Electronics Engineering

ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
HANDS-ON COURSE
USER MANUAL
Rev. 2.59
Table of Contents
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................... 5
2 OVERVIEW........................................................................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Functionality .................................................................................................................................................. 5
2.2 Circuit board description ................................................................................................................................. 5
3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS ...................................................................................................................................... 7
4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS .................................................................................................... 8
4.1 System architecture ........................................................................................................................................ 8
4.2 Test bench hardware ...................................................................................................................................... 8
4.3 Additional hardware requirements ................................................................................................................. 8
4.4 Software requirements ................................................................................................................................... 8
5 HARDWARE ASSEMBLY ....................................................................................................................................... 9
5.1 Connecting the NI ELVIS workstation............................................................................................................... 9
5.2 Installing the circuit board on the NI ELVIS workstation ................................................................................... 9
6 SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND SETUP ............................................................................................................. 10
6.1 NI software installation ................................................................................................................................ 10
6.2 Lab software installation .............................................................................................................................. 10
7 GETTING STARTED ............................................................................................................................................. 11
7.1 Required background knowledge and skills ................................................................................................... 11
7.2 Working with the circuit board...................................................................................................................... 11
7.3 Powering up and preparing for operation ..................................................................................................... 11
7.4 Launching the lab software........................................................................................................................... 12
7.4.1 Registration and Login .................................................................................................................................. 12
7.5 Lab interface ................................................................................................................................................ 13
7.5.1 Main menu................................................................................................................................................... 13
7.5.2 Control panel ............................................................................................................................................... 14
7.5.3 Work area .................................................................................................................................................... 15
7.5.4 Working with circuit diagrams ...................................................................................................................... 15
7.5.5 Meters and electronic components .............................................................................................................. 15
7.5.6 Controlling the adjustable sources ................................................................................................................ 15
8 WORKING WITH THE DIAGRAM WINDOWS....................................................................................................... 17
8.1 Controls common for all windows ................................................................................................................. 17
8.2 Graph plotter window................................................................................................................................... 18
8.3 Scope window .............................................................................................................................................. 19
8.4 Vector diagrams window .............................................................................................................................. 19
9 HANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS ................................................................................................................................. 21
9.1 DC Circuits .................................................................................................................................................... 21
9.1.1 Ohm’s law .................................................................................................................................................... 21
9.1.2 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws .................................................................................................................................. 26
9.1.3 Series connection of resistors ....................................................................................................................... 31
9.1.4 Parallel connection of resistors ..................................................................................................................... 34
9.1.5 Mixed (series and parallel) connection of resistors........................................................................................ 37
9.1.6 DC voltage source......................................................................................................................................... 40
9.1.7 DC current source......................................................................................................................................... 44
9.2 AC Circuits .................................................................................................................................................... 48
9.2.1 AC circuit with resistor.................................................................................................................................. 48
9.2.2 AC circuit with resistor and inductor connected in series............................................................................... 53
9.2.3 AC circuit with resistor and capacitor connected in series ............................................................................. 58
9.2.4 AC circuit with resistor, inductor and capacitor connected in series .............................................................. 63
9.2.5 Series connection of capacitors..................................................................................................................... 67
9.2.6 Parallel connection of capacitors .................................................................................................................. 70
9.2.7 Series connection of inductors ...................................................................................................................... 73
9.2.8 Parallel connection of inductors.................................................................................................................... 76
9.2.9 Resonance in series RLC circuits .................................................................................................................... 79
9.2.10 Parallel resonance in AC circuits.................................................................................................................... 84
9.2.11 Inductively coupled coils............................................................................................................................... 89
9.2.12 Single phase transformer .............................................................................................................................. 95
9.3 Transient response in series circuits with resistive, capacitive and inductive elements.................................. 104
9.3.1 Series RC circuit transient response ............................................................................................................ 104
9.3.2 Series RL circuit transient response............................................................................................................. 109
9.3.3 Series RLC circuit transient response........................................................................................................... 114
10 SUPPORT ......................................................................................................................................................... 119
4
1 INTRODUCTION
The Electronics Engineering Hands-on Course has been developed with the Virtual Instrumentation
technology of National Instruments and includes hands-on labs on most major topics of the Electronics
Circuits Theory.
The course software has a simple and intuitive user interface developed in LabVIEW Graphical
Programming Environment. System hardware is based on the NI ELVIS II+ (or NI ELVIS II) platform
(hereinafter referred to as NI ELVIS) which is used in conjunction with a specially developed board for
data acquisition and testing of electronic circuits.
The student will use the educational board to assemble the electric circuits, make the required
connections of power sources and meters, and conduct experiments with the studied circuits. He/she
will collect, display and save the obtained data. A corresponding electric circuit, with all meters and
instruments is displayed on the screen in each lab. Lab Front Panels include all the required meters,
controls for the available power supplies and signal sources, as well as tools for plotting graphs, scope
traces or vector diagrams.
Based on the obtained results the student will make calculations, as required in the lab assignment,
and will determine the error from theoretical and practical results, due to variation of used component
values and meter tolerances. The results of all experiments can be saved in lab report in MS Excel
format, for later review and grading.
The software has simple and intuitive user interface. In parallel with hands-on work the students can
have direct access to theoretical materials and step-by-step instructions on how to conduct the lab,
through the User Manual that is available in electronic format. Clear instructions explain all the
consecutive operations required during the lab, along with the measurements that must be taken. The
instructor has access to pre-calculated results that must be obtained by the students, which he can use
to control and grade the student’s work on the labs.
2 OVERVIEW
2.1 Functionality
The test bench is based on a special NI ELVIS test board operating with the lab software package
installed on the personal computer. The test board includes various electronic components which the
student uses for assembling different lab circuits. During the lab the student takes measurements on
the circuits using the NI ELVIS onboard meters.
Test bench software requires student registration and Log in before proceeding with the experiments.
The labs are selected from the software menu. Electronic schematic diagrams for studied circuits are
displayed on the Front Panels for each lab. Detailed instructions are available during the lab, providing
objectives, theoretical materials on the studied subjects, procedures, assignments, detailed
instructions for conducting the lab, saving results and data processing, as well as test questions.
The data measured on the circuit during the lab can be displayed as numerical values, scope traces,
graphs or vector diagrams. All the results can be saved into a data file in MS Excel format, which also
includes the student’s registration data and the experiment’s date and time.
2.2 Circuit board description

All hands-on experiments are conducted on the INT-EE educational printed circuit board installed on
the NI ELVIS workstation. All the components on the circuit board are equipped with connector
sockets. Using these sockets the student can make connections between the elements on the board, as
5
well as power and signal sources and meters on the NI ELVIS workstation. Protection circuits on the
board will prevent damage caused to the board due to wrong connections.
There are no preassembled circuits on the board. The student uses the supplied connector leads to
make the required connections on the board according to the studied circuit schematic.
Fig. 2.2-1 Functional zones on the board

The board consists of the following functional zones, Fig. 2.2-1:
1. Meters: (4 ammeters and 4 voltmeters)
2. Sources:
Description Marking on Reference Parameter
the board on NI ELVIS
Unregulated voltage source +5V +5V Unregulated +5V
AC voltage source ~E FGEN Frequency: 1 to 20 kHz
Voltage: 0 to 10 V
Waveform: sine, square, triangular
Regulated voltage source +E +E Range: 0 to +10 V
Regulated voltage source -E -E Range: -10 to 0 V
Regulated current source +I CS Range: 0 to 50 mA
3. Series connected resistors:
- 4 series resistors, 100 Ω, and rotary switch 0 to 900 Ω in 100 Ω steps
- 4 series resistors, 100 Ω, and rotary switch 0 to 90 Ω in 10 Ω steps
4. Resistors (100 Ω, 200 Ω, 300 Ω, 390 Ω, 510 Ω, 1 kΩ, 10 kΩ) and potentiometer (2 kΩ)
5. Power indicator LED
6. Ground connection
7. External component connectors
8. Capacitors (10 nF, 22 nF, 100nF, 1uF)
9. Independent and series connected inductors (470uH, 1mH, 10mH)
10. Transformer
6
3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS
Carefully read the safety instructions before starting to work with the laboratory setup. Follow the
safety arrangements when connecting the hardware, during the hands-on operations, or when
providing maintenance to the board.
The workstation has a low-voltage DC power supply. The power supply of the device should not be
disassembled. No third-party power sources shall be connected to the NI ELVIS platform and no
external power connections should be made to it. The power supply of the workstation should be
connected to a properly grounded wall socket.
The test bench can only be used indoors. Do not power the workstation in an atmosphere containing
flammable gases or in proximity of highly flammable liquids. There are no user-serviceable parts on the
board, any technical maintenance must be provided exclusively by qualified personnel.
In case of failure of the device or if a burning smell of wires or components is detected please turn OFF
the workstation immediately, disconnect the power cord from the socket, and seek a qualified service.
7
4 HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
4.1 System architecture
The overall system architecture is shown in Fig. 4.1-1:
Fig. 4.1-1 System architecture

The system consists of the Educational Board (2) installed on the NI ELVIS workstation (3) connected to
a personal computer (1) through USB. Power supply (4) supplies power to the workstation and the
Educational Board.
4.2 Test bench hardware

The following are included in the standard bundle:
1 Circuit board 1 pc.
2 Connector leads 1 17 pcs.
4.3 Additional hardware requirements

The following hardware is required for the operation of the test bench (not included):
1 NI ELVIS workstation 1 pc.
2 Personal computer (see the Minimum system requirements section below) 1 pc.
Minimum system requirements
CPU Intel or AMD, 2GHz or higher
RAM 2GB or higher
Ports USB 2.0 or USB 3.0 port
HDD space 2GB or more
Screen resolution 1024х768 or higher
4.4 Software requirements

1 MS Windows 7 or Windows 82 operating system3
2 Microsoft Office 20103
3 Adobe Acrobat Reader 9.0
4 NI ELVIS software (included on the drivers CD of the NI ELVIS workstation)
5 Lab software Electronics Engineering Board 2
1
The minimum number of included connector wires
2
The instructions in this manual are based on Windows 7 installation
3
Not included
8
5 HARDWARE ASSEMBLY
5.1 Connecting the NI ELVIS workstation
Make sure that the power switch on the back of the NI ELVIS station is in the OFF position (Fig.
7.3-1 on page 11, in section 7.3 Powering up and preparing for operation).
1. Connect the power supply to the NI ELVIS workstation.
2. Connect the NI ELVIS station to a USB2 or USB3 port of the personal computer.
3. Connect the power supply to a mains socket.
For detailed instructions refer to the NI ELVIS User Manual.
5.2 Installing the circuit board on the NI ELVIS workstation

Insert the connector (1) on the Electronics Engineering Board into the matching connector on the
NI ELVIS workstation (Fig. 5.2-1).
Fig. 5.2-1 Installing the board on NI ELVIS

1. Place the circuit board over the NI ELVIS workstation with the top side up, matching the
connectors on the board and the workstation.
2. Insert the board into the connector on the workstation by slightly swaying it to the right and left
and pushing forwards. Make sure that the plastic holders (2) on the workstation would enter
their matching holes on the board. Do not apply force if you feel any resistance to insertion.
The device with the installed board should look like it is shown in Fig. 5.2-2.
Fig. 5.2-2 System Assembly
9
6 SOFTWARE INSTALLATION AND SETUP
Before using the test bench you need to install the software supporting the operation of the NI ELVIS
and the lab software on the personal computer to which the workstation is connected.
6.1 NI software installation

For operation of the NI ELVIS workstation, NI ELVIS mx 4.2.3 or higher need to be installed (supplied
with the NI ELVIS workstation or can be downloaded from the National Instruments website).
1. Log into the operating system as an administrator or a user with administrator’s rights.
2. Launch the installer by double clicking on setup.exe and follow the instructions of the wizard.
3. When the installation is complete click Finish to exit the wizard.
4. Restart the computer.
6.2 Lab software installation

Install the following software:
- Lab software (unpack the self-extracting archive with the installer by double clicking on
Electronics.Engineering.x.x.xxx-x.installer.exe4, open the Software folder, launch setup.exe and
follow the instructions of the wizard)
- Adobe Acrobat Reader 9.0 (if not installed)
To be able to save the lab results in MS Excel format, the MS Office package from Microsoft (not
included) should be installed on the same personal computer.
Reboot the computer upon the software installation completion.
4
x.x.xxx-x corresponds to course software revision number
10
7 GETTING STARTED
7.1 Required background knowledge and skills
Before starting the labs the student must:
1. Get acquainted with the safety requirements (refer to section 3 SAFETY REQUIREMENTS).
2. Get acquainted with the NI ELVIS User Manual (ELVISUM.PDF on the NI ELVISmx X.X.X DVD).
3. Have basic understanding of the theoretical concepts of the subject.
4. Get acquainted with the hands-on materials (refer to section 9 HANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS).
5. Understand the basic operating principles of electronic circuits.
7.2 Working with the circuit board

Sockets on the board are used for making electric connections, to supply electric voltage and current
to circuit components and to transfer the obtained signals to NI ELVIS for measurement. The students
make the electric connections using the supplied wires kit (Fig. 7.2-1), inserting plugs on the ends of
wires are into the sockets on the Board in accordance with the provided lab circuit. If required, the
plugs on the end of the connector wires allow the connection of multiple wires to the same connector
on the board by inserting one plug into the other (Fig. 7.2-2).
Fig. 7.2-1 Connector leads Fig. 7.2-2 Mating the plugs
Attention: observe the polarity when connecting the voltmeters and ammeters.
7.3 Powering up and preparing for operation

If the NI ELVIS workstation is OFF, turn it ON using the power switch on the back, next to the power
plug (Fig. 7.3-1).
Fig. 7.3-2 Circuit board power switch and

Fig. 7.3-1 NI ELVIS power switch
indicator LEDs
After power up the yellow USB Active (4) LED (Fig. 7.3-2) will turn ON. After a few seconds, when the
computer recognizes the device, USB Active will turn OFF and USB Ready (3) LED will turn ON. Turn the
PROTOTYPING BOARD POWER switch (1) (Fig. 7.3-2) into the ON position. The green PROTOTYPING
BOARD POWER (2) and the LED in the top right corner of the board will turn ON.
11
7.4 Launching the lab software
Launch the lab software by double clicking on the Electronics Engineering Board 2 EN shortcut on the
desktop or through the Windows start menu: Start -> All Programs -> Electronics Engineering. A Front
Panel with menu elements will open (Fig. 7.4-1).
1. Login
2. Registration
3. User manual
4. Student folder path
5. Device ID
6. Refresh
Fig. 7.4-1 Lab software start screen

If the power of the NI ELVIS is OFF, an error message will
be generated: Device not active. Continue? (Fig. 7.4-2).
Close button will close the software. By clicking Continue
you may continue working with the software but no
measurements will be taken. If you apply power to the Fig. 7.4-2 Error message
platform at a later point, click Refresh (6, Fig. 7.4-1) so that the software would recognize and use the
device.
If several NI ELVIS workstations are connected to the
same PC, device selection window will open (Fig. 7.4-3).
Click on the device name, to which the Electronics
Engineering board is connected, and click OK.
Fig. 7.4-3 Device selection

7.4.1 Registration and Login
To access the labs the student shall register (Registration element in the menu) and sign in.
The Registration menu element will open the registration window

(Fig. 7.4-4).
Fields marked with an asterisk are mandatory. Fill in the fields (only
use Latin characters and numbers).
Choose the path to your personal work folder (a folder where your
assignments and the reports with lab results will be stored): click
the browse button, browse to the location of your existing work
folder or create it, then click Select Folder (Fig. 7.4-5).
Then click the Register button (Fig. 7.4-4). Fig. 7.4-4 User registration
12
If the user is already registered, he/she must log in
with the assigned username and password (Fig.
7.4-6).
Lab reports, saved in MS Excel format, will also
include the student’s registration data.
After signing in, the main software menu with the labs
list will open (Fig. 7.4-7). A lab can be launched by
double clicking on corresponding title in the list.
Fig. 7.4-5
Fig. 7.4-6
Fig. 7.4-7
7.5 Lab interface
A sample Front Panel of a typical lab is shown in Fig. 7.5-1. The window consists of the main menu,
control panel, navigation panel, and work area.
Fig. 7.5-1 A typical lab software panel

