UNIT 1

Introduction to built environment:

Environmental quality

Environmental quality is a set of properties and characteristics of the environment, either

generalized or local, as they impinge on human beings and other organisms.

Environmental quality is a general term which can refer to varied characteristics that relate to
the natural environment as well as the built environment, such as air and water purity or
pollution, noise and the potential effects which such characteristics may have on physical and
mental health caused by human activities.

In the USA the term is applied with a body of federal and state standards and regulations that
are monitored by regulatory agencies. All states in the U.S. have some form of a department
or commission that is responsible for a variety of activities such as monitoring quality,
responding to citizen complaints, and enforcing environmental regulations. The agency with
the lead implementation responsibility for most major federal environmental laws (e.g. Clean
Air Act, Clean Water Act) is the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Other federal
agencies with significant oversight roles include the Council on Environmental Quality,
Department of the Interior and the Army Corps of Engineers.

In the UK environment has been the primary responsibility of the Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). Predecessor bodies were merged in 2001 to
create this department with a broader remit to link rural activities to the natural environment.
Some responsibilities are devolved to the Scottish Government and the National Assembly
for Wales, while delivery of environmental initiatives often use partners, including: British
Waterways, Environment Agency, Forestry Commission, and Natural England. DEFRA also
has a remit to oversee impacts of activities within the built environment and the United
Kingdom Climate Change Programme.

Climatic Zones and their Characteristics

Climate in a narrow sense is usually defined as the “average weather”, or more rigorously,
as the statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over
a period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period
is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These quantities
are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation and wind. Climate in a
wider sense is the state, including a statistical description, of the climate system.

The difference between climate and weather is usefully summarized by the popular phrase
“Climate is what you expect, weather is what you get”. Over historical time spans there are
a number of static variables that determine climate, including latitude, altitude, proportion
of land to water, proximity to oceans and their currents, mountains, persistent ice or snow
cover, humidity, rainfall, atmospheric particle count, the density and type of vegetation
coverage affecting solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a regional level.
Alterations in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determine the amount of solar
energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global cooling. Modern climate
classification methods also focus on the relative frequency of different air mass types or
locations within synoptic weather disturbances, plant hardiness, evapo-transpiration, air
mass origin and certain biomes.

Regions having similar characteristics features of climate are grouped under one climatic
zone based on the climatic factors. The country can be divided into a number of climatic
zones. India can be divided into six climatic zones, namely, hot and dry, warm and humid,
moderate, cold and cloudy, cold and sunny and composite. Particularly mean monthly
temperatures-minimum and maximum and relative humidity are considered here. A place is
assigned to one of the first five climatic zones only when the defined conditions prevail
there for more than six months. In cases where none of the defined categories can be
identified for six months or longer, the climatic zone is called composite. According to recent
code of Bureau of Indian Standards, the country may be divided into five major climatic
zones. It is seen that the recent classification is not very different from the earlier one
except that the cold and cloudy, and cold and sunny have been grouped together as cold
climate; the moderate climate is renamed as temperate climate. However, a small variation
is noticed as far as the land area of the country corresponding to different zones is
concerned. It may be mentioned that each climatic zone does not experience the same
climate for the whole year. It has a particular season for more than six months and may
experience other seasons for the remaining period.

Hot and Dry

The hot and dry zone lies in the western and the central part of India, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur
and Sholapur are some of the towns that experience this type of climate. The mean monthly
temperature remains 30 degree Celsius and relative humidity 55 %.

A typical hot and dry region is usually flat with sandy or rocky ground conditions, and sparse
vegetation comprising cacti, thorny trees and bushes. There are few sources of water on the
surface, and the underground water level is also very low. Due to intense solar radiation
(values as high as 800-950 W/m2), the ground and the surroundings of this region are
heated up very quickly during day time. In summer, the maximum ambient temperatures
are as high as 40-45 oC during the day and 20-30 oC at night. In winter, the values are
between 5 and 25 oC during the day and 0 to 10 oC at night. It may be noted that the
diurnal variation in temperature is quite high, that is, more than 10 oC.
The climate is described as dry because the relative humidity is generally very low, ranging
from 25 to 40% due to low vegetation and surface water bodies. Moreover, the hot and dry
regions receive less rainfall – the annual precipitation being less than 500 mm.

