QUANTIFYING TRANSITIONAL ROCK MASS DISTURBANCE IN OPEN PIT SLOPES RELATED TO

MINING EXCAVATION

N.D. ROSE, M. SCHOLZ, J. BURDEN, M. KING, C. MAGGS AND M. HAVAEJ

Piteau Associates Engineering, Ltd., North Vancouver, BC, Canada
Key terms: Transitional rock mass disturbance, disturbance decay function, gradational D factor, disturbance rating

 

    

ABSTRACT
 

 
     
     
    
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particular the mining industry, to characterize the strength of jointed rock masses, and incorporates a disturbance (D)
 

   
 
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mass. This is particularly pronounced in open pit slopes characterized by high groundwater levels, weak rock mass
      
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to simulate the strain-induced degradation (disturbance) of the rock mass that occurs in open pit slopes as a result
    
      
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to incorporate these decay functions to account for a gradually reducing D factor ranging from fully disturbed near sur-
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models that are not capable of evaluating peak and residual strength relationships based on the evolution of stress
    
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requires consideration of whether slope stability conditions are dominated by geologic structure, rock mass conditions,
  

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ment of transitional rock mass strength envelopes for stability analysis and design.

1. INTRODUCTION
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shear or tensile failure through intact rock or rock bridges along the failure path. Limit equilibrium analysis methods are
not able to assess the deformation and strain related changes in shear strength and rock mass conditions that precede

  

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rence zones (representing the rock mass) and contacts (representing the structure) as a function of depth behind the

  

 
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in the estimation of transitional strength relationships where calibrated numerical modelling may not be possible or
available.
2. DISCRETE ELEMENT MODELLING OF COMPLEX SLOPE STABILITY AND DEFORMATION

BACKGROUND
Discrete element numerical modelling codes such as UDEC and its threedimensional equivalent 3DEC (Itasca, 2016),

   

      
mining activity and related displacement behaviour, and the potential for progressive failure development. Due to
the considerable number of input parameters required in discrete element models, a high level of input data quality
is required. A more detailed description of the UDEC numerical modelling methodology summarized in this paper is

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MODEL REPRESENTATION OF PHYSICAL SLOPE CONDITIONS

Structural discontinuity fabric and shear strength

Development of structural fabric in discrete element models requires scaled representation of semi-continuous to con-
  
  
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tion. Nonimportant structural features such as discontinuous joints are generally accounted for in the characterization
     
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Figure 1. Illustration of peak and residual Mohr-Coulomb strength relationships for major and minor discontinuities.
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tic-plastic constitutive model. Strain softening of the rock mass is simulated using FISH (a scripting language in UDEC)
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where the dilation angle is zero. Poisson’s ratio is estimated using laboratory testing results or empirical estimates.

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tions at the Palabora mine in South Africa (Stewart et. al, 2000) and the Goldstrike mine in Nevada, USA (Sharon et.
al, 2005). At that time, the Hoek-Brown (1997) criterion did not account for the application of disturbed rock conditions



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disturbance. To accommodate disturbance in the numerical models, the equations for the Hoek-Brown (1997) criterion

 
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prior to development of the Hoek-Brown (2002) strength criterion which has subsequently been used since that time.

As illustrated on the stress plot in Figure 2, the transition between disturbed and undisturbed conditions (blue dashed
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structural, rock mass, in situ stress, groundwater, and blasting conditions in the slope.

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UDEC Model Calibration

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softening) that develops from mininginduced stress relief is related to “disturbance” of the rock mass based on peakre-
sidual strength criteria (Figure 2). Pre-mining rock mass strength conditions are represented by peak (undisturbed,
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strength using a FISH routine. A transition between the fully disturbed limit (FDL) and the undisturbed limit (UDL) can
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plasticity indicators representing the distribution of rock mass yielding behind the slope.



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to the east and west (into the wall and towards the pit) at spacings of 20 and 30 m, respectively. A discontinuous joint
set dips west at 45° at an average spacing of 15 m.

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spacing of the main discontinuity sets until a good match is achieved for multiple monitoring locations on the slope and
at locations of subsurface monitoring, if it is available. Multiple prism monitoring installations occur at each monitoring
elevation and therefore calibration requires matching the pattern of modelled displacements within the range of moni-
 
    
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pit wall, with few benches remaining intact in the mid to upper slopes.
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actual prism monitoring data (grey) versus UDEC displacements (blue); b) contours of total horizontal
displacement; and c) model plasticity indicators.