7.5.1 Main menu
Main menu elements are situated above the Control panel (Fig. 7.5-1)
1. File
- Home – return to the lab selection menu.
2. Tools
- Graph plotter – open the plotter window.
- Scope – open the scope window for current and voltage traces.
- Vector diagrams – open the vector diagrams window.
- NI Launcher – open NI ELVIS Control panel.
The windows Graph plotter, Scope, Vector diagrams are described in detail in section 8. WORKING
WITH THE DIAGRAM WINDOWS.
13
3. Measurement
- Start/Stop – activate/deactivate all the supplies and meters.
- Erase data – erase all lab results and their display in diagram windows
- Record – record meter readings, values of all components used in the circuit, and student’s
registration data in an MS Excel file.
- Undo record – cancel the last Record operation for current session.
- New session – repeat the experiment with new values of electronic components and
source parameters.
4. Other
- MS Excel – open an MS Excel file, in which the experimental results will be stored upon
clicking the Record button.
- Calculator – launch the MS Windows Calculator.
5. Help
- User Manual – open the User Manual in PDF format. The file includes theoretical materials,
schematic diagrams and Step-By-Step instructions required during the lab.
- About – display software revision data and information about the developer.
7.5.2 Control panel
Fig. 7.5-2
The control panel consists of the main menu elements represented by icons (Fig. 7.5-2).
By aiming the mouse pointer at the icons, a hint with function name is displayed.
1. Start/Stop
The Start/Stop switch also acts as the Circuit Board detection indicator:
- Red if the board is not connected to NI ELVIS,
- Green if the board has been detected.
An exclamation mark on the Start/Stop switch means that the lab was launched with
disconnected or powered down NI ELVIS platform. Exit the lab (Click Home, in the confirmation
window click Yes), turn ON the platform, click Refresh, and then launch the lab again.
Turning the switch ON initiates the voltage and current sources and initializes the meters.
2. Erase data – erase all measurement results in the MS Excel file and in the Graph plotter tool.
3. Record – record the readings of all initialized meters in the work area into the MS Excel file and
displays a corresponding point in the Graph plotter window.
4. Undo record – erase the data stored in the MS Excel file as a result of last Record operation and
removes corresponding points in the Graph plotter window.
5. New session – create a new table in the MS Excel file and start plotting a New session in the
Graph plotter window.
6. MS Excel – open an MS Excel template file
7. Graph plotter – open the Graph plotter tool
8. Scope – open the Scope window
9. Vector diagrams – open the Vector diagrams window
10. Calculator – launch the MS Windows Calculator
11. NI launcher – open NI ELVIS Control panel
12. User manual – open this User manual in PDF format
13. Home – return control to the list of labs
14
7.5.3 Work area
The electronic circuit diagrams of the lab are displayed in the Work area. When conducting a lab, the
student has to assemble a real circuit on the circuit board based on this diagram.
The circuit diagram is an image in the Work area, with fields representing the real elements (resistive
and reactive components, voltage and current sources, meters) used in the lab. Depending on the type
of used element, it will be represented either by a value field (matching the value of used resistor,
inductor or capacitor), a meter field (for ammeters and voltmeters), or a control field (for voltage or
current sources). When saving a lab report, the contents of all fields will be included.
7.5.4 Working with circuit diagrams
After selecting a lab from the menu, its circuit diagram will be displayed in the Work area.
A Navigation panel (Fig. 7.5-3) is available on the top of the Work area.
1. First circuit – switch to first circuit in the lab
2. Previous circuit5 – switch to previous circuit in the lab
1 2 3 4 5 3. Browse – switch to any circuit. The first field indicates the
Fig. 7.5-3 number of the present circuit; the second field shows the
total number of circuits in this lab
4. Next circuit5 – switch to the next circuit in this lab
5. Last circuit – switch to last circuit in the lab
7.5.5 Meters and electronic components
Various electronic components and meters, required for the lab, are displayed on the electronic circuit
diagram on the lab Front Panel.
Meter fields indicate the values of voltages and currents measured during
the experiment.An example for ammeter A1 in DC current measurement
mode is shown in Fig. 7.5-4. Fig. 7.5-4
Depending on the lab requirements, graphical representations of various
electric components (capacitors, resistors, inductors, pots) can be used on
the schematic diagram. The student enters the values of the components,
used on the circuit board, into the Value fields next to the component’s
image (the example of resistor shown in Fig. 7.5-5). Component names and Fig. 7.5-5
their values will be saved in the lab report file, in MS Excel format, to be used for student
calculations.
Note: The ammeter is set to measure a maximum current of 50mA. If the measured value is higher,
an overcurrent error message will be displayed. If such message is displayed, either reduce the
voltage or complete the experiment within 120 seconds.
7.5.6 Controlling the adjustable sources

Fixed DC voltage source +5V - Uncontrolled stabilized DC voltage 5V.
Adjustable DC voltage source +E
You can control the output voltage of this source by turning the knob on the lab Front Panel or
entering the desired value directly in the source field. If the Manual mode checkbox is checked, you
can control the output voltage of this source by turning the VOLTAGE, 0V +12V knob on the NI ELVIS
workstation.
5
The icons Previous and Next are active if several versions of the circuit are available for this particular lab.
15
Adjustable DC voltage source -E
You can control the output voltage of this source by turning the knob on the lab Front Panel or
entering the desired value directly in the source field. If the Manual mode checkbox is checked, you
can control the output voltage of this source by turning the VOLTAGE, 0V -12V knob on the NI ELVIS
workstation.
Adjustable AC voltage source ~E
The board used the NI ELVIS onboard FUNCTION GENERATOR (FGEN)
as the adjustable AC voltage source6. On lab schematic diagrams the
source is represented by an indicator of generator’s frequency and
voltage (Fig. 7.5-6). If the Manual checkbox is ticked, the generator Fig. 7.5-6
signal parameters can be adjusted by corresponding knobs on the NI ELVIS workstation.
A tick mark in Show Controls checkbox displays options required for output signal control, Fig. 7.5-7.
1. Signal type selector buttons let you
choose either sine, triangular or square
waveform.
2. Frequency (Hz) regulator sets the
output signal frequency.
3. Voltage (V) regulator sets the output
signal voltage (peak-to-peak value).
4. DC offset regulator sets the DC value
added to generator’s output signal.
5. Duty Cycle regulator sets the duty factor
Fig. 7.5-7 (in the 0 to 1 range) for square wave
output signal.
A tick mark in the Show Sweep field opens the sweep control window, Fig. 7.5-8.
1. Start Frequency (Hz) – the initial
frequency of the sweep
2. Stop Frequency (Hz) – final frequency of
the sweep
3. Step (Hz) – frequency change at each
step during the sweep
4. Step Interval (ms) – time interval during
which the frequency will not change
Fig. 7.5-8 (between steps)
5. A mouse click on the Sweep button
initiates the sweep function.
6
Note that the internal resistance of the NI ELVIS FUNCTION GENERATOR (FGEN) is about 50 Ω
16
8 WORKING WITH THE DIAGRAM WINDOWS
Three types of tools windows can be launched from the lab Front Panel:
- Graph plotter window
- Scope window
- Vector diagrams window
8.1 Controls common for all windows7
Axis control and scaling (Fig. 8.1-1):
Fig. 8.1-1 Axis control and scaling

This zone contains buttons and fields for working with cursors, scaling the graphs and changing the
coordinate axes.
Cursor coordinates
Cursors are horizontal and vertical lines crossing at the selected point and touching the coordinate
axes. Cursors are used for accurate measurements on graphs or diagrams. Two cursors are available.
A cursor is selected/canceled by mouse click on the cross hair icon
(current cursor is marked yellow). Cursor coordinates are displayed
next to the cross hair icon. You can move the cursor to a desired
location by typing the coordinates in respective fields.
Mouse clicks on the squares moves the cursor in corresponding
direction by 0.1 division scale unit.
Scaling menu:
Lets you drag the selected cursor. This property is also accessible
by right-clicking on the graph window.
Opens the scale selection menu:
1. Scale an arbitrary square selection to the full graph.
2. Scale an arbitrary horizontal selection to the full graph.
3. Scale an arbitrary vertical selection to the full graph.
4. Autoscale (fit all the available data on the graph).
5. Zoom-in.
6. Zoom-out.
Lets you drag the chart to select the areas of most interest.
Trigger source and trigger level selection:
Synchronization signal source. Any signal from any initialized
meters in this lab can be used as the trigger source.
Threshold level, at which synchronization mechanism will be

triggered.8
7
Not all options are available in all windows
8
For stable synchronization choose such trigger signal levels, that the synchronized signal would be crossing that threshold
level each cycle. If the signal does not have a DC bias, threshold level can be set to 0.
17
Right click in scope, graph, or vector diagrams area opens control menu with AutoScale, Freeze,
Cursor, and Log file elements9:
- AutoScale > Y (or X) > ON (or OFF) turns the automatic scaling
for the Y or X axis ON or OFF.
- Freeze > ON (or OFF) freezes/unfreezes the image.
- Cursor > Show (or Hide) turns the cursor ON or OFF
- Log file saves all data points of a frozen scope diagram in a
table format, for further analysis.
- Save saves a screenshot as a .png file.
- Exit closes the window.
8.2 Graph plotter window

Graph plotter window is used for plotting the graphs obtained during the experiment (Fig. 8.2-1).
1. Graph area
2. Variables selection
3. Functions selection
4. X-axis variable definition
5. Y-axis variable definition
6. Axis control and scaling
Fig. 8.2-1 Graph plotter window
Click on the icon on the lab Front Panel to open the Graph plotter window (or choose Tools >
Graph plotter from the main menu).
Graph area (1, Fig. 8.2-1) is a dedicated field on the Graph plotter window in which the graphs of
selected parameters are displayed in real time. The displayed parameters are represented by data
points of corresponding color, connected to each other by a straight line. The value that is currently
measured by the corresponding meter is displayed as a “live” dot. A mouse click on the icon (or
Measurement > Record from the main menu) “freezes” the current data point. You can cancel the last
“frozen” dot by clicking the icon (or Measurement > Undo record from the main menu).
The icon in the upper right corner of the window displays or hides the control fields on the right
to Graph area (zones 2, 3, 4, 5, Fig. 8.2-1).
Variables field (2, Fig. 8.2-1) contains the list of all meters that have been activated in this lab and can
be used as variables in the X= and Y= fields.
Functions field (3, Fig. 8.2-1) contains the list of functions which can be used for calculations of
variables used for plotting the graphs.
X-axis variable field (4, Fig. 8.2-1): any variable from the Variables field can be dragged into the X=
field. The variable in this field will be used as the argument for calculation of the variable in the Y=
field. This variable can be an expression containing other variables and simple operators (addition “+”,
subtraction “-“, multiplication “*”, and division «/»), along with the functions dragged from the list (3,
Fig. 8.2-1).
9
The provided illustration is for Scope, less options may be available in other instruments
18
Y-axis variable field (Fig. 8.2-2) contains the Y= field for definition of Y-axis variables on the graphs.
a) Graph color
b) Variable definition: this function is used as the argument in the
X= field. An expression containing other variables and simple
operators (addition “+”, subtraction “-“, multiplication “*”, and
division «/»), along with functions dragged from the list (3, Fig.
8.2-1).
c) Show/Hide: toggles the display of the function on the graph.
Fig. 8.2-2 Y-axis variable zone d) Delete graph: deletes the variable and function definitions, stops
the display of all existing data points for the selected function.
The Axis control and scaling field (6, Fig. 8.2-1) is described in 8.1 Controls common for all windows.
8.3 Scope window
The Scope is used for plotting various real-time dependencies during the experiment (Fig. 8.3-1).
1. Scope traces area

2. Signal selection
3. Axis control, scaling, and synchronization
Fig. 8.3-1 Scope window
Click the icon on the lab Front Panel to open the Scope window (or choose Tools > Scope from
the main menu). Scope traces area (1, Fig. 8.3-1) is a dedicated field on the Scope window in which the
traces of plotted parameters are displayed in real time.
to Scope traces area (zone 2).
The Signal selection field (2, Fig. 8.3-1) is used to control the trace signal display.
a) Trace color: a mouse click on this field opens the color selection
palette for the scope trace.
b) Trace variable: choose any of the meters activated in this lab.
c) Scale: select the scaling factor for this signal.
d) Show/Hide: clicks on this button toggle the display of this function
on the graph.
The Axis control, scaling and synchronization zone (3) contains buttons and fields for axes and cursor
control, scaling, as well as synchronization parameters for scope diagrams (described in 8.1 Controls
common for all windows).
8.4 Vector diagrams window
Vector diagrams are used for plotting various parameters, obtained during the experiment, in polar
coordinates, in vector form (Fig. 8.4-1).
Click on the icon on the lab Front Panel to open the Vector diagrams window (or choose Tools >
Vector diagrams from the main menu).
19
Parameters, measured by the selected meters, are displayed in vector form, in polar coordinates, in
Vectors display area (1, Fig. 8.4-1). The vectors are represented by arrows of color selected in color
selection field (4, Fig. 8.4-1) and Length determined by scale selection field (6, Fig. 8.4-1).
1. Vectors display area