Hot winds blow during the day in summers and sand storms are also experienced. The night
is usually cool and pleasant. A generally clear sky, with high solar radiation causing an
uncomfortable glare, is typical of this zone. As the sky is clear at night, the heat absorbed by
the ground during the day is quickly dissipated to the atmosphere. Hence, the air is much
cooler at night than during the day. In such a climate, it is imperative to control solar
radiation and movement of hot winds. The design criteria should therefore aim at resisting
heat gain by providing shading, reducing exposed area, controlling and scheduling
ventilation, and increasing thermal capacity. The presence of “water bodies” is desirable as
they can help increase the humidity, lot of heat in the afternoons and evenings. As far as
possible, this heat should be avoided by appropriate design features.

Warm and Humid

The warm and humid zone covers the coastal parts of the country. Some cities that fall
under this zone are Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata. The high humidity encourages abundant
vegetation in these regions.

The diffuse fraction of solar radiation is quite high due to cloud cover, and the radiation can
be intense on clear days. The dissipation of the accumulated heat from the earth to the
night sky is generally marginal due to the presence of clouds. Hence, the diurnal variation in
temperature is quite low. In summer, temperatures can reach as high as 30 – 35 o C during
the day and 25-30 o C at night. In winter, the maximum temperature is between 25 to 30 o
C during the day and 20 to 25 o C at night. Although the temperatures are not excessive, the
high humidity causes discomfort.

An important characteristic of this region is the relative humidity, which is generally very
high, about 70-90% throughout the year. Precipitation is also high, being about 1200 mm
per year, or even more. Hence, the provision for quick drainage of water is essential in this
zone.

The wind is generally from one or two prevailing directions with speed ranging from
extremely low to very high. Wind is desirable in this climate, as it can cause sensible cooling
of the body.

The main design criteria in the warm and humid region are to reduce heat gain by providing
shading, and promote heat loss by maximizing cross ventilation. Dissipation of humidity is
also essential to reduce discomfort.
Moderate

Pune and Banglore are examples of cities that fall under this climatic zone. Areas having a
moderate climate are generally located on hilly or high-plateau regions with fairly abundant
vegetation. The solar radiation in this region is more or less the same throughout the year.
Being located at relatively higher elevations, these places experience lower temperatures
than hot and dry regions. The temperatures are neither too hot nor too cold. In summers,
the temperature reaches 30 – 34 o C during the day and 17 – 24 o C at night. In winter, the
maximum temperature is between 27 to 33 o C during the day and 16 to 18 o C at night.

The design criteria in the moderate zone are to reduce heat gain by providing shading, and
to promote heat loss by ventilation.

Composite

The composite zone covers the central part of India. Some cities that experience this type of
climate are New Delhi, Kanpur and Allahabad. A variable landscape and seasonal vegetation
characterize this zone. The intensity of solar radiation is very high in summer with diffuse
radiation amounting to a small fraction of the total. In monsoons, the intensity is low with
predominantly diffuse radiation. The maximum daytime temperature in summers is in the
range of 32 – 43 o C, and night time values are from 27 to 32 o C. In winter, the values are
between 10 to 25 o C during the day and 4 to 10 o C at night.

The relative humidity is about 20 – 25 % in dry periods and 55 – 95 % in wet periods. The
presence of high humidity during monsoon months is one of the reasons why places like
New Delhi and Nagpur are grouped under the composite and not hot and dry climate.
Precipitation in this zone varies between 500 – 1300 mm per year. This region receives
strong winds during monsoons from the south-east and dry cold winds from the north-east.
In summer, the winds are hot and dusty. The sky is overcast and dull in the monsoon, clear
in winter and frequently hazy in summer.

