  A  x
Momentum Equation(2)

1 Q 1  Q 
 2
y
+   + g − g ( So − S f ) = 0
A t A x  A  x
Local Convective Pressure Gravity Friction
acceleration acceleration force force force
term term term term term

V V y
+V + g − g (So − S f ) = 0
t x x
Kinematic Wave

Diffusion Wave

Dynamic Wave
Momentum Equation (3)

1 V V V y
− − − + So = S f
g t g x x
Steady, uniform flow

Steady, non-uniform flow

Unsteady, non-uniform flow

Assumptions for St. Venant Equations

• Flow is one-dimensional
• Hydrostatic pressure prevails and vertical accelerations are negligible
• Streamline curvature is small.
• Bottom slope of the channel is small.
• Manning’s equation is used to describe resistance effects
• The fluid is incompressible
Types of flow routing

• Lumped/hydrologic
• Flow is calculated as a function of time alone at a particular location
• Governed by continuity equation and flow/storage relationship
• Distributed/hydraulic
• Flow is calculated as a function of space and time throughout the system
• Governed by continuity and momentum equations

130
 1
a
z

Common Geometric Properties Cot a = z/1

 Example
Determine the hydraulic radius of the trapezoidal section
shown in if W=1.22 m, X=0.305 m, and D=0.61 m.
Given: The velocity of the upstream end of a rectangular channel 1 m wide is 3.0 m/s,
and the flow depth is 2.0 m. The depth at the downstream end is 1.7 m. The elevation
at section 1 is 500 m and at 2 is 499.90 m. Determine the headloss due to friction.
Assume the kinetic energy correction factor is 1.0.

Find:
(a) Headloss (hL)
For a bridge widening project, an existing city watermain must be relocated. The
water main is 300 mm in diameter and carries 0.142 m3/s. Relocation of the water
main will require a 45 degree bend in the pipe. The pressure in the pipe at the
location of the bend is 689 464 N/m2. Determine the forces that an anchor on the
pipe at the bend needs to withstand.
Examples
Given: Trapezoidal earth channel B = 2 m, sideslope 1V:2H, S = 0.003 m/m,
normal depth y= 0.5 m, n = 0.015.
Find: Velocity (V) and discharge (Q)

Given: A concrete trapezoidal channel B = 5 m, sideslopes = 1V:2H, n =

0.013,slope = 0.001, Q = 30 m3/s Find: Normal depth (y) and velocity (v)
Example
Pipe flow Q=4 m3/s, the diameter D=1,5m. Concrete pipe, slope S=1%. Manning
n=0,015

D 0,9

0,8

0,7

0,6
y/D=0,6
Q/Qo
y/D

0,5

0,4

y v/vo
0,3

0,2

0,1

0
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1 1,1 1,2

Q/Q0 v/v0
Given: Determine the critical depth in a trapezoidal shaped swale with z =
1, given a discharge of 9.2 m3/s and a bottom width, B = 6 m. Also,
determine the critical velocity.

Find: Critical depth, Velocity at critical depth

Given: A hydraulic jump occurs in a 5-m wide rectangular channel at a flow
depth of 0.5m. Determine the downstream water surface elevation needed to
cause the jump. Also calculate the head loss due to the jump. Given Q = 20
m3/s
y2 1
(
= − 1 + 1 + 8 Fr12
y1 2
)
E =
(y 2 − y1 )
3

Fr21=v21/gy1
4y1y 2

Find:
(1) Determine the required downstream WSEL to initiate a jump
(2) Determine the headloss across the jump
Given a rectangular channel. Channel width 8 m, slope S=0,4% and the
Manning number n=0.045. The flow is Q=30 m3/s. Downstream in the channel
a dam is going to be built, the expected depth at the dam is yki =6,50 m.
Determine the flow profile 2500 m upstream to the dam.

8m

6,50m

2500m
Example