2. Meters
3. Trigger source and trigger level selection
4. Scale and auxiliary vectors color
5. Vector definition
6. Axis control and scaling
Fig. 8.4-1 Vector diagrams window

to Vector diagrams display area (zones 2, 3, 4, 5, Fig. 8.4-1).
Meter selection field (2, Fig. 8.4-1) contains the list of all meters that have been activated in this lab.
Output of these meters can be used as a source signal for vectors.
Trigger source and trigger level selection field (3, Fig. 8.4-1) has control elements for signal
synchronization (is described in 8.1 Controls common for all windows).
In the Scale and auxiliary vectors color field (4, Fig. 8.4-1) you can set the scaling factor (Grid field) and
the color of auxiliary vectors (if a composite vector in the field (5) is the sum of several other vectors).
Vector definition field (5) contains the fields for definition of displayed vectors:
Fig. 8.4-2 Vector definition

a) Vector color: a mouse click on this field opens the color selection palette for the vector.
b) Vector definition: the expression in this field will be displayed as a vector in Vector display field.
You can drag the required meters into this field from the Meters field. A vector will immediately
appear in the display field: its value will correspond to measured value of this meter. You can also
use simple mathematical functions between several vectors using the output from several meters
and/or aliases assigned in Vector name fields (b)10. In this case all the vectors on the diagram,
which do not start from the point with coordinates (0, 0), are called auxiliary and their color is
defined by the field Auxilary vectors color (4, Fig. 8.4-1).
c) Show/Hide the vector.
d) Delete the vector.
e) Vector’s polar coordinates: absolute value (in units determined by the meter), and phase (in
degrees)11.
Axis control and scaling (6, Fig. 8.4-1) is described in 8.1 Controls common for all windows.
10
The following vector operations can be used:
1. Rotate: indicate the angle in brackets next to vector name (e.g. A1(45) or A1(-45)).
2. Multiplying the vector value by a constant: the constant must be written before the vector name, followed by an
asterisk (e.g. 10*A1 or 0.1*A1).
3. Addition/Subtraction: the operand must be written between vectors (e.g. A1+V1 or 10*A1+A1(45)+0.5*V1(-90)).
11 0
The accuracy of phase calculation deteriorates with frequency and can be as low as ±2.5 at 10kHz.
20
9 HANDS-ON EXPERIMENTS
9.1 DC Circuits
9.1.1 Ohm’s law
Introduction
Ohm’s Law was discovered experimentally, long before a correct understanding of the nature of the
electric current in conductors has been established. Although this empirical dependence was widely
used in numerous practical applications, only years later a theoretical explanation of Ohm’s law has
been discovered12.
Perhaps inspired by Oersted’s discovery of electromagnetism in 1820, German physicist Georg Ohm
too started to study the electromagnetic processes. Ohm investigated the “decrease of the interaction
force” between a magnetic needle and the current in a circuit when altering the full circuit resistance.
He initially used Volta’s battery as the source of electromotive force along with replaceable conductors
made of gold, silver, and zinc wire. Ohm was trying to find an expression that would describe the
obtained experimental results 13. In his work titled «Determining the Law by which metals conduct
contact electricity...» (1826) he formulated one of the most fundamental Laws of Electrical
Engineering.
In this lab you will be able to repeat Ohm’s experiments and verify the obtained results.
Lab Objectives
Experimental verification of Ohm’s Law for various currents and voltages in the circuit, plotting the I-V
curve for a resistor:
I = f (V ) when R is constant (1)
By altering the resistance while maintaining constant voltage, obtain the graph of current vs.
resistance:
I = f ( R) when V is constant (2)
Background Information
In accordance with Ohm’s Law the current in a section of the circuit is directly proportional to the
voltage in that section and inversely proportional to the electric resistance of the section:
V
I= (3)
R
where
V – voltage across the conductor
I – current through the conductor
R – conductor resistance
The resistance is a physical characteristic of the conductor and the SI unit of resistance is W (Ohm). For
most conductors, resistance is directly proportional to its length and inversely proportional to cross
section area:
12
At the time, the Electron Theory of Electric Conduction, which theoretically explains Ohm’s Law, faced serious problems
which could only be resolved after the creation of Quantum Mechanics. To resolve these complexities, new physical
notions have been introduced, such as electron’s mean free path, mean velocity of chaotic motion, and free electrons
density in metals – these notions are not even mentioned in Ohm’s Law, nor they belong to the list of measured
parameters!
13
In the process of Ohm’s research the unstable Volta’s battery was replaced with Seebeck’s thermal element which
stabilized the EMF and made it controllable (besides, the internal resistance of the thermal element was much less
compared to Volta’s battery).
21
rl
R= (4)
s
where
l- conductor length
s- conductor cross section area
r - specific resistance of conductor material
The inverse to resistance value is called conductance (denoted G , and measured in Siemens):
1
G= (5)
R
Therefore Ohm’s Law can also be written in terms of conductance:
I = GV (6)
The Experimental Procedure
A circuit consisting from a voltage source E , resistor R , ammeter A and voltmeter V will be studied
during the lab (Fig. 9.1.1-1).
First, the equation (3) shall be tested with a constant resistance R (the actual value is assigned by the
instructor). After assembling the circuit the voltage E is altered, in several steps, and the current is
measured for each step. Upon completion of the experiment circuit resistance is calculated and the
obtained value is compared with the actual value of the used component. The equation (3) shall be
tested with three different values of R , as assigned by the instructor. Then the graphs of the function
(3) shall be plotted based on the measured values.
At the next stage the expression (3) is tested with constant EMF ( E ), as assigned by the instructor. A
new circuit shall be assembled and a given EMF value set, then the value of R altered, in several steps,
and the circuit current measured for each step. Upon completion of the experiment circuit resistance
will be calculated for each step. The equation (3) shall be tested for different values of E , as assigned
by the instructor. Then the graphs of function (1) will be plotted based on the measured values.
Be very careful when assigning values to passive components in the circuit (in this case, resistors).
The value specified in a component’s value field should match the actual value of the component
used in the electric circuit assembled on the board.
Fig. 9.1.1-1
Preparations
1. Make sure that the NI ELVIS workstation is turned ON (workstation power switch must be in
position I, see Fig. 7.3-1 on p. 11).
2. Set the PROTOTYPING BOARD POWER switch (Fig. 7.3-2 on p. 11) on the NI ELVIS workstation
into position O (OFF).
3. Double click on the Ohm’s law line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be displayed, with
component and device fields positioned appropriately (Fig. 9.1.1-2).
4. Assemble the circuit on the board in accordance with the schematic diagram in Fig. 9.1.1-2. Use
the resistance value in accordance with the lab version assigned by the instructor (Table
9.1.1-1).
22
Fig. 9.1.1-2
5. Enter the same value of the resistance into the value field R (Ω) in the lab Front Panel work
area.
Table 9.1.1-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
R [Ω] 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Part I
+E [V] 1 to 10
R [Ω] 100 to 1000
Part II
+E [V] 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Equations
1. Resistance: R = V
I
Rset - Rexp
2. Measurement error: % Error = × 100%
Rset
Step-By-Step Instructions
1. Turn ON (position I) the PROTOTYPING BOARD POWER switch (Fig. 7.3-2 on p. 11) on the NI
ELVIS. The Power LEDs on the board and on the NI ELVIS prototyping board will turn ON.
2. To start the lab, click the Start/Stop button on the Control panel.
PART I: Study the dependence I = f(V) when R is constant
3. Start by setting the initial value of the +E voltage equal to 1V and click Record.
4. Gradually increase the voltage (from 1V to 10V, in 1V steps), clicking Record after each step.
Avoid measurements in low-voltage range (near 0V) where measurement error is high.
5. When finished, set the +E voltage to zero.
6. Set the resistance value on the board in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
instructor (Table 9.1.1-1).
7. Enter the same value of the resistance into the value field R in the lab Front Panel work area
and click New session.
8. Repeat the points 3 - 7 above for all assigned resistance values (Table 9.1.1-1).
9. When finished, click the MS Excel button to open the data file, and save it.
10. Click Start/Stop.
11. Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the resistance for each measurement step,
determine the measurement error and the mean value of resistance for each assignment
version. Fill in the Table 9.1.1-2.
12. For the assigned values of R , and based on the data obtained during the lab, plot the graphs
I = f (V ) when R is constant.
23
Table 9.1.1-2
I=f(V) when R=Const. R= [Ω]
Measured value Calculated value
N V1 A1 R %Error Mean value of R
[V] [mA] [Ω] [%] [Ω]
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
PART II: Study the dependence I = f(R) when V = const

13. Click Next and make changes to the circuit on the board in accordance with Fig. 9.1.1-3. Note
that Rv is the resistance set using the x100 Ω resistive switch.
Fig. 9.1.1-3
Table 9.1.1-3
Version 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
+E (V) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
14. Set the voltage in accordance with the assigned option (Table 9.1.1-3).
16. Use the x100 Ω resistive switch to gradually increase the resistance R1 from 100 to 1000 Ω, in
100 Ω steps. Store the circuit resistance at each step by entering the obtained values in the
value field and clicking Record.
17. When finished, return the x100 Ω resistive switch to “0” position and click New session.
18. Repeat the steps 16, 17 for different voltages in accordance with your assignment (Table
9.1.1-3).
21. Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the resistance for each measurement step.
Fill in the Table 9.1.1-4 for all versions and save.
22. Using the obtained data, plot the graphs I = f ( R) when V = const for the assigned values of
voltage V .
23. Turn the PROTOTYPING BOARD POWER switch (Fig. 7.3-2 on p. 11) on the NI ELVIS workstation
into position O (OFF) and close the lab.
24
Table 9.1.1-4
I=f(R) when V=Const. E= [V]
Setting Measured value Calculated value
N R1 V1 A1 R1
[Ω] [V] [mA] [Ω]
1 100
2 200
3 300
4 400
5 500
6 600
7 700
8 800
9 900
10 1000
Report
The report should include an MS Excel file containing the graphs obtained during the lab and
calculations, in accordance with the Step-By-Step Instructions section above.
Test Questions
1. Based on the I-V curves below, check the correct answer for the relationship between the
values of R1 , R2 , and R3 :
R1
R2
R3
a) R1 > R2 > R3 b) R1 < R2 < R3 c) R1 = R2 = R3
V
2. Based on the graph below, check the correct answer for the relationship between voltages V1 ,
V2 , and V3 :
a) V1 > V2 > V3 b) V1 < V2 < V3 c) V1 = V2 = V3
25
9.1.2 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws
Introduction
The relations between the currents and voltages in a circuit were first described by German physicist
Gustav Kirchhoff in 1845. Due to their universal nature these relations, called Kirchhoff’s Laws, play a
very important role in electrical engineering.
Lab Objectives
Experimentally verify Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws. Measure the currents in various circuit
branches and potential drops across the resistances.
The voltages and currents in a DC electric network of any complexity can be calculated using a set of
equations derived based on Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws.
To formulate Kirchhoff’s Laws, we need to identify nodes (points of branching in a circuit) and Loops
(closed paths). Note that each conductor may be a part of one or several loops.
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL, or Kirchhoff’s First Law) asserts that the algebraic sum of currents in any
node is equal to zero.
m
åI
i =1
i =0 (1)
where
m– the number of branches in a node
Ii – the current in i -th branch in a node
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL, or Kirchhoff’s Second Law) asserts that the algebraic sum of potential
drops in any closed network is equal to the algebraic sum of voltages in the same loop:
k m
å Ei = å I i Ri
i =1 i =1
(2)
where
k – the number of voltage sources
m – the number of branches in a closed loop
I i – current in i -th branch
Ri – the resistance of i -th branch
Before writing the expressions in accordance with KVL, you need to decide the direction in which you
are going to consider each loop in the circuit (Fig. 9.1.2-1).
The sign of each member of the equation is determined based on the following rules:
voltage is considered positive if its direction coincides with selected direction around the loop
the voltage drop across the resistor is considered positive if the current flows in the selected
direction around the loop.
A complex network can be broken down into several closed loops. A loop is called independent if it
contains a branch (or branches) which aren’t a part of any other loops.
Based on KCL, for the node a of the circuit (Fig. 9.1.2-1) we can write:
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0 (3)
Respectively, the equation for node b:
- I1 - I 2 - I 3 = 0 (4)
26
In accordance with KVL, the following expressions can be written for the first and second loop,
respectively:
E1 = I1 R1 - I 2 R2 (5)
E2 = - I 2 R2 + I 3 R3 (6)
Fig. 9.1.2-1
From eq. (5), (6) and, for example, (3), we can derive a system of linear equations describing the
circuit:
E1 = I1 R1 - I 2 R2
E2 = - I 2 R2 + I 3 R3
(7)
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = 0

In this lab we shall study the circuit shown in Fig. 9.1.2-1, which includes two DC voltage sources ( E1
and E 2 ), has three branches and two nodes (a, b).
To verify Kirchhoff’s Current Law, set various combinations of voltages of the first and second source,
followed by the measurement of incoming and outgoing currents in nodes a and b (the outgoing
currents are negative). The algebraic sum of measured incoming and outgoing currents in a node
should be equal to zero (within measurement error range).
To verify Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, set various combinations of voltages of the first and second source,
followed by the measurement of potential differences on all resistances. The sum of voltages of the
sources should be equal to the sum of potential differences on the resistive elements in the loop
(within measurement error range).
Preparations
3. Double click on the Kirchhoff’s circuit laws line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be
displayed, with component and device fields positioned appropriately (Fig. 9.1.2-2).
27
Fig. 9.1.2-2
9.1.2-1). Connect the ammeter ends with the same polarity to node a.
When assembling the circuit, pay attention to polarity of ammeters, voltmeters, voltage- and
current sources.
Table 9.1.2-1
N +E -E R1 R2 R3
[V] [V] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω]
1 10 -1 100 200 300
2 9 -2 200 300 400
3 8 -3 300 400 500
4 7 -4 400 500 600
5 6 -5 500 600 700
6 5 -6 600 700 800
7 4 -7 700 800 900
8 3 -8 800 900 1000
9 2 -9 900 1000 1100
10 1 -10 1000 1100 1200
Equations
m
1. Kirchhoff's Current Law - åI
i =1
i =0
k m
2. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law - å Ei = å I i Ri
i =1 i =1
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
into position I (ON). The Power LED on the board and power indicator on NI ELVIS will turn ON.
3. Set the voltages +E and -E in accordance with the lab version assigned by the instructor (Table
9.1.2-1), then click Record.
4. Click New session.
5. Repeat steps 3-4 above for all assigned versions.
7. Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the sum of currents in nodes a and b (Fig.
9.1.2-1) for each version. Click the MS Excel button, fill in the Table 9.1.2-2 and save.
28
Table 9.1.2-2
N +E -E R1 R2 R3 A1 A2 A3 ∑Ia ∑Ib
[V] [Ω] [mA] [mA]
1
2
3
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