Generally, composite regions experience higher humidity levels during monsoons than hot
and dry zones. Otherwise most of their characteristics are similar to the latter. Thus, the
design criteria are more or less the same as for hot and dry climate except that maximizing
cross ventilation is desirable in the monsoon period.

Cold and Cloudy

Generally, the northern part of India experiences this type of climate. Most cold and cloudy
regions are situated at high altitudes. Ootacamund, Shimla, Shillong, Srinagar and
Mahabaleshwar are examples of places belonging to this climatic zone. These are generally
highland regions having abundant vegetation in summer.

The intensity of solar radiation is low in winter with a high percentage of diffuse radiation.
Hence, winters are extremely cold. In summer, the maximum ambient temperatures is in
the range of 20 – 30 o C during the day and 17 – 27 o C at night, making summers quite
pleasant. In winter, the values range between 4 and 8 o C during the day and -3 to 4 o C at
night, making it quite chilly.

The relative humidity is generally high and ranges from 70 – 80 %. Annual total precipitation
is about 1000 mm and is disturbed evenly throughout the year. This region experiences cold
winds in the winter season. Hence, protection from winds is essential in this type of climate.
The sky is overcast for most part of the year except during the brief summer.

Conditions in summer are usually clear and pleasant, but owing to cold winters, the main
criteria for design in the cold and cloudy region aim at resisting heat loss by insulation and
infiltration, and promoting heat gain by directly admitting and trapping solar radiation
within the living space.

Cold and Sunny

The cold and sunny type of climate is experienced in Leh (Ladakh). The region is
mountainous, has little vegetation, and is considered to be a cold desert.

The solar radiation is generally intense with a very low percentage of diffuse radiation. In
summer, the temperature reaches 17 – 24 o C during the day and 4 – 11 o C at night. In
winter, the values range from -7 to 8 o C during the day and -14 to 0 o C at night. Winters
thus, are extremely cold. The relative humidity is consistently low ranging from about 10 –
50 % and precipitation is generally less than 200 mm per year. Winds are occasionally
intense. The sky is fairly clear throughout the year with a cloud cover of less than 50%.

As this region experiences cold desert climatic conditions, the design criteria are to resist
heat loss by insulation and controlling infiltration. Simultaneously, heat gain needs to be
promoted by admitting and trapping solar radiation within the living space.

Water cycle:

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of
water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. Since the water cycle is truly a "cycle,"
there is no beginning or end. Water can change states among liquid, vapour, and ice at
various places in the water cycle. Although the balance of water on Earth remains fairly
constant over time, individual water molecules can come and go.

Different Processes:

Precipitation

Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain,
but also includes snow, hail, fog drip, graupel, and sleet. Approximately 505,000 km3
(121,000 cu mi) of water fall as precipitation each year, 398,000 km3 (95,000 cu mi) of it
over the oceans.
Canopy interception

The precipitation that is intercepted by plant foliage and eventually evaporates back to the
atmosphere rather than falling to the ground.

Snowmelt

The runoff produced by melting snow.

Runoff

The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff
and channel runoff. As it flows, the water may infiltrate into the ground, evaporate into the
air, become stored in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human
uses.

Infiltration

The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water
becomes soil moisture or groundwater.

Subsurface Flow

The flow of water underground, in the vadose zone and aquifers. Subsurface water may
return to the surface (eg. as a spring or by being pumped) or eventually seep into the
oceans. Water returns to the land surface at lower elevation than where it infiltrated, under
the force of gravity or gravity induced pressures. Groundwater tends to move slowly, and is
replenished slowly, so it can remain in aquifers for thousands of years.

Evaporation

The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or
bodies of water into the overlying atmosphere.[4] The source of energy for evaporation is
primarily solar radiation. Evaporation often implicitly includes transpiration from plants,
though together they are specifically referred to as evapotranspiration. Total annual
evapotranspiration amounts to approximately 505,000 km3 (121,000 cu mi) of water,
434,000 km3 (104,000 cu mi) of which evaporates from the oceans.

