MENG 210

Manufacturing Processes I

Polymer processing

POLYMERS

1. Fundamentals of Polymer Technology

2. Shaping Processes for Plastics
1. Extrusion
2. Injection Molding
3. Blow Molding

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 Reasons Why Polymers are Important

▪ Plastics can be molded with no further processing

▪ Very compatible with net shape processing
▪ On a volumetric basis, polymers:
▪ Are cost competitive with metals
▪ Require less energy to produce than metals
▪ Certain plastics are translucent and/or transparent,
which makes them competitive with glass in some
applications

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General Properties of Polymers

▪ Low density relative to metals and ceramics

▪ Good strength-to-weight ratios for certain (but not all)
polymers
▪ High corrosion resistance
▪ Low electrical and thermal conductivity

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 Limitations of Polymers

▪ Low strength relative to metals and ceramics

▪ Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)
▪ Service temperatures are limited to only a few
hundred degrees
▪ Viscoelastic properties, which can be a distinct
limitation in load bearing applications
▪ Some polymers degrade when subjected to sunlight
and other forms of radiation

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Types of Polymers

▪ Most polymers are based on carbon and are

therefore considered organic chemicals
▪ Polymers can be separated into plastics and rubbers
▪ As engineering materials, it is appropriate to divide
them into the following three categories:
1. Thermoplastic polymers
2. Thermosetting polymers
3. Elastomers
where (1) and (2) are plastics and (3) are rubbers

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 Examples of Polymers

▪ Thermoplastics:
▪ Polyethylene, polyvinylchloride, polypropylene,
polystyrene, and nylon
▪ Thermosets:
▪ Phenolics, epoxies, and certain polyesters
▪ Elastomers:
▪ Natural rubber (vulcanized)
▪ Synthetic rubbers, which exceed the tonnage of
natural rubber

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Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastics

▪ Low modulus of elasticity (stiffness)

▪ E is two or three times lower than metals and
ceramics
▪ Low tensile strength
▪ TS is about 10% of the metal
▪ Much lower hardness than metals or ceramics
▪ Greater ductility on average
▪ From 1% elongation for polystyrene to 500% or
more for polypropylene

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 Commercial Thermoplastic Products and
Raw Materials
▪ Thermoplastic products include
▪ Molded and extruded items
▪ Fibers and filaments
▪ Films and sheets
▪ Packaging materials
▪ Paints and varnishes
▪ Starting plastic materials are in the form of powders
or pellets

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General Properties of Thermosets

▪ Rigid - modulus of elasticity is two to three times

greater than thermoplastics
▪ Brittle, virtually no ductility
▪ Less soluble in common solvents than
thermoplastics
▪ Capable of higher service temperatures than
thermoplastics
▪ Cannot be remelted - instead they degrade or burn

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 Elastomers (Rubbers)

▪ Polymers that exhibit extreme elastic extensibility

when subjected to relatively low mechanical stress
▪ Some elastomers can be stretched by a factor of 10
and yet completely recover to their original shape

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Natural Rubber Products

▪ Automotive tires are the largest single market

▪ Other products: shoe soles, bushings, seals, and
shock absorbing components
▪ In tires, carbon black is an important additive; it
reinforces the rubber, serving to increase tensile
strength and resistance to tear and abrasion
▪ Other additives: clay, kaolin, silica, talc, and calcium
carbonate, as well as chemicals that accelerate and
promote vulcanization

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 Guide to the Processing of Polymers

▪ Polymers are nearly always shaped in a heated,

highly plastic state
▪ Common operations are extrusion and molding
▪ Molding of thermosets is more complicated because
of cross-linking
▪ Thermoplastics are easier to mold and a greater
variety of molding operations are available
▪ Rubber processing has a longer history than
plastics, and rubber industries are traditionally
separated from plastics industry, even though
processing is similar

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SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS

Shaping Processes for Plastics

1. Extrusion
2. Injection Molding
3. Blow Molding

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 Polymer Melts

▪ To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be heated

so that it softens to the consistency of a liquid
▪ In this form, it is called a polymer melt
▪ Important properties of polymer melts:
▪ Viscosity
▪ Viscoelasticity