1. Click Next to open a new circuit (Fig. 9.1.2-3).
Fig. 9.1.2-3
2. Connect the voltmeters to the assembled circuit in accordance with the schematic on the
screen.
When assembling the circuit, pay attention to polarity of ammeters, voltmeters, voltage- and
current sources.
4. Set the voltages +E and -E in accordance with the lab version assigned by the instructor (the
Table 9.1.2-1) and click Record.
5. Click New session.
6. Repeat steps 4-5 above for all assigned versions.
9. Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the sum of source voltages and potential
differences in loops I and II for each version. Fill in the Table 9.1.2-3 and save.
Table 9.1.2-3
m n m n
N +E -E R1 R2 R3 A1 A2 A3 V1 V2 V3 å Ek - åVi
k =1 i =1
å Ek - åVi
k =1 i =1
[loop I] [loop II]
[V] [Ω] [mA] [V] [V] [V]
1
2
3
29
Report
The report should include an MS Excel file containing the data obtained during the lab and calculations,
in accordance with the Step-By-Step Instructions section above.
Test Questions
1. What is the value of I 3 if I1 =10mA and I 2 =3mA?
a) -13mA b) 7mA c) -7mA
V
2. What is the potential difference on the resistor R2 if E1 =6V, E 2 =-1V, R1 =4 kΩ and R2 =1kΩ?
E2
R1
R2
+
E1 -
a) 3V b) 1V c) 2V
30
9.1.3 Series connection of resistors
Introduction
In series configuration, there are no branching nodes in a circuit section containing the elements. Same
current flows through all the elements connected in series.
Lab Objectives
Experimentally verify the calculation of the equivalent resistance for series-connected resistors.
Series connection of three resistors (Fig. 9.1.3-1) will be studied in this lab.
Fig. 9.1.3-1
Components connected in series are connected along a single path and the same current flows
through all of the components:
I = I1 = I 2 = I 3 (1)
In accordance with Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
E = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I ( R1 + R2 + R3 ) = IReq (2)
and hence,
Req = R1 + R2 + R3 (3)
Therefore, the equivalent resistance of several resistors connected in a series is equal to the sum of
their individual resistances.
n
Req = å Ri (4)
i =1
In accordance with Ohm’s Law the voltages across circuit sections V1 = IR1 , V 2 = IR 2 , and V 3 = IR 3 , and
since in our case E = V , we can derive for the mentioned circuit that:
V = V1 + V 2 + V3 (5)
Hence, the voltage on the power source terminals V is equal to the sum of voltages on each of the
resistors connected in series.
It follows from the expressions above that the ratio of voltage drops on several resistors connected in
series is equal to the ratio of their respective resistances:
V1 : V 2 : V 3 = R1 : R 2 : R 3 (6)
i.e. the higher is the resistance in a series circuit, the higher will be the voltage drop on that resistance.
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of voltage source +E and series connected resistors R1 , R 2
, and R 3 . Use the resistors on the board based on values in the lab version assigned by the instructor.
After assembling the circuit, set several values of the voltage E . Measure the current and voltage drop
on each resistor for each new setting of E .
31
Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the resistances of each resistor and their total
equivalent resistance, determine the mean value for each set of measurements and calculate
measurement error for the whole experiment.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Series connection of resistors line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be
Fig. 9.1.3-2
9.1.3-1).
5. Enter the values corresponding to used resistors on the board into the value fields R (Ω) in the
lab Front Panel work area.
Table 9.1.3-1
R1 R2 R3
N
[Ω]
1 100 1000 700
2 200 900 800
3 300 800 900
4 400 700 1000
5 500 600 100
6 600 500 200
7 700 400 300
8 800 300 400
9 900 200 500
10 1000 100 600
Equations
n
1. The equivalent resistance of resistors, connected in series - Req = å Ri
i =1
32
3. Turn the knob +E in the work area, to set an arbitrary voltage in the 1 to 10V range and click
Record to register the measured values.
4. Repeat the step 3 two more times, with different voltage settings.
6. Click on the MS Excel button to open the file with the obtained data, then save it.
7. Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the resistances for each voltage setting:
V V V V
R1 = 1 ; R2 = 2 ; R3 = 3 ; Req = 4 ; Req = R1 + R2 + R3 .
I I I I
8. Fill in the Table 9.1.3-2 and save.
9. Calculate the mean resistances of circuit elements for different voltage settings.
10. Compare the resistance values of the resistors installed on the board with calculated values
obtained through the experiment.
Table 9.1.3-2
N +E R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3 V4 A1 R1 R2 R3 Req (ΣRi) Req (V/I)
[V] [Ω] [V] [mA] [Ω]
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. What is the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in series, if R1=1kΩ, R2=2kΩ and
R3=3kΩ?
a) Req=1kΩ b) Req=6kΩ c) Req=0.5kΩ
V
2. What is the equivalent resistance of three resistors connected in series, if their respective
voltage drops are equal to 2V, 3V and 5V, and the current in the circuit is 0.2A?
a) Req=10 Ω b) Req=20 Ω c) Req=50 Ω
33
9.1.4 Parallel connection of resistors
Introduction
In parallel configuration all the elements are unified between two nodes in the circuit section
containing the elements. The voltage is thus the same for all the elements.
Lab Objectives
Experimentally verify the calculation of the equivalent resistance for parallel-connected resistors.
Parallel connection of three resistors (Fig. 9.1.4-1) will be studied in this lab.
Fig. 9.1.4-1
During parallel connection the same voltage is applied to all the elements between the nodes a and b.
Therefore, in accordance with Ohm’s Law,
V V V
I1 = , I 2 = , I3 = , (1)
R1 R2 R3
In accordance with Kirchhoff’s Current law the total current
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 (2)
or
V V V 1 1 1 V
I= + + =V( + + )= (3)
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3 Req
The equivalent resistance of the parallel configuration can be determined from the following
expression:
1 1 1 1
= + + (4)
Req R1 R2 R3
1 1
If, instead of , we use conductance G = , we can obtain eq. (5):
R R
Geq = G1 + G 2 + G3 (5)
The equivalent conductance of a parallel circuit is equal to the sum of conductances of the parallel
connected resistors:
n
Geq = å Gi (6)
i =1
Therefore, by increasing the number of parallel resistors, the equivalent conductance of the electric
circuit will increase (whereas the equivalent resistance will decrease).
It is clear that the currents between parallel resistors are inversely proportional to their respective
resistances: i.e. the higher is the resistance of a particular branch in a parallel circuit, the lower will be
the current of that branch.
For parallel connection of several ( n) resistors with equal resistances R , the equivalent resistance of
the circuit Req will be n times lower than R :
R
Req = (7)
n
34
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of voltage source +E and three resistors R1 , R 2 and R 3 ,
connected in parallel. The resistors are selected based on the assignment version. Assemble the circuit
on the board, measure the currents in all branches for several voltage settings.
Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the resistances of each resistor, the total
equivalent conductance (as the sum of conductances of the branches and as the ratio of common
current to voltage), and the total resistance.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Parallel connection of resistors line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
be displayed, with component and device fields positioned appropriately (Fig. 9.1.4-2).
Fig. 9.1.4-2
4. Assemble the circuit on the board in accordance with the schematic diagram in Fig. 9.1.4-2. Set
the resistance values on the board in accordance with the assigned lab version (Table 9.1.4-1).
5. Enter the values of the resistances into the value fields R (Ω) in the lab Front Panel work area.
Table 9.1.4-1
R1 R2 R3
N
[Ω]
1 100 1000 700
2 200 900 800
3 300 800 900
4 400 700 1000
5 500 600 100
6 600 500 200
7 700 400 300
8 800 300 400
9 900 200 500
10 1000 100 600
Equations
n
1. Geq = å Gi - the equivalent conductance of a parallel connected resistors.
i =1
35
Note: The ammeter is set to measure a maximum current of 50mA. If the measured value is higher, an
overcurrent error message will be displayed. If such message is displayed, reduce the voltage until the
current is below 50mA.
4.Repeat the step 3 two more times, with different voltage settings.
5.Click on the MS Excel button to open the file with the obtained data, then save it.
6.Click Start/Stop.
7.Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the conductances for each voltage setting:
I I I I V
G1 = 1 ; G2 = 2 ; G3 = 3 ; G eq = G1 + G 2 + G 3 ; Geq = ; Req = .
V V V V I
9. Calculate the mean conductance of the chain elements for different voltage settings.
obtained through the experiment.
Table 9.1.4-2
N +E R1 R2 R3 V1 A1 A2 A3 A4 G1 G2 G3 Geq (ΣGi) Geq (I/V) Req
[V] [Ω] [V] [mA] [S] [Ω]
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. What is the equivalent resistance of three parallel resistors, if R1=1kΩ, R2=2kΩ, R3=2kΩ?
a) Req=1 kΩ b) Req=2 kΩ c) Req=0.5 kΩ
V
2. What is the equivalent resistance of three parallel resistors if the applied voltage is 5V, and the
currents in their respective branches are 0.25A, 0.12A and 0.13A?
V
36
9.1.5 Mixed (series and parallel) connection of resistors
Introduction
In series configuration, there are no branching nodes in a circuit section containing the elements. In
mixed connection some sections of the circuit are connected in series, some – in parallel.
Lab Objectives
Experimentally verify the calculation of the equivalent resistance for mixed connection of resistors.
In this lab we shall study a circuit with mixed connection of three resistors (Fig. 9.1.5-1).
Fig. 9.1.5-1
A mixed circuit contains both parallel and series connected resistors. The equivalent resistance of such
circuit is usually determined by breaking up a complex network into smaller parts that are either
connected in series or in parallel. For the schematic diagram shown in Fig. 9.1.5-1 we shall first simplify
the circuit by replacing the series resistors R 2 and R 3 by their equivalent resistance R23 .
R 23 = R 2 + R3 (1)
Then we can determine the equivalent resistance Req for parallel resistances R23 and R1 :
1 1 1
= + (2)
Req R1 R23
R23 R1
Req = (3)
R23 + R1
R ( R + R3 )
Req = 1 2 (4)
R1 + R2 + R3
The voltages and currents in this circuit are determined as follows:
V = V1 = V 2 + V 3 (5)
I = I1 + I 2 (6)
V
Req = (7)
I
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of voltage source +E and series-parallel resistors R 1 , R 2
and R 3 . The resistors are selected based on the assignment version.
Assemble the circuit on the board, set several values of the voltage E and measure the current and
voltage on each resistance for each voltage setting.
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the assembled circuit based on the obtained experimental
values. Determine the mean value for each set of measurements and calculate measurement error for
the whole experiment. Use the ohmmeter to measure the equivalent resistance and calculate the
result with the calculated value.
37
Preparations
3. Double click on the Mixed (series and parallel) connection of resistors line in the list of labs.
Circuit schematic will be displayed, with component and device fields positioned appropriately
(Fig. 9.1.5-2).
Fig. 9.1.5-2
9.1.5-1).
5. Enter the values corresponding to used resistors on the board into the value fields R (Ω) in the
Table 9.1.5-1
R1 R2 R3
N
[Ω]
1 100 1000 700
2 200 900 300
3 300 800 390
4 510 700 1000
5 500 610 100
6 600 510 200
7 700 400 300
8 800 300 400
9 900 200 500
10 1000 100 600
38
Note: The ammeter is set to measure a maximum current of 50mA. If the measured value is higher, an
overcurrent error message will be displayed. If such message is displayed, reduce the voltage until the
current is below 50mA.
4. Repeat the step 3 two more times, with different voltage settings.
6. Based on the obtained experimental data, calculate the : equivalent resistance of the circuit for
each voltage setting:
V V V V R R
R1 = 1 ; R2 = 2 ; R3 = 3 ; Req = ; Req = 23 1 .
I1 I2 I2 I R23 + R1
9. Calculate the mean value of equivalent resistance for different voltage settings.
obtained in step 6 above, based on the experimentally obtained data.
Table 9.1.5-2
Req Req Req
N +E R1 R2 R3 V1 V2 V3 V4 A1 A2 A3 R1 R2 R3
(exp.1) (exp.2) (set)
[V] [Ω] [V] [mA] [Ω]
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. What is the equivalent resistance of the mixed circuit below if R=2 Ω?
39
9.1.6 DC voltage source
Introduction
An ideal DC constant voltage source is a circuit element where the voltage across the output terminals
is independent of the current drawn from the source (internal resistance of an ideal voltage source is
equal to zero). Due to various factors, depending on the construction and materials used, their source
resistance is non-zero and therefore the output voltage depends on the current. There are various
types of DC constant voltage sources: batteries, voltage regulators, generators, etc.
Lab Objectives
Experimentally determine the DC voltage source resistance and plot its external characteristic graph.
Due to the non-zero source resistance, the output voltage of a real source depends on the current. This
dependence is called the external characteristic of a power source. Usually the external characteristic
is almost linear (Fig. 9.1.6-2).
Fig. 9.1.6-1
An equivalent circuit of the above described voltage source is shown in Fig. 9.1.6-1. The circuit
consisting of an ideal voltage source E with series connected resistor r0 .
D V = D Ir0 (1)
DV
r0 = (2)
DI
where
DV – the absolute value of potentials difference between the source terminals
DI – change of current in the external circuit
r0 – source resistance
DV = E - V (3)
where
E – potential difference between source terminals when I = 0 .
V – potential difference on the external circuit when I ¹ 0 .
E is called the electromotive force (EMF) and is defined as the external work expended per unit of
charge to produce an electric potential difference across two open-circuited terminals.
Note that the EMF and internal resistance components of the equivalent circuit are physically
inseparable.
When DI = I , from the expressions (1) and (3) we can derive the expression for the external
characteristic of the source:
V = E - Ir0 (4)
The external characteristic of a voltage source connected to the load R is shown in Fig. 9.1.6-2.
Fig. 9.1.6-2
40
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of voltage source and a loading resistor. The voltage
source is based on the +E voltage source of the NI ELVIS workstation. Its source resistance is very low
and therefore, for measurements simplicity, we will connect to it a series resistor r0 to simulate a
higher value of source resistance. Note that the source resistance should be at least a power of
magnitude less than load resistance. Use source resistance r0 and EMF value (E) in accordance with
the lab version assigned by the instructor.
Assemble the circuit on the board, set the desired EMF value and, altering the load resistance in
several steps, measure the load voltage and current. Based on the obtained experimental data plot the
external characteristic of the voltage source. Repeat the experiment for two additional assignment
versions.
Preparations
2. Set the PROTOTYPING BOARD POWER switch (Fig. 7.3-2 on p. 11) on the NI ELVIS workstation into
position O (OFF).
3. Double click on the DC voltage source line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be displayed,
with component and device fields positioned appropriately (Fig. 9.1.6-3).
Fig. 9.1.6-3
the source resistance simulating resistor r0 , in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
5. Enter the value of source resistance simulating resistor into the value field r0 in lab Front Panel’s
work area.
6. Set the resistive switch x100 Ω into the 1000 Ω position. This value will be used as the load
resistance R .
Table 9.1.6-1
r0 +E
N
[Ω] [V]
1 10
2 20
3 30 10
4 40
5 50
41
Equations
1. The external characteristic of the source: V = E - Ir0 .
3. Set the no-load voltage (when no current flows through the load) equal to 10V:
- disconnect one of the wires from the resistive switch,
- turn the +E knob in work area to set the 10V output,
- click Record,
- connect the load R back in place.
4. To plot the external characteristic, turn the x100 Ω resistive switch knob, gradually decreasing
the load resistance from 1000 to 500 Ω, in 100 Ω steps, clicking Record after each step.
6. Plot the external characteristics for two additional assignment versions.
8. Use the data in the Excel file to plot the external characteristics of the source.
9. Based on the obtained results, for each external characteristic calculate the source resistance
r0 and voltage change DV , corresponding to current change DI , then fill in the Table 9.1.6-2
and save. Compare the announced values of used components on the board with values
calculated based on the experimentally obtained data.
Table 9.1.6-2
N r0 +E R V1 A1 ΔV ΔI r0
[Ω] [V] [Ω] [V] [mA] [V] [mA] [Ω]
1 No load
2 1000
3 900
4 800
5 700
6 600
7 500
Mean value
Report
42
Test Questions