Sublimation

The state change directly from solid water (snow or ice) to water vapour.

Advection

The movement of water — in solid, liquid, or vapour states — through the atmosphere.
Without advection, water that evaporated over the oceans could not precipitate over land.
Condensation

The transformation of water vapour to liquid water droplets in the air, producing clouds and
fog.

Transpiration

The release of water vapour from plants into the air. Water vapour is a gas that cannot be
seen.

Human activities that alter the water cycle include:

Agriculture

Industry

Alteration of the chemical composition of the atmosphere

Construction of dams

Deforestation and afforestation

Removal of groundwater from wells

Water abstraction from rivers

Urbanization

Urban ecosystem:

Urban ecosystems are the cities, towns, and urban strips constructed by humans.

This is the growth in the urban population and the supporting built infrastructure has
impacted on both urban environments and also on areas which surround urban areas. These
include semi or 'peri-urban' environments that fringe cities as well as agricultural and
natural landscapes.

Scientists are now developing ways to measure and understand the effects of urbanisation
on human and environmental health.

By considering urban areas as part of a broader ecological system, scientists can investigate
how urban landscapes function and how they affect other landscapes with which they
interact. In this context, urban environments are affected by their surrounding environment
but also impact on that environment. Knowing this may provide clues as to which
alternative development options will lead to the best overall environmental outcome.
CSE's urban ecosystem research is focused on:

Understanding how cities work as ecological system

Developing sustainable approaches to development of city fringe areas that reduce negative
impact on surrounding environments

Developing approaches to urban design that provide for health and opportunity for citizens.

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS

A. Ecological Planning / Sustainable Design

It seems appropriate to conclude by looking at the environmental implications of site

planning. There is a burgeoning awareness of the critical need to change the American
attitude toward land. Until recently we seemed to treat land as a disposable commodity, to be
used and then discarded, moving on to a new site. This attitude is manifested by the “urban
sprawl” that is prevalent in increasing patterns around our major cities. This phenomenon
which has been widely reported on in recent years has resulted in, as Vincent Scully describes
it, “that vast area in which most Americans now live, sprawled between the metropolitan
center, which is emptying out, and the open countryside, which is rapidly being devoured”.

Essentially, as America became more mobile as a result of the automobile, people began to
move out of the city to the suburbs. This not only was the cause of urban decline, but it has
placed an increasing demand on the conversion of rural agricultural lands to housing and
other more intensive development. As our highway system expanded, people were able to
commute greater and greater distances from their homes to their jobs in the city. This in turn
soon led to the demand for more convenient retail, service, and recreational facilities closer to
home. Eventually these decentralized clusters of commercial and office buildings outgrew
the old cities that they surrounded. This phenomenon has resulted in what Joel Garreau has
coined as “Edge Cities.” We now find that people are moving outward even farther from
these nodes, creating yet another layer of sprawl. Peter Calthorpe discusses this situation,
pointing out the irony that today, “the suburb-to-suburb commute represents 40% of total
commute trips while suburb-to-city comprises 20%” (Katz xii).

In terms of public attitudes, we now seem to be realizing the folly of this spiraling
uncontrolled growth. Once land is developed it is gone. As Mark Twain once said, “God’s
not making any new land these days” (qtd. in Castillon 359). There are several anti-sprawl
or “smart growth” movements currently gaining headway. In a recent Time Magazine article,
there was a discussion of the political mobilization of smart growth on the local, state, and
national levels. Vice President Gore is even being touted as the anti-sprawl candidate of
2000 (Lacayo 45).