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Viscosity of Polymer Melts

▪ Due to its high molecular weight, a polymer melt is a

thick fluid with high viscosity
▪ Viscosity is a fluid property that relates shear stress
experienced during flow to the rate of shear
▪ Most polymer shaping processes involve flow
through small channels or die openings
▪ Flow rates are often large, leading to high shear
rates and shear stresses, so significant pressures
are required to accomplish the processes

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 Viscosity and Temperature

▪ Viscosity decreases with increasing temperature,

thus the fluid becomes thinner at higher
temperatures

Several common
polymers at a
shear rate of 103
per second
(similar to injection
molding and high
speed extrusion)

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Viscoelasticity

▪ Combination of viscosity and elasticity

▪ Possessed by both polymer solids and polymer
melts
▪ Example: die swell in extrusion, in which the hot
plastic expands when exiting the die opening

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 Die Swell

▪ Extruded polymer "remembers" its former shape that

was contained in a much larger cross section of the
extruder, tries to return to it after leaving the die
orifice

Die swell, a manifestation of viscoelasticity in polymer

melts, as depicted here on exiting an extrusion die
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Swell Ratio

▪ It can be most easily measured for a circular cross

section by swell ratio,
𝐷𝑥
𝑟𝑥 =
𝐷𝑑
Where,
Dx = diameter of the extruded cross section, mm
Dd = diameter of the die orifice, mm
▪ Amount of the die swell depends on the time the
polymer melt spends in the die channel
▪ The longer channel reduces die swell

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 Extrusion

▪ Compression process in which material is forced to

flow through a die orifice to provide long continuous
product whose cross-sectional shape is determined
by the shape of the orifice
▪ Widely used for thermoplastics and elastomers to
mass produce items such as tubing, pipes, hose,
structural shapes (such as window and door
moldings), sheet and film, continuous filaments, and
coated electrical wire
▪ Carried out as a continuous process; extrudate is
then cut into desired lengths

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Process and Equipment: Extruder

▪ Components and features of a (single-screw)

extruder for plastics and elastomers

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 Two Main Components of an Extruder

1. Barrel
2. Screw
▪ Die - not an extruder component
▪ Special tool that must be fabricated for particular
profile to be produced

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Extruder Barrel

▪ Internal diameter typically ranges from 25 to 150 mm

▪ L/D ratios usually between 10 and 30
▪ lower ratios for elastomers
▪ higher ratios for thermoplastics,
▪ Feedstock fed by gravity onto screw whose rotation
moves material through barrel
▪ Electric heaters melt feedstock; subsequent mixing
and mechanical working adds heat which maintains
the melt

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 Section of Extruder Screw

▪ Divided into sections to serve several functions:

▪ Feed section - feedstock is moved from hopper
and preheated
▪ Compression section - polymer is transformed
into fluid, air mixed with pellets is extracted from
melt, and material is compressed
▪ Metering section - melt is homogenized and
sufficient pressure developed to pump it through
die opening
▪ Operation of the screw is determined by its
geometry and speed of rotation
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Extruder Screw Geometry

Details of an extruder screw inside the barrel

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 Extruder Screw Geometry

▪ The screw consists of:

▪ Spiraled “flights” (thread) with channels (of width wc
and depth dc) between them through which the
polymer melt is moved
▪ As the screw rotates, the flights push the material
forward through the channel from the hopper end of
the barrel toward the die
▪ Flight diameter is smaller than barrel diameter D by a
very small clearance – to limit leakage of the melt
backward to the trailing channel
▪ The increase in pressure applied in the three
sections of the barrel is determined largely by the
channel depth dc
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Die End of Extruder

▪ Progress of polymer melt through barrel leads

ultimately to the die zone
▪ Before reaching die, the melt passes through a
screen pack - series of wire meshes supported by a
stiff plate (breaker plate) containing small axial holes
▪ Functions of screen pack:
▪ Filter out contaminants and hard lumps from the melts
▪ Build pressure in metering section
▪ Straighten flow of polymer melt and remove its
"memory" of the circular motion imposed by the screw