1. What is the source resistance in the lab circuit if at E=5V and Load current I=10mA the source
voltage is equal to 4.9V
a) r0 = 500 Ω b) r0 = 49 Ω c) r0 = 10 Ω
2. Using the graph below determine, which voltage source has lower resistance?
a) r1 b) r2 c) r3
43
9.1.7 DC current source
Introduction
An ideal DC constant voltage source is a circuit element in which the output current is independent on
the load (an ideal current source has infinite resistance, or in other words, its internal conductance
g 0 = 0 ). Output voltage of an ideal current source will adjust indefinitely in order to provide a constant
current, depending on load resistance. Due to various factors, depending on the construction and
materials used, the resistance of real current sources is finite, and its output current depends on the
load to a certain extent. There are various types of DC constant current sources: photodiodes, current
regulators, etc.
Lab Objectives
Experimentally determine the DC current source resistance and plot its external characteristic graph.
The dependence of output voltage on current for an ideal current source is a vertical line. However, a
real source is not ideal and is unable to increase the output voltage indefinitely, depending on the load
(Fig. 9.1.7-1).
Fig. 9.1.7-1
In the general case, this dependence is non-linear (curve #1 in Fig. 9.1.7-2). The dependence of output
voltage on current is called the external characteristic of the current source, and can be characterized
by two points corresponding to:
no load mode ( I = 0; V = VNL'
)
short circuit mode (V = 0; I = I SC
'
).
Fig. 9.1.7-2
Output current and voltage of a real source can vary within certain limits of the source’s nominal range
(a range in which the manufacturer guarantees specified deviations of output parameters along with
optimal performance and longevity).
For simplicity, in operating range m-n, which is determined by working intervals of voltage and current,
a non-linear characteristic may be approximated by a straight line (Fig. 9.1.7-2) - for most sources this
44
can be justified. Also note that, unlike voltage sources, long periods of operation in short circuit mode
are permissible for most current sources.
The approximated line 2 in Fig. 9.1.7-2 can be described by a linear equation:
V = V NL - Ir0 (1)
where
V NL - voltage on source terminals when no load is connected,
VNL
r0 = - source resistance.
I SC
Dividing the left and right parts of (1) by r0 , we can derive:
V V V
I = NL - = I SC - (2)
r0 r0 r0
or
I = I SC - g 0 × V (3)
where
1
g0 = - source internal conductance.
r0
It follows from (2) that, if source resistance r0 is very high, the current ( I ) is independent on the load.
A real current source can be replaced by an equivalent circuit (Fig. 9.1.7-3) containing an ideal current
source ( I ) and a parallel resistor with high resistance ( r0 ).
Fig. 9.1.7-3
The components of the equivalent circuit: an ideal current source and the internal conductance (or
resistance), are physically inseparable.
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of a current source and a loading resistor. Source
conductance of the current source I in NI ELVIS workstation is very low and, for measurements
simplicity, we shall connect a resistor in parallel to it, to simulate a higher internal conductance of the
source. Note that the source conductance should be at least a power of magnitude less than load
conductance.
Use source resistance r0 and current values in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
instructor. Assemble the circuit on the board, set the assigned values of source internal resistance and
current, then change the load resistance in several steps and measure the circuit current and the
voltage on the load.
Based on the obtained experimental data plot the external characteristic of the current source. Repeat
the experiment for two additional assignment versions.
45
Preparations
3. Double click on the DC current source line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be displayed,
with component and device fields positioned appropriately (Fig. 9.1.7-4).
Fig. 9.1.7-4
the source resistance simulating resistor r0 , in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
5. Enter the value of source resistance simulating resistor into the value field r0 in lab Front
Panel’s work area.
6. Resistive switch x10 Ω will be used as the loading resistance R. Set the knob into the zero
position.
Table 9.1.7-1
+I r0
N
[mA] [Ω]
1 500
2 600
3 700
10
4 800
5 900
6 1000
Equations
The external characteristic of the source: I = I SC - g 0 × V .
3. Set the short circuit current (zero load resistance) equal to 10mA.
4. To plot the external characteristic, turn the x10 Ω resistive switch knob, gradually increasing the
load resistance from 0 to 50 Ω, in 10 Ω steps, clicking Record after each step.
5. Plot the external characteristics for two additional assignment versions.
46
8. Use the obtained experimental data to calculate the source resistance r0 and voltage change
DV , corresponding to current change DI , for each characteristic and fill in the Table 9.1.7-2,
and save. Compare the announced values of used components on the board with values
calculated based on the experimentally obtained data.
Table 9.1.7-2
N r0 +I R V1 A1 ΔV ΔI r0
[Ω] [mA] [Ω] [V] [mA] [V] [mA] [Ω]
1 0
2 10
3 20
4 30
5 40
6 50
Mean value
Report
Test Questions
1. The current source with which internal resistance will show a higher deviation of output current
for equal change of load resistance?
a) r0 = 1 kΩ b) r0 = 10 kΩ c) r0 = 0.1 kΩ
47
9.2 AC Circuits
9.2.1 AC circuit with resistor
Lab Objectives
Study of the main properties and operation modes of an AC circuit with a resistive load. Experimental
determination of circuit components parameters, study of their influence on the circuit operation.
In alternating current (AC) the movement of the electric charge periodically reverses its direction. The
usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine wave (Fig. 9.2.1-1).
Fig. 9.2.1-1
Current, voltage, and EMF in AC circuits can be represented with the following expressions:
i(t ) = I p sin (wt + j0i ) (1)
v(t ) = Vp sin (wt + j0 v ) (2)
e(t ) = E p sin (wt + j0 e ) (3)
where:
i (t ) , v ( t ) , e (t ) - the instantaneous values of current, voltage and EMF, respectively
I p , Vp , Ep - the amplitudes (peak deviations from zero) of current, voltage and EMF,
respectively
T - the period
2p
w = 2p f = - the angular frequency (rad/s)
T
1
f = - the ordinary frequency (Hz)
T
j0i , j0v , j0e - the initial phase angle for current, voltage and EMF, respectively
It is convenient to start the observation with zero initial phase for the voltage ( j0v = 0 ), and hence
v(t ) = V p sin (wt ) .
Instead of peak values, in electrical engineering it is common to use the root mean square, or RMS
value of a parameter which changes by the sinusoidal law. Parameter’s average value during the half-
period can also be used.
The RMS value of AC current I RMS is the equivalent DC current which would produce on a resistive
load the same amount of heat as AC current with the peak value I p , during one period. AC voltage and
current meters usually measure corresponding RMS values, unless it is specified otherwise.
The RMS current can be derived as follows
48
T T
1 1 2 2 Ip
T ò0 T ò0
I RMS = i ( t ) 2
dt = I p sin (w t ) dt = = 0.707 I p (4)
2
where
I p - the peak value of current,
i(t ) - the instantaneous value of current
In a similar manner,
V
VRMS = p
2
and
E
E RMS = p
2
The instantaneous value of power
p = v(t ) × i(t ) = Vp I p sin(wt )sin(wt - j ) = VRMS I RMS cosj - VRMS I RMS cos(2wt - j )
where
j = j v - j i - phase difference between voltage and current
The average of instantaneous power during the period is called true power:
T
1
P = ò p(t )dt =VRMS I RMS cos j (5)
T 0
The angle j , which is the phase difference between voltage and current, characterizes the ratio
between the resistive and reactive components of the load. Thus, an important parameter in electrical
engineering is power factor, which shows how much the phase of current in the circuit shifts in regard
with the phase of the applied voltage. Power factor is a dimensionless number, it is equal to the ratio
of real power to apparent power (or the cosine of phase shift angle cos j ).
Consider a circuit with purely resistive element R (i.e. the impedance Z = R ), Fig. 9.2.1-2.
Fig. 9.2.1-2
The voltage v across the purely resistive element is directly proportional to current i . Its I-V
characteristic is a straight line and the angle between the characteristic and the axes is determined by
element’s resistance R .
For a sine wave current i(t ) = I p sin(wt ) .
In accordance with Ohm’s Law
v(t ) = i(t ) × R = RI p sin(wt ) = Vp sin(wt ) (6)
Hence V p = RI p and j = 0 .
Fig. 9.2.1-3 shows the graphs of instantaneous values of current i , voltage v , and power p
Vp I p
p (t ) = V p I p sin 2 (w t ) = (1 - cos(2w t )) (7)
2
49
Fig. 9.2.1-3
The current and voltage vector diagram is shown in Fig. 9.2.1-4. It is clear that the phase shift angle j
V I
between voltage and current is equal to zero, and instantaneous power consists of the constant p p
2
Vp I p
and variable cos(2wt ) components.
2
Fig. 9.2.1-4
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source and a resistor.
Set various output voltage and frequency of the source and measure the voltage and current while
keeping a constant load resistance.
Based on the obtained data calculate the circuit’s full impedance, full, resistive and reactive power,
and phase shift between voltage and current.
Save and analyze scope patterns and vector diagrams of current and voltage.
Preparations
3. Double click on the AC circuit with resistor line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be
9.2.1-1).
5. Enter the value of the used resistor into the value field R (Ω) in the lab Front Panel work area.
When working with Scope and Vector Diagrams windows, make sure to use signal synchronization
with a respective source (see section 8.1 Controls common for all windows, subsection Trigger source
and trigger level selection).
50
Fig. 9.2.1-5
Table 9.2.1-1
N 1 2 3 4 5
f [kHz] 2 to 5
~E [V] 6 7 8 9 10
R[Ω] 100 to 500
Equations
1. Phase shift angle between the voltage and current vectors: j = j v - j i
2. Active power dissipated in the circuit: P = VRMS I RMS cos j
V
3. Circuit’s full impedance: Z exp =
I
4. For pure resistive load circuit’s full impedance Z s e t = R
Z - Z exp
5. Measurement error: % Error = set × 100%
Z set
3. For the signal source ~E check the Show Controls field and select Sine in the Signal type field.
Set the voltage14 (Voltage field) and frequency (Frequency field) of ~E in accordance with your
assignment version (Table 9.2.1-1) and click Record.
4. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and current A1 (see 8.3 Scope
window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in the Trigger level field set 0
(see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Obtain a screenshot and save it.
5. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and current A1 (see
8.4 Vector diagrams window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in the
Trigger level field set 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Obtain a screenshot and
save it. Based on the voltage and current phase data calculate the angle between the voltage
and current vectors in the circuit. The amplitudes and phases of the vectors ( A, j ) are shown
next to the corresponding field on the Vector diagrams panel.
6. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , Z , P , measurement error for Z, and fill in the
Table 9.2.1-2.
7. Repeat the measurements and calculations (steps 3-6 above) for all assignment versions.
14
The voltage is set as peak to peak value. The magnitude of the signal is equal to the half of set value.
51
9. Click Start/Stop when finished.
Table 9.2.1-2
N f R ~E V1 A1 jv - ji Z (exp.) Z (set) %Error (Z) cos P
[kHz] [Ω] [V] [V] [mA] degrees [Ω] [Ω] [%] - [W]
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (1kHz, 10V) is applied to a resistor. What is the resistance value if the current is
25mA?
a) 10 Ω b) 250 Ω c) 400 Ω
V
2. What is the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit?
a) 0.5 b) 1 c) 0
52
9.2.2 AC circuit with resistor and inductor connected in series
Lab Objectives
Study of the main properties and operation modes of an AC circuit with series connected resistor and
inductor. Experimental determination of circuit components parameters, study of their influence on
the circuit operation.
Presence of an inductive element in a circuit results in a phase shift between the voltage and current.
Because of this phase shift all the values are vectors and the expressions obtained on the basis of
Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Law can only be applied in vector form.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 9.2.2-1.
Fig. 9.2.2-1
The inductance is characterized by the dependence of flux linkage l on current I :
l
L= (1)
I
Instantaneous voltage across the inductor:
dl di (t )
v L ( t ) = -e L (t ) = =L (2)
dt dt
where eL (t ) is the EMF induced by changing magnetic flux.
If the inductor current is defined as
i (t ) = I p sin(wt + j i )
where j i is the initial phase, then the voltage on the inductor:
v ( t ) = w LI p cos (wt + ji ) (3)
The expression (3) is analogous to Ohm’s Law for inductors.
If we replace the cosine with a sine, we can derive
v ( t ) = Vp sin (wt + jv ) (4)
The expressions (3) and (4) will be equal, if the amplitudes and phases are equal, and hence
V p = w LI p (5)
p
jv = ji + (6)
2
p
You can see from (6) that there is a phase difference between the voltage and current in an
2
inductor.
In terms of RMS values the expression (5) will look as follows:
VRMS = w LI RMS (7)
w L is called inductive reactance and is denoted X L (the SI unit of reactance is Ω). Inductive reactance
depends on frequency f of the AC source.
X L = w L = 2p fL (8)
Instantaneous power:
53
p (t ) = v (t ) × i( t ) = VRMS I RMS sin(2w t + ji ) =Qsin(2w t + ji ) (9)
where
Q - inductor’s reactive power
Waveforms i (t ) , v ( t ) , p (t ) for the inductor are shown in Fig. 9.2.2-2. The average power is equal to
zero since there is no power dissipation.
Fig. 9.2.2-2
Inductor voltage:
p
v L (t ) = X L I p sin(w t + ji +
) (10)
2
We can write this in complex form:
p
i ( +ji )
VRMS = X L I RMS e 2
= iX L I RMS (11)
where
iX L = iw L the inductive reactance in complex form.
Ohm’s Law for inductors in complex form:
VRMS L = iX L × I RMS (12)
Current and voltage vectors on a complex plane are shown in Fig. 9.2.2-3.
Fig. 9.2.2-3
The full impedance Z , resistance R and inductive reactance X L make up a triangle in complex plane,
Fig. 9.2.2-4.
Fig. 9.2.2-4
It is clear that the circuit’s full impedance
Z = R 2 + X L2 (13)
The angle j can be determined as
X
j = arctg L (14)
R
hence
54
R = Zcosj (15)
X L = Zsinj (16)
The angle j is positive, if current lags the voltage, and negative – if voltage lags the current.
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source with a resistor and an inductor
connected in series.
Set various output voltage and frequency of the source and measure the current and voltages: full
voltage, voltage across the resistor and voltage across the inductor. Based on the obtained data
calculate the full impedance, full, active and reactive power, and phase shift between the voltage and
current.
Save and analyze the scope patterns and vector diagrams of current and all voltages.
Preparations
3. Double click on the AC circuit with resistor and inductor connected in series line in the list of
labs. Circuit schematic will be displayed, with component and device fields positioned
appropriately (Fig. 9.2.2-5).
the resistance and inductance values in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
instructor (Table9.2.2-1).
5. Enter the values of used resistance and inductance into the corresponding value fields in the lab
Front Panel work area.
When working with Scope and Vector Diagrams windows, make sure to use signal
synchronization with a respective source (see section 8.1 Controls common for all windows,
subsection Trigger source and trigger level selection).
Fig. 9.2.2-5
Table9.2.2-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6
f [kHz] 2 4 2 3 4 4
~E [V] 3 to 10
L [mH] 0.47 1 10
R [Ω] 100
55
Equations
1. Phase shift between the voltage and current vectors: j = j v - j i
2. Active power dissipated in the circuit: P = V RM S I RM S cos j .
V
3. Circuit’s full impedance: Z exp = RMS or Z set = R 2 + X L2 .
I RMS
Z set - Z exp
4. Measurement error: % Error = ×100% .
Z set
assignment version (Table9.2.2-1) and click Record.
4. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1, V2 and current A1 (see 8.3
Scope window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in the Trigger level field
set 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Obtain a screenshot and save it.
5. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up for monitoring the voltages V1, V2 and current
A1 (see 8.4 Vector diagrams window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, set the
Trigger level field to 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Obtain a screenshot and save
it. Based on voltage and current phase data calculate the angle between the voltage and
current vectors. The amplitudes and phases of the vectors ( A, j ) are shown next to the
corresponding field on the Vector diagrams panel. Verify that the angle between voltage vector