People are beginning to see that sprawl is not simply a result of population growth, but
equally the end product of a series of compounding factors. For example, local land use
controls actually encourage new development on the fringes by making it easier and less
expensive to build beyond existing development. Since local governments must generate
funds to provide required infrastructure they are often in competition with one another for tax
revenues. This creates an environment in which they are inclined to give preferential
treatment to higher tax-producing land uses such as retail centers rather than residential uses.
Large lot, low-density residential zones also discourage new development within the urban
areas where land values are higher. The outlying lands – agricultural lands, woodlands, open
space – are often the least resistant to development, physically and legally. Lastly, federal
funds, through highway expansion programs, actually facilitate the movement outward from
the city, making it easier for people to commute greater and greater distances.

The solution to this growing problem lies in an overall comprehensive approach such as we
discussed earlier. Some communities have developed growth management programs that
literally establish a ring around the city. New, compact, mixed land use development is
channelled into designated “Growth Areas” within the ring. Outside of these “Growth
Boundaries” growth is severely restricted, keeping sprawl out of open lands, preserving them
for agriculture, woodlands, and recreation.

Such a program must be supported by stronger regulations. Local ordinances must be

adapted to provide for higher density mixed land use growth within the urban boundaries.
Policies also need to be established that encourage urban in-fill. There are several
approaches to revitalization that provide financial incentives to homeowners and businesses
to locate within the city through historic restoration or adaptive re-use of existing buildings or
sites. At the same time local and state planning regulations and policies can support growth
management strategies by delineating environmental and conservation priorities. A
commitment to conserve open space and critical habitats, supported by programs providing
tax incentives, facilitates the decision of land owners to protect ecologically sensitive lands
and encourages the developer to consider other options. From a regional perspective,
alternatives to new highways, ranging from improvement of local roads to the development
of mass transit systems, can significantly deter the impetus of sprawl.

While from an individual standpoint the current growth pattern may seem economically
beneficial, the cumulative costs are not. Growth management techniques such as Urban
Growth Boundaries work by treating “the city, its suburbs and their natural environment . . .
as a whole – socially, economically, and ecologically . . .” (Katz xi). This is all part of a
more proactive approach to planning for land development to simultaneously contribute to
our quality of life while maintaining a sense of ecological integrity.

The concepts of ecological design and sustainable design, which support this newer approach,
are used interchangeably. “Sustainability allows us to provide for present needs, while
promoting long-term ecological and physiological health and productivity” (Motloch 267).
Ecology is the study of the relationship of all living things to their biological and physical
environments. Sustainable design is then “the intentional planning and design of human
ecosystems through the application of ecological understanding, to make conscious informed
decisions concerning conflicts between human and ecosystem needs” (Motloch 272).
Steiner proposes an ecological planning model that attempts to use “biophysical and
sociocultural information to suggest opportunities and constraints for decision making about
the use of the landscape” (Steiner 9-10). This model involves eleven interconnected steps,
including:

1. Identification of issue or issues.

2. Establishment of a goal to address the issue(s).

3-4. Inventories and analyses of biophysical and socio-cultural systems from the larger down
to the specific level.

5. Detailed studies to link inventory and analysis to problem(s) and goal(s).

6. Development of concepts and options.

7. Preparation of a landscape plan.

8. Presentation to and response from affected public.

9. Development of detailed designs for individual sites.

10. Implementation of detailed designs.

11. Administration of plan.

B. Environmentally Sensitive Design

1). Planning Level – On the regional level there are some approaches that can be
implemented to provide for economic development while protecting the landscape character
and minimizing the negative environmental impacts of growth. The University of
Massachusetts Centre for Rural Massachusetts identified the Connecticut River corridor as a
critical area vulnerable to mounting development pressures. The planners identified a
number of significant issues ranging from soil erosion and stream sedimentation, to loss of
natural resources, threats to agricultural lands, and incompatible historic and cultural impacts.
After analyzing these issues, the University of Massachusetts group devised an approach for
sensitive growth and development utilizing a series of legal controls and planning and design
recommendations. One of these, Open Space Development Design (OSDD), utilizes optional
or mandatory regulations to establish overlay zones. For example, a “Rural Preservation
District” might be established that prohibits subdivision development from consuming more
than 50% of any parcel. If the base density is 1 unit /10 acres, then the maximum lot size is
five acres, with the remaining five acres permanently restricted from development. Using a
sliding scale approach, as the area actually allocated for development decreases, the number
of lots can increase (e.g., 60% open space would allow twelve 3.3 acre lots instead of ten;
70% open space twenty 1.5 acre lots instead of ten, etc.) (Arendt 226-230).