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 Melt Flow in Extruder

▪ As screw rotates inside barrel, polymer melt is forced

to move forward toward die;
▪ as in an Archimedean screw
▪ Principal transport mechanism is drag flow, Qd,
resulting from friction between the viscous liquid and
the rotating screw
▪ Compressing the polymer melt through the die
creates a back pressure that reduces drag flow
transport (called back pressure flow, Qb )
▪ Resulting flow in extruder is Qx = Qd – Qb

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Die Configurations and Extruded Products

▪ The shape of the die orifice determines the

cross-sectional shape of the extrudate
▪ Common die profiles and corresponding extruded
shapes:
▪ Solid profiles
▪ Hollow profiles, such as tubes
▪ Wire and cable coating
▪ Sheet and film
▪ Filaments

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 Extrusion of Solid Profiles

▪ Regular shapes such as

▪ Rounds
▪ Squares
▪ Irregular cross sections such as
▪ Structural shapes
▪ Door and window moldings
▪ Automobile trim
▪ House siding

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Extrusion Die for Solid Cross Section

▪ (a) Side view cross-section of an extrusion die for solid

regular shapes, such as round stock; (b) front view of die,
with profile of extrudate. Die swell is evident in both views

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 Hollow Profiles

▪ Examples: tubes, pipes, hoses, and other

cross-sections containing holes
▪ Hollow profiles require mandrel to form the shape
▪ Mandrel held in place using a spider
▪ Polymer melt flows around legs supporting the
mandrel to reunite into a monolithic tube wall
▪ Mandrel often includes an air channel through which
air is blown to maintain hollow form of extrudate
during hardening

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Extrusion Die for Hollow Shapes

▪ Side view cross-section of extrusion die for shaping hollow

cross-sections such as tubes and pipes; Section A-A is a front
view cross-section showing how the mandrel is held in place;
Section B-B shows the tubular cross-section just prior to
exiting the die; die swell causes an enlargement of the
diameter

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 Wire and Cable Coating

▪ Polymer melt is applied to bare wire as it is pulled at

high speed through a die
▪ A slight vacuum is drawn between wire and
polymer to promote adhesion of coating
▪ Wire provides rigidity during cooling - usually aided
by passing coated wire through a water trough
(channel)
▪ Product is wound onto large spools at speeds up to
50 m/s

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Extrusion Die for Coating Wire

▪ Side view cross-section of die for coating of electrical wire

by extrusion

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 Polymer Sheet and Film

▪ Film - thickness below 0.5 mm

▪ Packaging - product wrapping material, grocery
bags, and garbage bags
▪ Stock for photographic film
▪ Pool covers and liners for irrigation ditches
▪ Sheet - thickness from 0.5 mm to about 12.5 mm
▪ Flat window glazing
▪ Thermoforming stock

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Sheet and Film Production Processes

▪ Most widely used processes are continuous, high

production operations
▪ Processes include:
▪ Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film
▪ Blown-Film Extrusion Process
▪ Calendering

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 Slit-Die Extrusion of Sheet and Film

▪ Production of sheet and film by conventional

extrusion, using a narrow slit as the die opening
▪ Slit may be up to 3 m wide and as narrow as around
0.4 mm
▪ A problem is uniformity of thickness throughout width
of stock, due to drastic shape change of polymer
melt as it flows through die
▪ Edges of film usually must be trimmed because of
thickening at edges

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Slit Die Extrusion

One of several die configurations for extruding sheet and film

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 Blown-Film Extrusion Process

▪ Combines extrusion and blowing to produce a tube

of thin film
▪ Process sequence:
▪ Extrusion of tube
▪ Tube is drawn upward while still molten and
simultaneously expanded by air inflated into it
through die
▪ Air is blown into tube to maintain uniform film
thickness and tube diameter