p
(V2) across the inductor and current (A1) is equal to approximately .
2
6. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , Z , X L , P and measurement error for Z , and fill
in the Table 9.2.2-2.
7. Repeat the measurements and calculations (steps 3-6) for all assignment versions.
Table 9.2.2-2
N f R L ~E V1 V2 A1 j v - ji Z(exp.) XL(set) Z(set) %Error cos P
[kHz] [Ω] [mH] [V] [V] [V] [mA] degrees [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [%] - [W]
1
2
3
Report
15
56
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (1kHz, 10V) is applied to an RL-circuit. What is the full impedance if the current
is 25mA?
a) 10 Ω b) 250 Ω c) 400 Ω
V
2. What is the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit if R=100 Ω?
a) 0.25 b) 0.4 c) 0.75
57
9.2.3 AC circuit with resistor and capacitor connected in series
Lab Objectives
Study of the main properties and operation modes of an AC circuit with series connected resistor and
capacitor. Experimental determination of circuit components parameters, study of their influence on
the circuit operation.
Presence of a capacitive element in a circuit results in a phase shift between the voltage and current.
Because of this phase shift all the values are vectors and the expressions obtained on the basis of
Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Law can only be applied in vector form. Consider the circuit in Fig. 9.2.3-1.
Fig. 9.2.3-1
The capacitance is characterized by the dependence of the charge q on voltage:
q
C= (1)
V
Instantaneous voltage on the capacitance:
1
vc ( t ) = ò i( t )dt (2)
C
If the capacitor current is defined as:
ic (t ) = I p sin(wt + j i ) (3)
where ji is the initial phase.
p
The voltage across the capacitor will lag the current by :
2
Ip p p p
vc ( t ) = sin(w t + ji - ) = I p X c sin(w t + ji - ) = V p sin(w t + ji - ) (4)
wC 2 2 2
where V p = I p X c - similar to Ohm’s Law for capacitors.
The common expression for AC voltage is
v (t ) = Vp sin (wt + jv ) (5)
where
1
Vp = Ip (6)
wC
p
j v = ji - (7)
2
In terms of RMS values the expression (7) will look as follows:
1
VRMS = I RMS (8)
wC
1
- is called capacitive reactance and is denoted X C (the SI unit of reactance is Ω).
wC
Capacitive reactance depends on the frequency f of the AC source.
1 1
XС = - =- (9)
wC 2p fC
58
The instantaneous value of power:
p ( t ) = v ( t ) × i( t ) = -VRMS I RMS sin(2w t + ji ) = -Q sin(2w t + ji ) (10)
where
Q - reactive power across the capacitor
Waveforms i (t ) , v ( t ) , p (t ) for the capacitor are shown in Fig. 9.2.3-2. The average power is equal to
zero since there is no power dissipation.
Fig. 9.2.3-2
Capacitor voltage
p
vC (t ) = - X C I p sin(wt + ji - ) (11)
2
We can write this in complex form:
p
i ( - +j i )
VRMS = - X C I RMS e 2
= iX C I RMS (12)
where
1
iX C = -i - the capacitive reactance in complex form.
wC
Ohm’s Law for capacitors in complex form:
VRMS C = -iX C × I RMS (13)
Current and voltage vectors on a complex plane are shown in Fig. 9.2.3-3.
Fig. 9.2.3-3
Full impedance Z , resistance R and capacitive reactance X C make up a triangle in the complex
plane, Fig. 9.2.3-4.
Fig. 9.2.3-4
It is clear that the circuit’s full impedance
Z = R 2 + X C2 (14)
The angle j can be determined as
59
æX ö
j = arctg ç C ÷ (15)
è R ø
hence,
R = Z cos j (16)
X C = - Zsinj (17)
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source with a resistor and a capacitor
connected in series.
voltage, voltage across the resistor and voltage across the capacitor. Based on the obtained data
calculate the full impedance, full, active and reactive power, and phase shift between current and
input voltage. Save and analyze the scope patterns and vector diagrams of current and all voltages.
Preparations
3. Double click on the AC circuit with resistor and capacitor connected in series line in the list of
labs. Circuit schematic will be displayed, with component and device fields positioned
Fig. 9.2.3-5
the resistance and capacitance values, in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
5. Enter the values of the used resistance and capacitance into the corresponding value fields in
the lab Front Panel work area.
with a respective source (see section 8.1 Controls common for all windows, subsection Trigger
source and trigger level selection).
Table 9.2.3-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
f [kHz] 5 2 to 3
~E [V] 5 to 10
C [uF] 0.1 1
R [Ω] 100 200 300 100 200 300 400
60
Equations
2. Active power dissipated in the circuit: P = V RM S I RM S cos j .
V
3. Circuit’s full impedance: Z exp = RMS or Z set = R 2 + X C2
I RMS
Z - Z exp
Z set
Scope window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in the Trigger level field
set 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Obtain a screenshot and save it.
5. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1, V2 and current A1
(see 8.4 Vector diagrams window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in the
next to the corresponding field on the Vector diagrams panel. Verify that the angle between
p
the voltage (V2) vector across the capacitor and current (A1) is equal to approximately - .
2
6. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , Z , X C , P and measurement error for Z , and fill
in the Table 9.2.3-2.
Table 9.2.3-2
N Setting Measured value Calculated value
f R C E V1 V2 A1 j v - j i Z(exp.) XC(set) ZC(set) %Error (Z) cos P
[kHz] [Ω] [uF] [V] [V] [V] [mA] [degrees] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [%] - [W]
1
2
3
Report
16
61
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (1kHz, 10V) is applied to an RC-circuit. What is the full impedance if the current
is 40mA?
a) 10 Ω b) 250 Ω c) 400 Ω
V
2. What is the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit if R=100 Ω?
a) 0.25 b) 0.4 c) 0.75
62
9.2.4 AC circuit with resistor, inductor and capacitor connected in series
Lab Objectives
Study of the main properties and operation modes of an AC circuit with series connected resistor,
inductor and a capacitor. Experimental determination of the parameters of circuit elements
connected, study of their influence onto the circuit’s operation.
Presence of inductive and capacitive elements in a circuit results in a phase shift between the voltage
and current. Because of this phase shift all the values are vectors and the expressions obtained on the
basis of Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Law can only be applied in vector form. Consider the circuit in Fig.
9.2.4-1.
Fig. 9.2.4-1
1
As we have shown in previous labs, the reactances of circuit elements: X L = w L , X C = - .
wC
Hence circuit’s full impedance
Z = R2 + ( X L + X C )
2
(1)
Phase shift angle
X L + XC
j = arctg ( ) (2)
R
In accordance with Ohm’s Law
V
I RMS = RMS (3)
Z
In accordance with Kirchhoff’s Law in vector form:
VRMS = VRMSR + VRMSL + VRMSC (4)
VRMSR = I RMS R, j vR = ji (5)
p
VRMSL = I RMS X L , j vL = ji + (6)
2
p
VRMSC = - I RMS X C , j vC = ji - (7)
2
For the circuit in Fig. 9.2.4-1 we can write KVL as follows:
¶i ( t ) 1
v ( t ) = v R ( t ) + v L ( t ) + vc ( t ) = i ( t ) × R + L + ò i ( t )¶t (8)
¶t C
For sinusoidal current:
i (t ) = I p sin(wt ) (9)
We can derive from (8):
p 1 p
v (t ) = I p R sin(w t ) + Lw I p sin(w t + )+ I p × sin(w t - ) = V p sin(w t ± j ) (10)
2 w ×C 2
or in complex form:
VRMS = I RMS R + I RMS iX L + I RMS iX C = I RMS ( R + i ( X L + X C )) = I RMS Z (11)
63
where
Z = R + i ( X L + X C ) = Z e ij - circuit’s complex impedance
Z = R 2 + ( X L + X C ) 2 - absolute value of the complex impedance
X L + XC
j = ar ctg - phase of the complex impedance
R
The impedances R, X L , X C , Z form a triangle on the complex plane, Fig. 9.2.4-2.
Fig. 9.2.4-2
If we multiply the impedances by I RMS , we can obtain the voltage diagram shown in Fig. 9.2.4-3.
Fig. 9.2.4-3
Introduction of complex impedance allows us to write Ohm’s Law in complex form:
VRMS = I RMS Z (12)
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source and a resistor, inductor and
capacitor, connected in series.
Set various output voltage and frequency of the source and measure the current and voltages: input
voltage, voltage across the resistor, across the capacitor, and across the inductor.
Based on the obtained data calculate the full impedance, full, active and reactive power, and phase
shift between input voltage and current.
Preparations
3. Double click on the AC circuit with resistor, inductor and capacitor connected in series line in the
list of labs. Circuit schematic will be displayed, with component and device fields positioned
64
Fig. 9.2.4-4
the resistance, inductance and capacitance values in accordance with the lab version assigned
by the instructor (Table 9.2.4-1).
5. Enter the values of used resistance, inductance and capacitance into corresponding value fields
in the lab Front Panel work area.
When working with Scope and Vector Diagrams windows, make sure to use signal synchronization with
a respective source (see section 8.1 Controls common for all windows, subsection Trigger source and
trigger level selection).
Table 9.2.4-1
N 1 2 3 4 5
f [kHz] 2 4 2 3 4
~E [V] 10
R [Ω] 100 200 100 200 300
L [mH] 10 1
C [uF] 0.1 1
Equations
2. Active power dissipated in the circuit: P = V RMS I RMS cos j
3. Circuit’s inductive reactance: X L = w L = 2p fL
1 1
4. Circuit’s capacitive reactance: X C = - =-
wC 2p fC
V
5. Circuit’s full impedance: Z exp = RMS or Z set = R2 + ( X L + X C )2
I RMS
Z - Z exp
Z set
4. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltages V1, V2, V3 and the current A1,
(see 8.3 Scope window). Obtain a screenshot and save it.
17
65
5. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltages V1, V2, V3 and current
A1, (see 8.4 Vector diagrams window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in
the Trigger level field set 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Obtain a screenshot and
next to vector definition fields on the Vector diagrams panel. Verify that the angle between the
p
voltage vector (V2) across the inductor and current (A1) is approximately and the angle
2
p
between the voltage vector across the capacitor (V3) and current (A1) is approximately - , i.e.
2
the voltage on the capacitance and on the inductance are opposite in phase.
6. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , X L , X C , Z , P and measurement error for Z ,
and fill in the Table 9.2.4-2.
Table 9.2.4-2
N Setting Measured value Calculated value
f R L C ~E V1 A1 j v - j i Z(exp.) XC(set) XL(set) Z(set) %Error (Z) cosj P
[kHz] [Ω] [mH] [uF] [V] [V] [mA] degrees [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [%] - [W]
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (1kHz, 10V) is applied to an RLC-circuit. What is the full impedance, if the current
is 20mA?
a) 10 Ω b) 200 Ω c) 500 Ω
V
2. What is the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit if XL = 500 Ω and XC = 200 Ω?
a) 0.2 b) 0.4 c) 0.8
66
9.2.5 Series connection of capacitors
Lab Objectives
Experimental verification of the equivalent capacitance calculation for series connection of capacitors.
In this lab we shall study a circuit with two capacitors connected in series, Fig. 9.2.5-1.
Fig. 9.2.5-1
The capacitive reactance
1 1
XC = - =- (1)
wC 2p fC
The reactances are added for series connected elements. For the circuit in Fig. 9.2.5-1:
1 1 C + C2
X C12 = X C1 + X C2 = - - =- 1 (2)
w × C1 w × C2 w × C1 × C2
From (1) and (2) we can derive:
1 1 1 C ×C
= + or C12 = 1 2 (3)
C12 C1 C2 C1 + C2
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source with a current limiting resistor R
and two capacitors C1 and C2 connected in series.
circuit voltage and voltages across each capacitor.
Based on the obtained data calculate the equivalent capacitance, the equivalent reactance of two
capacitors connected in series, and the phase shift between the voltage and current.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Series connection of capacitors line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
67
Fig. 9.2.5-2
the resistance and capacitance values in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
5. Enter the values of used resistance and capacitance into corresponding value fields in the lab
Table 9.2.5-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
f [kHz] 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
~E [V] 5 to 10
C1 [uF] 1 0.1 0.1
C2 [uF] 1 1 0.1
R [Ω] 100
Equations
VRMS
2. The equivalent reactance of two capacitors connected in series: X C12 (exp) = - or
I RMS
X C12 ( set ) = X C1 + X C 2 .
1 1
3. The equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in series: C12 = - =-
w X C12 2p fX C12
C1C2
or C12 = .
C1 + C2
X C12 set - X C12 exp
X C12 set
3. Click on the MS Excel button to open the file with table to be filled.
68
5. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1, V2, V3 and current A1 (see 8.3
Scope window). Obtain a screenshot and save it.
6. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1, V2, V3 and current
A1 (see 8.4 Vector diagrams window). In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1, and in
p
voltage vector (V1) across the capacitors and current (A1) is approximately - .
2
7. Based on the obtained data calculate cos j , X C12 , 12 and measurement error for X C12 , and fill
C
into the Table 9.2.5-2.
9. Save the Excel file with filled calculation results.
Table 9.2.5-2
XC12 C12 XC12
N f R C1 C2 ~E V1 V2 V3 A1 j v - j i %Error (XC12) cos
(exp.) (set) (set)
[kHz] [Ω] [uF] [uF] [V] [V] [V] [V] [mA] degrees [Ω] [uF] [Ω] [%] -
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (1kHz, 10V) is applied to a circuit with resistance R=100 Ω and two series
capacitors C1=C2=1uF. What is the current in the circuit?
a) 30 mA b) 70 mA c) 200 mA
V
2. After shortening one of the capacitors the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit:
a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change
18
69
9.2.6 Parallel connection of capacitors
Lab Objectives
Experimental verification of the equivalent capacitance calculation for parallel connection of
capacitors.
In this lab we shall study a circuit with two capacitors connected in parallel, Fig. 9.2.6-1.
Fig. 9.2.6-1
The capacitive reactance
1 1
XC = - =- (1)
wC 2p fC
The reactances X C1 and X C2 are connected in parallel, hence the equivalent reactance
æ 1 ö æ 1 ö
ç- ÷×ç- ÷
X C1 X C2 è wC1 ø è wC2 ø 1
X C12 = = =- (2)
X C1 + X C2 1 1 w (C1 + C2 )
- -
wC1 wC2
From (1) and (2) it is clear that for parallel connection of two capacitors the equivalent capacitance
C12 = C1 + C 2 (3)
and two capacitors C1 and C2 connected in parallel.
Set various output voltage and frequency of the source and measure the total current of the circuit,
the currents in each branch and overall voltage across the capacitors. Based on the obtained data
calculate the equivalent capacitance and reactance of two capacitors connected in parallel, and the
phase shift angle between the current in the circuit and the voltage across the capacitors.
Save and analyze the scope patterns and vector diagrams for currents and voltages.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Parallel connection of capacitors line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
70
Fig. 9.2.6-2
the resistance and capacitance values in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
instructor (Table9.2.6-1).
5. Enter the values of used resistance and capacitance into the corresponding value fields in the
Table9.2.6-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
f [kHz] 1 2 3 4 1 2 1 2 3
~E [V] 3 to 10
C1 [uF] 1 1 0.1
C2 [uF] 1 0.1 0.1
R [Ω] 100
Equations
VRMS
2. The equivalent reactance of two capacitors connected in parallel: X C12 (exp) = - or
I RMS
X C1 X C2
X C12 ( set ) = .
X C1 + X C2
1 1
3. The equivalent capacitance of two capacitors connected in parallel: C12 = - =- or
wXC 2p fX C
C12 = C 1 + C 2 .
X C12 set - X C12 exp
X C12 set
71
assignment version (Table9.2.6-1) and click Record.
5. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and current A1, A2, A3 (see 8.3
6. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and currents A1, A2,
next to vector definition fields on the Vector diagrams panel. Verify that the angle between
p
voltage vector (V1) across the capacitors and circuit current (A1) is equal to approximately - .
2
7. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , X C12 , C12 and measurement error for X C12 , and fill
Table 9.2.6-2
XC12 C12 XC12 %Error
N f R C1 C2 ~E V1 A1 A2 A3 jv - ji cos
(exp.) (set) (set) (XC12)
[kHz] [Ω] [uF] [uF] [V] [V] [mA] [mA] [mA] degrees [Ω] [uF] [Ω] [%] -
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (1kHz, 10V) is applied to a circuit with resistance R=100 Ω and two parallel
capacitors C1=C2=1uF. What is the current in the circuit?
a) 78 mA b) 26 mA c) 195 mA
V
2. If we disconnect one of the capacitors, the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit:
19
72
9.2.7 Series connection of inductors
Lab Objectives
Experimental verification of the equivalent inductance calculation for series connection of inductors.
In this lab we shall study a circuit with two inductors connected in series, Fig. 9.2.7-1.
Fig. 9.2.7-1
The inductive reactance:
X L = 2p fL = w L (1)
The relation between the voltage and current in inductors is described by the following equation:
æ pö
vL (t ) = w LI p sin ç wt + ÷ (2)
è 2ø
v L (t ) = v L (t ) + v L (t ) = w × L1 × i (t ) + w × L2 × i(t ) = w × i (t ) × ( L1 + L2 )
1 2
(3)
L12 = L1 + L2 (4)
We can derive from (1) and (4) that
X L12 = w ( L1 + L2 ) = w L1 + w L2 = X L1 + X L2 (5)