Transfer of Development Rights (TDR) is another flexible method in which areas suitable for
development are designated as “receiving zones”, with increased use densities. At the same
time, open farmlands and woodlands (or other protected areas) are designated as “sending
zones”, in which the property owner may sell the development rights to build in the receiving
zones. In return, the sending zones are retained in their undeveloped state, without unduly
penalizing the property owner.

Another legal mechanism is the use of conservation easements. Conservation easements

refer to the transfer of partial interest in property, either in the form of a gift or for a price, to
a nonprofit or governmental entity. The conditions of the easement restrict the use of the
land, the character of development or management conditions (i.e., to protect historic or
scenic values, to retain the natural conditions, etc.) As a charitable contribution, the reduced
price or donation of land provides a tax incentive for property owners to restrict development
of environmentally sensitive lands.

These sorts of techniques provide the legal basis for the planners to address the issues created
by increased development pressures. The University of Massachusetts group, among others,
has proposed techniques for careful expansion while maintaining the rural countryside and
cultural and historic regional patterns. Referred to as “Connecticut Valley Design
Guidelines”, these include such creative development alternatives as:

a. Clustering residential development along the edge of the existing woodland to

minimize the visual impact of growth on the open rural pastureland.

b. Restricting lot sizes, development densities, architectural character, to respect the

historic and cultural character of existing communities.

c. Designating visually and environmentally sensitive areas as agricultural districts to

restrict new growth from encroaching upon them.
 d. Restricting development adjacent to environmentally sensitive areas (river’s edge,
wetlands, ridgelines, etc.) by zoning and or building restrictions to protect the resource and
retain its scenic amenity. (Arendt 100-102)

The benefit of such techniques is to protect the rural landscape from uncontrolled or poorly
controlled patterns of development over open fields or wooded hillsides. The growing
acceptance of such approaches is due to the fact that they encourage sensitive development
without restricting the overall growth potential of an area or penalizing the landowner from
realizing a profit.

2). Site Design Level – There are many specific design recommendations that can be made at
the scale of individual site design. These may relate to specific environmental issues such as
energy and/or natural resource conservation or to cultural and aesthetic concerns. In essence,
they are specific design guidelines that may be used to achieve the general goals established
by the comprehensive planning and facilitated by the land use controls discussed earlier.
They may include such general responses as:

a. Considering solar orientation when sitting facilities to maximize the potential benefits of
active and/or passive solar energy. One example of this would be to lay out a housing
development with streets running generally east-west to facilitate a north-south orientation of
the houses.

b. Selecting and placing vegetation:

1) Utilizing deciduous trees adjacent to facilities to provide for cooling shade in the summer,
while allowing for the benefit of solar warming in the winter.

2) Buffering prevailing winter winds with evergreen plant massing.

3) Channelling cool summer breezes into suitable exterior spaces of a development with
masses of vegetation.

c. Considering facility placement to minimize energy costs of grading and to minimize

erosion potential from disturbed slopes.

d. Minimizing use of impervious surfacing to reduce surface runoff thereby recharging the
water table on site and minimizing potential soil erosion.

c. And d relate equally to the cultural and aesthetic as well. By concentrating development
and nestling it into the edges of the woodland, we can minimize the visual intrusion into the
rural character of an area subject to expanding development pressures.)

e. Preserving as much of the existing vegetation as possible as a site development is designed.