Characterizing the Distribution of Yielded Elements to Estimate Rock Mass Disturbance

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of yielded zones and contacts are sampled at equal depth intervals and cumulated as a percentage of all the zones
  
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Pit (Figure 4) and the northeast wall of the HVC Valley Pit (Figure 6). Both slopes occur in intrusive rock masses with
    
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result of deepseated toppling instability associated with closely spaced faults, whereas on the northeast wall of the
Valley Pit, yielding is dominated by a combination of the rock mass and structure (blue).

Figure 6 shows the distribution of yielded rock mass zones in the HVC Valley Pit northeast wall UDEC model. In Figure
5b, the distribution of yielded zones in the Bethsaida Granodiorite (BGD) rock mass is presented as a function of depth

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spacings of 40 to 60 m, just below the threshold for deep-seated toppling. Two sets of joints dip to the west (towards

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UDL) are labelled.

Figure 6: Plot of plasticity indicators (coloured symbols) in UDEC model of the HVC Valley Pit northeast wall
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the ultimate pit is shown in blue.
As seen on Figures 5b and 6, the percentage of yielded zones in the northeast UDEC model decrease with depth from
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Development of non-linear strength curves that incorporate transitional HoekBrown (2002) D factor for limit equilibrium
analysis can incorporate a transitional disturbance decay function based on the decay curve that relates the depth of
disturbance (i.e., yielding), in a direction normal to the pit wall, as a function of the overall slope height (H) as follows:

For calculation of Hoek-Brown (2002) rock mass shear strengths, the following relationships can be assumed for input
             
at or near the upper elevation of the pit slope:

Minor principal stress 3 ) = H [3]

Where:
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drock units (i.e., 19.5†'_#}†'_;+   5/6    

for limit equilibrium analyses:

Minor principal stress 3 )=    [4]

Where:
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Non-linear shear strengths incorporating a transition function for disturbance can be developed using a shear-normal
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range, and the increments between normal stresses are progressively increased to provide a greater density of points
in the lower stress ranges.

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VERIFICATION OF SHEAR STRENGTH RELATIONSHIPS BASED ON BACK ANALYSIS

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sults where rock mass strengths in Slide are represented by either D=1 or D=0 conditions, based on the distribution
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equal to the slope height.
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distribution from UDEC; b) zoned D-factor according to depth intervals; and c) a D-factor decay function.
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strength conditions as a function of depth behind a pit slope than using set depth intervals of D factor.

3. ASSESSMENT OF FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO ROCK MASS DISTURBANCE

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are characterized by depths of disturbance equal to the full height of the slope. Curves shown as dashed lines are
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tary-hosted gold mines in Nevada in the southwest USA under fully drained (dry) slope conditions. These mines are
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set of conditions as compared to the other mine sites.

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mine slopes in varying geological environments.

EMPIRICAL RATING SYSTEM TO ESTIMATE LIMITS OF ROCK MASS DISTURBANCE

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that were evaluated included rock mass quality, UCS, structural geology (discontinuity shear strength, continuity, and

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described in the following sections.

Rock Mass Quality

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very poor, respectively.
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Structural geology
Structural conditions were assessed based on continuity, shear strength and structural orientation according to the
following three categories:

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for random, discontinuous, non-daylighting structure to 10 for continuous faults that daylight on the slope face.
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result in daylight of large-scale planar or wedge failures.
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discontinuous structure to 10 for closely spaced continuous faults with low shear strength and low modulus.
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to 10 for closely spaced continuous faults.

Groundwater Pressure
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to saturated (high pressure) conditions, respectively. Consideration needs to be given as to whether pore pressures
 
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Controlled Blasting
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with no controlled blasting measures, respectively. Judgement is required to assess the potential impacts of blasting
on slope performance based on review of slope conditions and displacement monitoring.

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behind the slope face. The range of depth behind the slope face for the blast damage zone is estimated to range from
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In situ Stress Ratio Factor and Total Ratings

The summation of all the category ratings is multiplied by the in situ horizontal to vertical stress ratio (ko) to determine
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MINE CASE EXAMPLES

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height are summarized in Table II. Slope conditions range from strong at the Palabora mine to weak and prone to

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ditions presented in the following categories are summarized from the centre of the deposits to the surrounding host
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Category 1: Strong Rock Mass, Favourable Structure, Moderate Groundwater

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slopes, but were not considered to limit the UDEC models based on 3D modelling results. Slope conditions included:

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and moderately high groundwater conditions. Drainage of the lower slopes is provided by underground mining.
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Category 2: Strong/Moderate Rock Mass, Favourable Structure, Moderate Groundwater

Category 2 is represented by favourable to moderate slope conditions at the Porgera mine in Papua New Guinea.
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host rocks. Slope conditions included:

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structure and moderately high groundwater conditions. Drainage of the lower slopes is provided by under-
ground mining.
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• Pre-split controlled blasting measures with 30 m benches.
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Category 3: Moderate Rock Mass, Moderate Structure, Fully Drained

Category 3 is represented by favourable to moderate slope conditions at the Goldstrike and Cortez mines in Nevada,
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ral spacing during model calibration. Slope conditions included:

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conditions.
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• Trim blasting measures with 12 to 15 m benches.
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Category 4: Strong/Moderate Rock Mass, Deep-Seated Toppling Potential, Enhanced Depressurization

69 


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conditions are generally stronger with depth in the centre of the deposit and are weaker at higher elevations. Slope
conditions included:

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• A transition from trim to pre-split blasting measures occurred in 2015 with 15 m single benches.
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Category 5: Weak Rock Mass, Deep-Seated Toppling Potential, Enhanced Depressurization

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are generally weak in the centre of the deposit from alteration and along major fault zones and dykes. Slight curvature

 
  
lower slope during model calibration. Slope conditions included:

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• Trim blasting measures with 15 m benches.
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4. CONCLUSI ONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
  
   
   
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tructed and calibrated numerical models provide the ability to simulate evolution of stresses, strains and displace-
 
         
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of depth behind the slope face. This approach has been cross-validated with limit equilibrium analyses in Slide to
simulate the zones of disturbance from UDEC output which supports the use of decay functions to characterize rock
mass strengths.

An empirical rock mass disturbance rating system is proposed to assist with initial scoping of the potential fully dis-
turbed limit or depth behind the slope face. Assumptions for the depth of the disturbance transition are required, but the
depth of the undisturbed limit can be assumed to equal the overall slope height in the absence of numerical modelling
results. The empirical rock mass disturbance rating system presented in this paper is in the early stages of develop-
  !  
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range of disturbance conditions that could be encountered in a slope if numerical modelling results are not available
or are impractical to develop due to limitations in the level of geotechnical, geological and hydrogeological information
that is available. Application of this system is not recommended for slopes that are unstable. Ultimately, numerical mo-
dels, calibrated to surface and subsurface displacements, provide the best approach to investigate and characterize
rock mass disturbance for geotechnical design purposes.

5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors of this paper thank Teck Highland Valley Copper Partnership, Barrick Gold Corporation and Barrick Niu-
  {  
  
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Porgera open pits. Information pertaining to the Palabora mine was previously described in Stewart et al. (2000).

6. REFERENCES

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 /
 
2/  •&   7;&2

F~"8$}
• Deere, D.U., Hendron, A.J., Patton, F.D., and Cording, E.J., 1967. Design of Surface and Near Surface Construction
2G \5++
 2O R0O/†Q

#_~"_$#
” %/&/8F\\%"&   "8F\\
G 8]6 2
O +
 —%67;5  

_8"_\
” %/&/8FF~G  0 —2O 
O  + „ R_9\

88}]"88\}
” %/“* R#$$$2"O

  +
+   +O  4R
% O“O6—R•7;{ 6…‚+ O  O /
 
(SME), pp. 59-70.
• Hoek, E., Carranza-Torres, C.T., and Corkum, B., 2002. Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion – 2002 Edition. Proceedings
†R 2O + O —
” %/6„  O+#$8_| ! „ +0 6G 
9~5+2O '„ +
 +H 6R5+R—#_"#}
• Itasca, 2014. Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC) User’s Guide, Version 6.0. Itasca Consulting Group, Inc.,
Minneapolis, Minnesota.
• Itasca, 2016. 3 Dimensional Distinct Element Code (3DEC) User’s Guide, Version 5.2. Itasca Consulting Group,
Inc., Minneapolis, Minnesota.
” 2 #$8}+ ™#+
+  R + 2+
™ }5š„ 2"
 0… 
” 2†+*OH#$$FR 6
  &  {…
G O +

Using the Universal Distinct Element Code (UDEC). Proceedings of the Slope Stability 2009 Conference, Santiago,
November, 11p.
” 2†#$88“G
‚0  /O  0+  …
G +
#$88
Proceedings of the Slope Stability 2011 Conference, Vancouver, September, 16p.
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O#$$] 
†{&*"G
…
G G +O/RO +{6 5+ O  O/
 
Inc., Pre-print 05-09, 10p.
” +R4H& +#$$$ 0
 R…
"G +
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ra of the Last 20 Years. Slope Stability in Surface Mining. W. A. Hustralid, M.K. McCarter and D.J.A. van Zyl (eds.).
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 7+O/;

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