and two inductors L1 and L2 connected in series.
Set various output voltage and frequency of the source, and measure the current and voltages: full
circuit voltage and voltages across each inductor. Based on the obtained data calculate the equivalent
inductance and reactance of two inductors connected in series, and the phase shift angle between the
voltage and current.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Series connection of inductors line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be
73
Fig. 9.2.7-2
Table 9.2.7-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f [kHz] 2 4 6 8 14 16 18 20
~E [V] 10
L1 [mH] 10 1 1 1
L2 [mH] 10 10 1 0.47
R [Ω] 20 10
Equations
VRMS
2. The equivalent reactance of two inductors connected in series: X L12 exp = or
I RMS
X L12 set = X L1 + X L2
3. The equivalent inductance of two inductors connected in series: L12 exp = X L = X L or

w 2p f
L12 set = L1 + L2
X L12 set - X L12 exp
X L12 set
6. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1, V2, V3 and current
20
This is the resistor value on the board. The value that is entered into the field R(Ohm) on the lab Front Panel, and used in
calculations, you should also account for the inductor coil resistances (27Ω for 10 mH, 3Ω for 1 mH, 2Ω for 0.47 mH).
21
74
p
voltage vector (V1) across the inductors and current (A1) is equal to approximately .
2
7. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , X L12 , L12 and measurement error for X L12 , and
fill into the Table 9.2.7-2
Table 9.2.7-2
X L12 XL12 %Error
N f R L1 L2 ~E V1 V2 V3 A1 j v - j i L12 cos
(exp.) (set) (set) (XL12)
[kHz] [Ω] [mH] [mH] [V] [V] [V] [V] [mA] degrees [Ω] [mH] [Ω] [%] -
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (10kHz, 10V) is applied to a circuit with resistance R=100 Ω and two series
inductors L1=L2=1mH. What is the current in the circuit?
a) 122 mA b) 92 mA c) 62 mA
V
2. If we shorten one of the inductors, the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit:
75
9.2.8 Parallel connection of inductors
Lab Objectives
Experimental verification of the equivalent inductance calculation for parallel connection of inductors.
In this lab we shall study a circuit with two inductors connected in parallel, Fig. 9.2.8-1.
A
i R
A A
E ~ V
L1 L2
Fig. 9.2.8-1
The relation between the voltage and current in inductors is described by the following equation:
p
vL (t ) = w LI p sin(wt + ) (1)
2
In accordance with Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
v v 1 1 vL v
iL12 (t ) = iL1 (t ) + iL2 (t ) = L + L = v L ( + )= = L (2)
X L1 X L2 w L1 w L2 LL w L12
w 1 2
L1 + L 2
It is clear from (2) that
LL
L12 = 1 2 (3)
L1 + L2
X L12 X L12
and, since X L = 2p fL = w L , L12 = =
w 2p f
X L1 X L2
X L12 = (4)
X L1 + X L2