Using native or naturalized plant materials will provide suitable habitats for native wild life
and facilitate the preservation of migration patterns.

f. Utilizing native building materials, e.g., field stone, native timber, etc. as well as local
styles will also help to preserve the visual character of a place.
These kinds of recommendations will also facilitate the overall issue of land use
compatibility, minimizing conflicts between adjacent developments and disruption of the
regional landscape visual character. They will be illustrated by the site designer through
project drawings, diagrams, and details as she or he move through the design process
explained above

Climate change

Is a change in the statistical distribution of weather over periods of time that range from
decades to millions of years. It can be a change in the average weather or a change in the
distribution of weather events around an average (for example, greater or fewer extreme
weather events). Climate change may be limited to a specific region, or may occur across the
whole Earth.

In recent usage, especially in the context of environmental policy, climate change usually
refers to changes in modern climate (see global warming). For information on temperature
measurements over various periods, and the data sources available, see temperature record.
For attribution of climate change over the past century, see attribution of recent climate
change.

Causes

Factors that can shape climate are often called climate forcing. These include such processes
as variations in solar radiation, deviations in the Earth's orbit, mountain-building and
continental drift, and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. There are a variety of
climate change feedbacks that can either amplify or diminish the initial forcing. Some parts
of the climate system, such as the oceans and ice caps, respond slowly in reaction to climate
forcing because of their large mass. Therefore, the climate system can take centuries or
longer to fully respond to new external forcing.

Ozone depletion

Describes two distinct, but related observations: a slow, steady decline of about 4% per
decade in the total volume of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (ozone layer) since the late 1970s,
and a much larger, but seasonal, decrease in stratospheric ozone over Earth's polar regions
during the same period. The latter phenomenon is commonly referred to as the ozone hole. In
addition to this well-known stratospheric ozone depletion, there are also tropospheric ozone
depletion events, which occur near the surface in polar regions during spring.

The detailed mechanism by which the polar ozone holes form is different from that for the
mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both trends is catalytic destruction of
ozone by atomic chlorine and bromine. The main source of these halogen atoms in the
stratosphere is photodissociation of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compounds, commonly called
freons, and of bromofluorocarbon compounds known as halons. These compounds are
transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface. Both ozone depletion
mechanisms strengthened as emissions of CFCs and halons increased.

CFCs and other contributory substances are commonly referred to as ozone-depleting

substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (270–315
nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and
projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern leading to adoption of the
Montreal Protocol that bans the production of CFCs and halons as well as related ozone
depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. It is suspected that a
variety of biological consequences such as increases in skin cancer, cataracts,damage to
plants, and reduction of plankton populations in the ocean's photic zone may result from the
increased UV exposure due to ozone depletion.

Built environment refers

To the man-made surroundings that provide the setting for human activity, ranging in scale
from personal shelter to neighborhoods to the large-scale civic surroundings.

The term is also now widely used to describe the interdisciplinary field of study which
addresses the design, management and use of these man-made surroundings and their
relationship to the human activities which take place within them. The field is generally not
regarded as an academic discipline in its own right, but as a "field of application" (or
"interdiscipline") which draws upon the individual disciplines of economics, law,
management, design and technology in sustainable sense.

In architecture and environmental psychology, the phrase is a useful acknowledgement that a

small fraction of buildings constructed annually, even in the industrialized world, are
designed by architects, and that users of the built environment encounter issues that cross the
traditional professional boundaries between urban planners, traffic engineers, zoning
authorities, architects, interior designers, industrial designers, etc. Historically, much of the
built environment has taken the form of vernacular architecture, and this is still the case in
large parts of the world. In the industrialized world, many buildings are produced by large
scale development remote from its eventual users.

In landscape architecture, the built environment is identified as man-made landscapes as

opposed to the natural environment. For example, Central Park in New York City may have
the look, feel and quality of natural surroundings, but is completely man-made and "built".

In urban planning, the phrase connotes the idea that a large percentage of the human
environment is manmade, and these artificial surroundings are so extensive and cohesive that
they function as organisms in the consumption of resources, disposal of wastes, and
facilitation of productive enterprise within its bounds. Recently there has also been
considerable dialogue and research into the impact of the built environment's impact on
population health.