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Blown-film Process

Blown-film process
for high production
of thin tubular film

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 Calendering

▪ A process for producing sheet and film stock out of

rubber or rubbery thermoplastics such as plasticized
PVC
▪ Feedstock is passed through a series of rolls to
reduce thickness to desired gage
▪ Expensive equipment, high production rates
▪ Process is noted for good surface finish and high
gage accuracy
▪ Products: PVC floor covering, shower curtains, vinyl
table cloths, pool liners, and inflatable boats and toys

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Calendering

A typical roll configuration in calendering

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 Fiber and Filament Products

▪ Definitions:
▪ Fiber - a long, thin strand whose length is at least
100 times its cross-section
▪ Filament - a fiber of continuous length
▪ Applications:
▪ Fibers and filaments for textiles
▪ Most important application

▪ Reinforcing materials in polymer composites

▪ Growing application, but still small compared
to textiles

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Materials for Fibers and Filaments

▪ Fibers can be natural or synthetic

▪ Natural fibers constitute ~ 25% of total market
▪ Cotton is by far the most important staple
▪ Wool production is significantly less than cotton
▪ Synthetic fibers constitute ~ 75% of total fiber market
▪ Polyester is the most important
▪ Others: nylon, acrylics, and rayon

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 Fiber and Filament Production - Spinning

▪ For synthetic fibers, spinning = extrusion of polymer

melt or solution through a spinneret, then drawing
and winding onto a bobbin
▪ Spinneret = die with multiple small holes
▪ The term is a holdover from methods used to draw
and twist natural fibers into yarn or thread
▪ Three variations, depending on polymer :
1. Melt spinning
2. Dry spinning
3. Wet spinning

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Melt Spinning

▪ Starting polymer is heated to molten state and

pumped through spinneret
▪ Typical spinneret is 6 mm thick and contains
approximately 50 holes of diameter 0.25 mm
▪ Filaments are drawn and air cooled before being
spooled onto bobbin
▪ Significant extension and thinning of filaments occur
while polymer is still molten, so final diameter wound
onto bobbin may be only 1/10 of extruded size
▪ Used for polyester and nylon filaments

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 Melt Spinning

Melt spinning of
continuous filaments

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Dry Spinning

▪ Similar to melt spinning, but starting polymer is in

solution and solvent can be separated by
evaporation
▪ First step is extrusion through spinneret
▪ Extrudate is pulled through a heated chamber which
removes the solvent, leaving the polymer
▪ Used for filaments of cellulose acetate and acrylics

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 Wet Spinning

▪ Similar to melt spinning, but polymer is again in

solution, only solvent is non-volatile
▪ To separate polymer, extrudate is passed through a
liquid chemical that coagulates or precipitates the
polymer into coherent strands which are then
collected onto bobbins
▪ Used to produce filaments of rayon (regenerated
cellulose)

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SHAPING PROCESSES FOR PLASTICS

1. Extrusion

2. Injection Molding

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 Subsequent Processing of Filaments

▪ Filaments produced by any of the three processes

are usually subjected to further cold drawing to align
crystal structure along direction of filament axis
▪ Extensions of 2 to 8 are typical
▪ Effect is to significantly increase tensile strength
▪ Drawing is done by pulling filament between two
spools, where winding spool is driven at a faster
speed than unwinding spool

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Injection Molding

▪ Polymer is heated to a highly plastic state and forced

to flow under high pressure into a mold cavity where
it solidifies and the molding is then removed from
cavity
▪ Produces discrete components almost to net shape
▪ Typical cycle time in the range of 10 to 30 sec,
▪ Cycles of one minute or more are also exist
▪ Mold may contain multiple cavities
▪ Multiple moldings are produced each cycle

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 Injection Molded Parts

▪ Complex and intricate shapes are possible

▪ Shape limitations:
▪ Capability to fabricate a mold whose cavity is the
same geometry as part
▪ Shape must allow for part removal from mold
▪ Part size from about 50 g up to about 25 kg
▪ Upper limit represented by components such as
refrigerator doors and automobile bumpers
▪ Injection molding is economical only for large
production quantities due to high cost of mold

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Polymers for Injection Molding

▪ Injection molding is the most widely used molding

process for thermoplastics
▪ Some thermosets and elastomers are injection
molded
▪ Modifications in equipment and operating parameters
must be made to avoid premature cross-linking of
these materials before injection

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 Injection Molding Machine

Two principal components:

1. Injection unit
▪ Melts and delivers polymer melt
▪ Operates much like an extruder
2. Clamping unit
▪ Opens and closes mold each injection cycle

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Injection Molding Machine

A large (3000 ton capacity) injection molding machine

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 Injection Molding Machine

Diagram of an injection molding machine, reciprocating

screw type (some mechanical details are simplified)

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Injection Unit of Molding Machine

Consists of barrel fed from one end by a hopper

containing supply of plastic pellets
▪ Inside the barrel is a screw which:
1. Rotates for mixing and heating polymer
2. Acts as a ram (i.e., plunger) to inject molten plastic
into mold
▪ Non-return valve near tip of screw prevents melt
flowing backward along screw threads
▪ Later in molding cycle ram retracts to its former
position

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 Clamping Unit of Molding Machine

▪ Functions:
1. Holds two halves of mold in proper alignment with
each other
2. Keeps mold closed during injection by applying a
clamping force sufficient to resist injection force
3. Opens and closes mold at the appropriate times in
molding cycle

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Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (1) mold is closed

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 Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (2) melt is injected into cavity.

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Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (3) screw is retracted.

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 Injection Molding Cycle

Typical molding cycle: (4) mold opens and part is ejected.

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The Mold

▪ The special tool in injection molding

▪ Custom-designed and fabricated for the part to be
produced
▪ When production run is finished, the mold is
replaced with a new mold for the next part
▪ Various types of mold for injection molding:
▪ Two-plate mold
▪ Three-plate mold
▪ Hot-runner mold

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 Two-Plate Mold

Details of a two-plate mold for thermoplastic injection molding:

(a) closed. Mold has two cavities to produce two cup-shaped parts
with each injection shot
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Two-Plate Mold

Details of a two-plate mold for thermoplastic injection

molding: (b) open

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 Two-Plate Mold Features

▪ Cavity – geometry of part but slightly oversized to

allow for shrinkage
▪ Created by machining of mating surfaces of two mold
halves
▪ Distribution channel through which polymer melt
flows from nozzle into mold cavity
▪ Sprue - leads from nozzle into mold
▪ Runners - lead from sprue to cavity (or cavities)
▪ Gates - constrict flow of plastic into cavity

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More Two-Plate Mold Features

▪ (a) closed and (b) open mold

▪ Mold has two cavities to produce two cup-shaped parts
with each injection shot

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 More Two-Plate Mold Features

▪ Ejection system – to eject molded part from cavity at

end of molding cycle
▪ Ejector pins built into moving half of mold usually
accomplish this function
▪ Cooling system - consists of external pump
connected to passageways in mold, through which
water is circulated to remove heat from the hot
plastic
▪ Air vents – to permit evacuation of air from cavity as
polymer melt rushes in

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Three-Plate Mold

Uses three plates to separate parts from sprue and

runner when mold opens
▪ Advantages over two-plate mold:
▪ As mold opens, runner and parts disconnect and drop
into two containers under mold
▪ Allows automatic operation of molding machine

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 Hot-Runner Mold

▪ Eliminates solidification of sprue and runner by

locating heaters around the corresponding runner
channels
▪ While plastic in mold cavity solidifies, material in
sprue and runner channels remains molten, ready to
be injected into cavity in next cycle
▪ Advantage:
▪ Saves material that otherwise would be scrap in the
unit operation

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Injection Molding Machines

▪ Injection molding machines differ in both injection

unit and clamping unit
▪ Name of injection molding machine is based on the
type of injection unit used
a. Reciprocating-screw injection molding machine
b. Plunger-type injection molding machine

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 Injection Molding Machines

▪ Several clamping designs

a. Mechanical - toggle clamp design
b. Hydraulic

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Shrinkage

Reduction in linear size during cooling from molding to

room temperature
▪ Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients,
so significant shrinkage occurs during solidification
and cooling in mold
▪ Typical shrinkage values:
Plastic Shrinkage, mm/mm
Nylon-6,6 0.020
Polyethylene 0.025
Polystyrene 0.004
PVC 0.005

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 Compensation for Shrinkage

▪ Dimensions of mold cavity must be larger than

specified part dimensions:
Dc = Dp + DpS + DpS2
where Dc = dimension of cavity; Dp = molded part
dimension, and S = shrinkage value
▪ Third term on right hand side corrects for shrinkage in
the shrinkage

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Shrinkage Factors

▪ Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage

▪ Injection pressure – higher pressures force more
material into mold cavity to reduce shrinkage
▪ Compaction time - similar effect – longer time forces
more material into cavity to reduce shrinkage
▪ Molding temperature - higher temperatures lower
polymer melt viscosity, allowing more material to be
packed into mold to reduce shrinkage

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 Injection Molding of Thermosets

▪ Equipment and operating procedure must be

modified to avoid premature cross-linking of TS
polymer
▪ Reciprocating-screw injection unit with shorter barrel
length
▪ Temperatures in barrel are relatively low
▪ Melt is injected into a heated mold, where
cross-linking occurs to cure the plastic
▪ Curing in the mold is the most time-consuming step in
the cycle
▪ Mold is then opened and part is removed

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Compression Molding

▪ A widely used molding process for thermosetting

plastics
▪ Also used for rubber tires and polymer matrix
composite parts
▪ Molding compound available in several forms:
powders or pellets, liquid, or preform
▪ Amount of charge must be precisely controlled to
obtain repeatable consistency in the molded product

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 Compression Molding

Compression molding for thermosetting plastics:

(1) charge is loaded, (2) and (3) charge is compressed and cured,
and (4) part is ejected and removed.

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Molds for Compression Molding

▪ Simpler than injection molds

▪ No sprue and runner system in a compression mold
▪ Process itself generally limited to simpler part
geometries due to lower flow capabilities of TS
materials
▪ Mold must be heated, usually by electric resistance,
steam, or hot oil circulation

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 Compression Molding

▪ Molding materials:
▪ Phenolics, melamine, urea-formaldehyde, epoxies,
urethanes, and elastomers
▪ Typical compression-molded products:
▪ Electric plugs, sockets, and housings; pot handles,
and dinnerware plates

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Blow Molding

▪ Molding process in which air pressure is used to

inflate soft plastic into a mold cavity
▪ It is used to make hollow seamless with thin walls
such as bottles parts out of thermoplastic polymers
▪ Because these items are used for consumer
beverages in mass markets, production is typically
organized for very high quantities

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 Blow Molding Process

▪ Accomplished in two steps:

1. Fabrication of a starting tube, called a parison
2. Inflation of the tube to desired final shape
▪ Forming the parison is accomplished by either
▪ Extrusion or
▪ Injection molding

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Extrusion Blow Molding

(1) extrusion of parison
(2) parison is pinched at the top and sealed at the bottom around a
metal blow pin as the two halves of the mold come together
(3) the tube is inflated so that it takes the shape of the mold cavity
(4) mold is opened to remove the solidified part

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 Injection Blow Molding

(1) parison is injected molded around a blowing rod

(2) injection mold is opened and parison is transferred to a blow
mold
(3) soft polymer is inflated to conform to the blow mold
(4) blow mold is opened and blown product is removed.

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Materials and Products in Blow Molding

▪ Blow molding is limited to thermoplastics

▪ Materials: high density polyethylene, polypropylene
(PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), and polyethylene
terephthalate
▪ Products: disposable containers for beverages and
other liquid consumer goods, large shipping drums
(200 L) for liquids and powders, large storage tanks
(7500 L), gasoline tanks, toys, and hulls for sail
boards and small boats

END OF CHAPTER

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