and two inductors L1 and L2 connected in parallel.
Set various output voltage and frequency of the source and measure the full circuit current, the
current in branches, and the voltage across the inductors.
Based on the obtained data calculate the equivalent inductance, the equivalent reactance of two
inductors connected in parallel, and the phase shift angle between the voltage and current.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Parallel connection of inductors line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
76
Fig. 9.2.8-2
Table 9.2.8-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f [kHz] 6 7 8 9 10 16 17 18
~E [V] 3 to 10
L1 [mH] 10 1 1
L2 [mH] 10 10 1
R [Ω] 100
Equations
VRMS
2. The equivalent reactance of two inductors connected in parallel: X L12 exp = or
I RMS
X L1 X L2
X L12 set = .
X L1 + X L2
3. The equivalent inductance of two inductors connected in parallel: L12 exp = X L = X L or

w 2p f
L1L2
L12 set = .
L1 + L2
X L12 set - X L12 exp
X L12 set
77
5. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and current A1, A2, A3 (see 8.3
6. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and current A1, A2,
p
voltage vector (V1) across the inductors and current (A1) is equal to approximately .
2
7. Based on the obtained data calculate cosj , X L12 , L12 and measurement error X L12 , and fill
9. Save the Excel file with filled results.
Table 9.2.8-2
XL12 L12 XL12 %Error
N f R L1 L2 ~E V1 A1 A2 A3 j v - j i cos
(exp.) (set) (set) (XL12)
[kHz] [Ω] [mH] [mH] [V] [V] [mA] [mA] [mA] degrees [Ω] [mH] [Ω] [%] -
1
2
3
Report
Test Questions
1. An AC voltage (10kHz, 10V) is applied to a circuit with resistance R=100 Ω and two parallel
inductors L1=L2=1mH. What is the current in the circuit?
a) 35 mA b) 95 mA c) 155 mA
V V V
2. If one of the inductors is disconnected, the power factor ( cosj ) of the above circuit:
V V
22
78
9.2.9 Resonance in series RLC circuits
Lab Objectives
Study of resonance in AC circuits with a resistor, inductor, and capacitor connected in series.
The complex impedance Z of a circuit consisting of a resistor R , inductor L , and capacitor C
connected in series is equal to
1 æ 1 ö
Z = R + iw L + = R + i çw L + ÷ = R + i ( X L + XC ) , (1)
iwC è wC ø
or
Z = R + iX , (2)
where
R - circuit resistance
1
X = wL - - circuit reactance
wC
This same expression can be written in complex form:
Z = ze ij , (3)
where
z = R2 + X 2
æ 1 ö
ç w L -
j = arctg ç wC ÷ - the phase difference between the voltage and current
÷
ç R ÷
è ø
A resonance in an electrical circuit is a mode of its operation when the inductive and capacitive
reactances cancel each out at some given frequency (the phase shift angle between voltage and
current j = 0 , and X = 0 ) and circuit impedance is purely resistive.
Fig. 9.2.9-1
Series resonance occurs in a series RLC circuit (Fig. 9.2.9-1) when circuit reactance is equal to zero:
X r = X L( r ) + X C (r ) = 0 (4)
or
1
wr L = (5)
wr C
wr is called the resonance frequency:
1
wr = (6)
LC
or
w 1
fr = r = (7)
2p 2p LC
79
Since circuit reactance is equal to zero, if the input voltage V is constant, the maximum current in the
circuit will be equal to
V V
Ir = = (8)
R 2 + ( X L( r ) + X C ( r ) )2 R
As it was noted earlier, the inductive and capacitive reactances are equal during resonance:
1
Z0 = wr L = .
wr C
Z0 is called the characteristic impedance or surge impedance:
L L
Z0 = X L( r ) = wL( r ) L = = (9)
LC C
The SI unit of characteristic impedance is Ω.
If the value of Z 0 exceeds the value of resistance R in the circuit, the voltage across the reactive
elements will exceed the input voltage of the circuit.
I
The ratio of the voltage across the inductor ( I rwr L ) or capacitor ( r ) to the voltage across the
wr C
resistance ( I r R ) during resonance is called the quality factor or Q factor of resonant circuit:
IwL wL Z
Q= r r = r = 0 (10)
Ir R R R
The Q factor indicates the extent to which the voltage across reactive elements will be higher than the
input voltage.
Let us consider the frequency response of a series resonant circuit. Resistance is independent on
frequency, whereas reactance
1 L
X = wL - = (w 2 - wr2 ) (11)
wC w
The frequency response function I = f (w ) and phase response function j = f (w ) of the current in
a series circuit is shown in Fig. 9.2.9-2.
Fig. 9.2.9-2
Vector diagrams of voltages across the circuit elements are shown in Fig. 9.2.9-3: before resonance (a),
during resonance (b) and after resonance (c). During resonance the voltage vectors across the
inductive and capacitive elements, VL and VC , are higher than the input voltage V .
80
Fig. 9.2.9-3
Note that the reactance nature changes during the resonance: when w < wr , the reactance takes up
capacitive nature ( X < 0 , j < 0 ), and when w > wr the reactance takes up inductive nature ( X > 0 ,
j > 0 ). During resonance j = 0 and the circuit has purely resistive nature.
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source and a resistor, inductor, and
capacitor connected in series.
For a given voltage setting, change the frequency while measuring the circuit current, full voltage on
the circuit and voltages across the resistor, inductor, and capacitor. Based on the obtained data
determine the resonance frequency and current.
Save and analyze the scope patterns and vector diagrams of current and all voltages. Plot the
frequency response graph of the circuit.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Resonance in series RLC circuits line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
Fig. 9.2.9-4
the resistance, inductance and capacitance values on the board in accordance with the lab
version assigned by the instructor (Table9.2.9-1).
5. Enter the values of used resistance, inductance, and capacitance into the corresponding value
fields in the lab Front Panel work area.
81
Table9.2.9-1
~E [V] 4 3 6
R [Ω] 10 to 50
L [mH] 10 1 1 0.47
C [uF] 0.1 0.022 0.01 1 0.1 1
Equations
1. Phase shift between the voltage and current vectors: j = j v - j i .
1 1
2. Angular and ordinary resonance frequencies: wr = , fr =
LC 2p LC
1
3. Inductive and capacitive reactances during series resonance: X L ( r ) = - X C ( r ) = w r L = .
w rC
V
4. Circuit impedance (exp.): Z exp = .
I
5. Inductor reactance (set.): X L = w L .
1
6. Capacitor reactance (set.): X C = - .
wC
7. Circuit impedance (set.): Z set = R2 + ( X L + X C )2 .
V V
8. Current during series resonance: I r = = .
R + ( X L( r ) + X C ( r ) )
2 2 R
Z set - Z exp
9. Measurement error: % Error = × 100% .
Z set
Set the source voltage23 (Voltage field) in accordance with your assignment version
(Table9.2.9-1).
5. Increase the frequency from 2kHz to 18kHz, clicking Record after each step. Use smaller step
when close to the resonance frequency, in order to catch the point of resonance.
6. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltages V1, V2, V3 and current A1 (see
8.3 Scope window), then save 3 images: for frequencies below resonance, during resonance,
and higher than resonance.
7. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltages V1, V2, V3 and current
A1 (see 8.4 Vector diagrams window), then save 3 images: for frequencies below resonance,
during resonance, and higher than resonance. In the Trigger signal field select Trigger from V1,
and in the Trigger level field set 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Based on the
voltage and current phase data calculate the angle between the voltage and current vectors in
the circuit during the resonance. The amplitudes and phases of the vectors ( A, j ) are shown
voltage (V3) and current (A1) is close to zero during resonance.
23
82
Table 9.2.9-2
Z XC XL Z
N f R L C ~E V1 V2 V3 A1 j v - j i %Error (Z) cos fr Ir Q
(exp.) (set24) (set24) (set24)
[kHz] [Ω] [mH] [uF] [V] [V] [V] [V] [mA] [degrees] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [%] - [Hz] [mA] -
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
8. Based on the obtained data plot the frequency response graph for the circuit current (Table
9.2.9-2).
9. In accordance with the used values of resistance, inductance, and capacitance calculate the re-
sonance frequency f r , and the circuit current. Compare the calculated values of Resonance
frequency with the experimentally obtained results and enter them into the Table 9.2.9-2.
10. Repeat the measurements and calculations (steps 4-9) for all assignment versions. Based on the
obtained data calculate fr , Ir , Q , X L , X C , Z , cos j , and measurement error for Z , and fill
in the Calculations column in Table 9.2.9-2.
Report
Test Questions
1. With the increase of capacitance, the resonance frequency of a series circuit:
V
2. With the increase of inductance the resonance current of a series circuit:
24
Denotes a parameter which must be selected on the board
83
9.2.10 Parallel resonance in AC circuits
Lab Objectives
Study of resonance in AC circuits with a resistor, inductor, and capacitor connected in parallel.
In parallel connection case it is convenient to use inverse parameters to the impedance: total
admittance is equal to the sum of conductances and susceptances of the parallel elements. The
admittance of a circuit including a resistor R , inductor L , and capacitor C in parallel (Fig. 9.2.10-1):
Y = G - iB = ye - ij , (1)
where
y = G 2 + ( BL + BC ) 2 - the absolute value of complex conductance,
Y - admittance,
B - susceptance,
1
G = - conductance of the resistive element,
R
1
BL = - susceptance of the inductive element,
iw L
BC = -iwC - susceptance of the capacitive element,
æ B + BC ö
j = arctg ç L ÷ - phase shift angle between voltage and current.
è G ø
Parallel resonance occurs in a parallel RLC circuit (Fig. 9.2.10-1) when the inductive and capacitive
susceptances cancel each out at some given frequency (the phase shift angle between voltage and
current j = 0 ) and circuit admittance is purely resistive:
1
B = BL + BC = - w rC = 0
wr L
Similarly to series resonance, the resonance frequency wr is determined as follows:
1
wr = (2)
LC
or
w 1
fr = = (3)
2p 2p LC
C
g = is called characteristic admittance of the circuit without losses. The ratio of conductance G
L
to characteristic admittance is called fractional bandwidth:
G 1
Fb = = (4)
g C
R
L
The fractional bandwidth shows the extent to which the current in reactive elements exceeds the total
current of the circuit:
GV GV I GV I
Fb = = = R = = R (5)
C wr CV IC 1 IL
V V
L wr L
where
V - the voltage applied to the parallel branches (Fig. 9.2.10-1)
I R = GV is the current through the resistor during parallel resonance.
84
The inverse value to fractional bandwidth is called Quality factor or Q - factor:
C
Q=R (6)
L
Fig. 9.2.10-1
The frequency response graph of the current I = f (w ) and the phase response graph j = f (w ) of a
parallel circuit are shown in Fig. 9.2.10-2.
Fig. 9.2.10-2
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source and a resistor, inductor, and
capacitor connected in parallel.
For a given voltage setting, change the frequency while measuring the circuit current, currents and
voltages across circuit elements. Based on the obtained data determine the resonance frequency and
voltage. Save and analyze the scope patterns and vector diagrams for all currents and voltages. Plot
the frequency response graph of the circuit.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Parallel resonance in AC circuits line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
4. Assemble the circuit on the board in accordance with the schematic diagram in Fig. 9.2.10-3.
Use the resistance, inductance and capacitance values on the board in accordance with the lab
version assigned by the instructor (Table 9.2.10-1).
5. Enter the values of used resistance, inductance, and capacitance into the corresponding value
85
Fig. 9.2.10-3
Table 9.2.10-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6
~E [V] 8 4
R [Ω] 20 10
L [mH] 10 1 0.47
C [uF] 0.022 0.1 1 1 0.1 1
Equations
1. Measured phase shift between current vectors in the inductor and capacitor: j iLC = j A1 - j A 2 .
1 1
2. Angular and ordinary resonance frequencies: wr = and f r = .
LC 2p LC
1
3. Susceptances during resonance: BL ( r ) = - BC ( r ) = = wrC .
wr L
4. Current through the resistor during parallel resonance: I R = GV .
V
5. Circuit full impedance (exp.): Z exp = .
I
1
6. Inductive susceptance (set.): BL = .
wL
7. Capacitive susceptance (set.): BC = -wC .
8. Circuit full susceptance (set.): B = R 2 + ( BL + BC )2 .
1
9. Circuit full impedance (set.): Z set = .
R + ( BL + BC )2 2
Z - Z exp
10. Measurement error: % Error = set × 100% .
Z set
Set the voltage25 of ~E (Voltage field) in accordance with your assignment version (Table
9.2.10-1). Set the starting frequency 2kHz (Frequency field) and click Record.
25
86
Table 9.2.10-2
Z XC XL Z
N f R L C ~E V1 A1 A2 A3 j A1 - j A 2 26 26 26 %Error (Z) cosj fr Ir Q
(exp.) (set ) (set ) (set )
[kHz] [Ω] [mH] [uF] [V] [V] [mA] [mA] [mA] [degrees] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [%] - [Hz] [mA] -
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
26
Denotes a parameter which must be selected on the board
5. Increase the frequency (in 2kHz steps) from 2kHz to 20kHz, clicking Record after each step. Use
smaller step when close to the resonance frequency, in order to catch the point of resonance.
6. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and currents A1, A2, A3 (see
8.3 Scope window), then save 3 images: for frequencies below resonance, during resonance,
and higher than resonance.
7. Open the Vector diagrams window and set it up to monitor the voltage V1 and currents A1, A2,
the Trigger level field set 0 (see 8.1 Controls common for all windows). Save 3 images: for
frequencies below resonance, during resonance, and higher than resonance. Based on the
voltage and current phase data calculate the angle between the voltage and current vectors in
the circuit during the resonance. The amplitudes and phases of the vectors ( A, j ) are shown
current vectors in the inductor (A1) and capacitor (A2) is close to 1800 during resonance.
8. Based on the obtained data plot the frequency response graph for the circuit current (Table
9.2.10-2).
9. calculate the resonance frequency f r , and the current in the circuit in accordance with the
used values of resistance, inductance, and capacitance. Compare the calculated values of
Resonance frequency with the experimentally obtained results and enter them into the Table
9.2.10-2.
10. Repeat the measurements and calculations (steps 4-9) for all assignment versions. Based on the
obtained data calculate fr , Ir , Q , X L , X C , Z , cos j and measurement error for Z , and fill in
the Calculations column in Table 9.2.10-2.
Report
Test Questions
1. If the inductance L is increased, the resonant current in a parallel circuit:
V
2. If the resistance R is increased, the Q-factor in a parallel circuit:
V
9.2.11 Inductively coupled coils
Lab Objectives
Experimental study of a circuit consisting of two inductively coupled coils (additive and subtractive
polarities), testing the main concepts for series connection of inductive coils.
Inductive coupling of coils is provided by fully or partially tying up their magnetic fluxes. Circuits are
inductively coupled if mutual inductance coupling is present.
Fig. 9.2.11-1
An example of inductively coupled circuit is shown in Fig. 9.2.11-1:
L1 and L2 are the inductances of primary and secondary windings, respectively
R1 and R2 are the resistances of primary and secondary windings, respectively
M is the mutual inductance factor
The dots on the inductors’ symbol denote the start of winding. Direction of flux generated by the coil
depends on the current direction respective to winding start and end.
Coupling is called additive (or common-mode) if the directions of their self- and mutual induction
fluxes coincide, resulting in an increase of the overall magnetic flux due to mutual induction. In
subtractive coupling, in the contrary, the current directions in the coils are such that the magnetic
fluxes partially or fully cancel each other.
For two inductively coupled coils, their fluxes penetrate each other. The ratio of their penetration is
determined by coupling factor k M :
XM M
kM = = (1)
X L1 X L2 L1 L2
where
X L1 and X L2 – inductive reactances of the first and second coil, respectively
X M - mutual inductive reactance of the coils
L1 and L2 – self inductances of the first and second coil, respectively
M - proportional factor, called mutual inductance
In real life we can usually neglect the resistance of the coils ( R1 << X L1 , R2 << X L2 ), and the inductive
coupling can be determined as the ratio of the open-circuit mutual inductance EMF of the second coil
E 2 M = V2 idle to the first coil voltage V1idle (Fig. 9.2.11-2a):
E V M
k M 1 » 2 M = 2idle = (2)
V1 V1 L1
If the supply voltage is connected to the second coil (Fig. 9.2.11-2b):
E V M
kM 2 » 1M = 1idle = (3)
V2 V2 L2
The coupling factor k M :
kM = kM 1kM 2 (4)
89
Mutual inductance:
V V
M = 2 idle or M = 1idle (5)
w I1 wI2
where w = 2p f - angular frequency
a) b)
c) d)
Fig. 9.2.11-2
For approximate determination of transformer’s parameters (winding inductive reactances and
inductances), assume that R1 » 0 and R2 » 0 . First assemble the circuit shown in Fig. 9.2.11-2a,
connecting the supply voltage to the primary winding L1 , then assemble the circuit in Fig. 9.2.11-2b,
applying the supply to the secondary winding L2 . Based on the voltmeter and ammeter readings,
determine the inductive reactances and self-inductances of the windings and phase shift angles:
V X V X
X L1 » 1 ; L1 » L1 ; X L2 » 2 ; L2 » L 2
I1 w I2 w
XL XL
j1 = arctg ( 1 ) ; j 2 = arctg ( 2 ) .
R1 R2
In order to determine the mutual inductance M of real windings ( R1 , L1 and R2 , L2 ), connect the
transformer windings in series with the ideal voltage source V . First connect the windings in additive
connection (Fig. 9.2.11-2c), then in subtractive (Fig. 9.2.11-2d).
Input impedance of the circuit in complex form, for additive and subtractive connections:
Z = ( R1 + iX L1 ) + ( R2 + iX L1 ) ± iX M (6)
V
where Z = and iX M = iw M .
I
If the resistances R1 and R2 of windings are known, input inductive reactance X ' (for additive
connection) and X '' (for subtractive connection) respectively:
V
X ' = ( Z ') 2 - ( R1 + R2 ) 2 = sin j ' (7)
Ia
V
X '' = (Z '')2 - ( R1 + R2 )2 = sin j '' (8)
Is
V V
where Z ' = and Z '' = are the absolute values of the input impedances of the circuit for additive
Ia Is
and subtractive connections, respectively.
90
If the resistances R1 and R2 of the windings are unknown, we need to determine the phase shift angle
j in order to find the input inductive reactance. The phase shift angle between voltage and current is
determined by connecting a scope to the circuit input. The phase shift angle can also be determined
using a wattmeter:
P
j = arccos (9)
VI
where P is the measured power.
For additive connection: X ' = Z 'sin j ' = w L ' = w ( L1 + L2 + 2 M )
For subtractive connection: X '' = Z ''sin j '' = w L '' = w ( L1 + L2 - 2M ) .
Determine DX = X '- X '' , then calculate mutual inductance:
DX
M= (10)
4w
Fig. 9.2.11-3
Voltage triangles for the circuits in Fig. 9.2.11-2c (additive connection) and Fig. 9.2.11-2d (subtractive
connection) are represented by vector diagrams shown in Fig. 9.2.11-3a, b.
Since the input impedance absolute value Z ' > Z '' , the current for the additive connection I a is less
than the subtractive connection current I s .
In this lab we shall study two inductively coupled coils, determine the coupling factor and coil
inductances.
A circuit consisting of two coils connected in series (additive and subtractive connections) will be
studied. Determine the overall inductance for both cases.
Determining the self-inductances and coupling factor: Apply a fixed frequency AC voltage to one of the
coils leaving the second coil unconnected. Measure the input voltage and current, and the voltage
across the open ends of the second coil. Then apply the voltage to the second coil and repeat the
measurements. Calculate the self-inductances of the coils and the coupling factor, then enter the
results into the Table 9.2.11-2.
Determining the mutual-inductance: Assemble the series circuit with additive connection, apply AC
voltage and measure the current, the voltage across the coils and power factor cosj . Then assemble
the series circuit with subtractive connection and repeat the measurements. Enter the obtained data
into the Table 9.2.11-2, determine the mutual inductance of the coil and overall inductance of the
series circuit for both connection options.
Preparations
91
3. Double click on the Inductively Coupled Coils line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be
Fig. 9.2.11-4
Fig. 9.2.11-5
Fig. 9.2.11-6
Fig. 9.2.11-7
92
Table 9.2.11-1
N 1 2 3 4
f [kHz] 3 to 4
R1 [Ω] 10 to 90
R2 [Ω] 100 to 900
~E [V] 4
Equations
V
1. Coil inductive reactance: X L =
I
X
2. Coil inductance: L =
2p f
V V
3. Coupling factors: k M 1 = 2 idle , k M 2 = 1idle , kM = kM 1kM 2
V1 V2
4. Circuit input impedance absolute value for additive ( Z ' ) and subtractive ( Z '' ) connections:
V V
Z'= and Z '' = .
Ia Is
V
5. Inductive reactance for additive ( X ' ) and subtractive ( X '' ) connections: X ' = sin j ' ,
Ia
V
X '' = sin j '' .
Is
DX DX
6. Mutual inductance: M = =
4w 8p f
save it. Also save the angular values of the voltage and current vectors.
7. Click Next on the work field and reconnect the circuit in accordance with the new diagram. Now
the voltage is applied to L2 whereas L1 stays unconnected.
9. Repeat the steps 4-6 above.
10. Based on the obtained data calculate the self-inductances, coupling factor and mutual
inductance of the coils. Fill in the Table 9.2.11-2.
27
93
11. Click Next on the work field and reconnect the circuit in accordance with the new diagram. L1
and L2 are now connected into an additive circuit.
13. Repeat steps 4-6.
14. Click Next on the work field and reconnect the circuit in accordance with the new diagram. L1
and L2 are now connected into a subtractive circuit.
16. Repeat steps 4-6.
17. Based on the voltage and current phase data for each connection type, determine the angle
between voltage and current vectors in the circuit. The amplitudes and phases ( A , j ) are
shown next to vector definition fields on the Vector diagrams panel. Calculate the values of
X L1 , X L2 , L1 , L2 , K M , M , Z ' , Z '' , X ' , X '' . Fill the obtained data into the Table 9.2.11-2.
18. Based on the obtained data calculate the mutual inductance of the coils and circuit inductances
for both connection types. Fill the obtained results into the Table 9.2.11-2.
Table 9.2.11-2
f R1 R2 ~E V1 V2 V3 A1 jv - ji XL1 XL2 L1 L2 KM M Z' Z'' X' X'' M
N.
[kHz [m
[Ω] [Ω] [V] [V] [V] [V][mA] degrees [Ω] [Ω][mH] [mH] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω] [Ω][mH]
] - H]
1. Voltage applied to L1
2. Voltage applied to L2
3. Additive polarity
4. Subtractive polarity
Report
Test Questions
1. If an additional inductance is connected in series to the coil, the equivalent inductance of the
circuit:
a) will increase b) will decrease c) will not change
V
2. What is the coupling factor of two coils if the flux of one coil fully penetrates the other without
loss?
a) 0.5 b) 1 c) 2
94
9.2.12 Single phase transformer
Lab Objectives
Experimental study of a single-phase transformer in no load and short circuit modes, plotting the
external characteristic.
A Transformer is an electromagnetic device which converts AC power to AC power of the same
frequency, with same or different voltage, with or without galvanic isolation.
Transformers are widely used for transmission and distribution of the electric power, for various
technological purposes, for the supply of power to electronic circuits, communication devices,
automation, etc.
Depending on functionality, there are different types of transformers: step-down, step-up, isolating,
impedance matching, output transformers, etc.
A transformer may contain one (autotransformer) or several isolated windings (coils) with common
magnetic flux (the windings are usually wound over a ferromagnetic core). Industrial transformers can
be designed for use in a single phase or three phase networks.
When a power transformer’s primary winding A - X is connected to AC source (Fig. 9.2.12-1), the
primary current i1 flowing through the winding w1 excites in the core a sinusoidal magnetic flux F :
F = F m sin wt (1)
where
F m - flux magnitude,
w = 2p f - angular frequency of the supply voltage v1 .
Fig. 9.2.12-1
Penetrating through the primary (turns count w1 ) and secondary (turns count w2 ) windings, the flux
F induces the electromotive forces e1 and e2 , respectively:
dФ
e1 = - w1 (2)
dt
dФ
e2 = - w2 (3)
dt
or their effective values:
E1 = 4.44 fw1Фm (4)
E2 = 4.44 fw2Фm (5)
The voltage v 2 of the secondary winding is supplied to consumer Z L .
95
The no-load current28 I 0 is the primary current when load is disconnected ( Z L = ¥ ). The no-load
current is expressed as a percentage of transformer’s rated primary current I 1r . No-load current I 0
(%) is usually 2 to 5% of rated current for high power transformers, or 10 to 20% for low-power
I
transformers. I 0 (%) = 0 100% .
I1r
The ratio of the EMFs of the primary and secondary windings is equal to the ratio of the turns count for
corresponding windings, and is called transformer Turns ratio:
E w
n= 1 = 1 (6)
E2 w2
Turns ratio n and the parameters of the equivalent circuit (Fig. 9.2.12-2), as well as power losses in the
transformer can be determined by taking measurements in no-load and short circuit modes.
Fig. 9.2.12-2
In the equivalent circuit above:
R1 , X 1 - the resistance and Leakage inductance of the primary winding
R2' = n 2 R2 , X 2' = n 2 X 2 - the resistance and Leakage inductance of the secondary winding, reduced
by the number of turns
R0 - core (iron) loss resistance
X 0 - magnetization reactance
R0 and X 0 are collectively called the magnetizing branch
Z r' = n 2 Z r - load resistance reduced to the number of the primary winding turns
V1 , I1 - primary winding voltage and current, respectively
I
E 2' = nE2 , V2' = nV2 , I 2' = 2 - secondary winding EMF, voltage and current, reduced to the
n
number of the primary winding turns.
The experiment in no-load mode
Rated voltage is applied to the primary winding, the secondary stays unconnected (Fig. 9.2.12-3, a –
the equivalent circuit, b – vector diagram). Primary voltage equation in vector form:
V1r = - E1 + Z1 I 0 (7)
where
E1 - the EMF of the primary winding
I 0 - no-load current
Z1 = R1 + iX 1 - full impedance of the primary winding.
Since the secondary circuit is open ( I 2 = 0 , Fig. 9.2.12-2), the voltage across its terminals: V2 = V20 = E2
28
Hereinafter, the index “1” denotes parameters of the primary, and index “2” – of the secondary winding. The index “0”
denotes transformer parameters in idling mode.
96
Fig. 9.2.12-3
Fig. 9.2.12-3 shows the primary circuit in no-load mode, when Z1 is neglected. Measure the voltage V20 ,
current I 0 and active power P0 , neglect the primary voltage Z1 I 0 (which is very small compared with
E1 ) , use the simplified equivalent circuit for idling (Fig. 9.2.12-3, a and b), and determine the following
parameters:
E V
n = 1 » 1r - turns ratio
E2 V20
V P
Z 0 = 1r , R0 = 02 , X 0 = Z 02 - R02 - magnetizing branch parameters of the equivalent circuit
I0 I0
P0 = Pnl - power losses in no-load mode, called core losses P0 . These losses are mainly due to core
heating from eddy currents and cyclic magnetization.
The full, active and reactive power in no-load mode, respectively: S 0 = V10 I 0 , P0 = S 0 cos j 0 ,
Q 0 = S 0 sin j 0 .
The experiment in short circuit mode

During the experiment, some small voltage V1 = Vsc ( Vsc is 8 to 20 times lower than the rated voltage
V1r ) is applied to the primary winding, depending on transformer type and power. This voltage is
chosen such that the primary and secondary currents are close to rated values (Fig. 9.2.12-4, a – the
equivalent circuit, b – vector diagram). This short circuit mode is different from the dangerous short
circuiting when V1 = V1r .
S
I1 r = r (8)
V1r
S
I 2 r = r » nI1r (9)
V2 r
where
S r - transformer’s rated power (in VA or kVA)
Since the magnetic flux F is small (it is proportional to short circuit voltage Vsc ), the core losses are
also small (proportional to square of flux F 2 ). Therefore the active power consumed from the mains is
essentially spent to heating the windings, i.e. is equal to electric losses (called copper losses, Pc ):
Psc » Pc = R1 I12r + R2 I 22r » ( R1 + R2' ) I12r = Rsc I12r (10)
where Rsc = R1 + R2' - is the aggregate equivalent resistance of the primary and secondary windings in
short circuit mode.
97
Fig. 9.2.12-4
Fig. 9.2.12-4 shows the transformer’s equivalent circuit in short circuit mode. Since the current I 0 of the
magnetizing branch (Fig. 9.2.12-2) is significantly smaller compared with I1 and I 2 , in this equivalent
circuit we can combine the primary and secondary windings in a common circuit with current
I1r = I 2' r = I1sc .
Measure the voltage Vsc , current I 1r and active power Psc , then determine the parameters of the
equivalent circuit in short circuit mode:
V P Q
Z sc = sc , Rsc = sc2 , X sc = Z sc2 - Rsc2 = 2sc
I1 r I1 r I sc
where
Z sc = Rsc2 + X sc2 , Rsc = R1 + R2' , X sc = X 1 + X 2' - transformer’s full impedance, resistance and
inductive reactance in short circuit mode, respectively
V
DVsc (%) = sc ×100% - short circuit voltage (Fig. 9.2.12-4, b), as a percentage of rated voltage
V1r
Pc = Psc = I12sc Rsc - power losses in short circuit mode (copper losses).
Transformer’s power balance is expressed by the following expressions:
P1 = P2 + Pc + P0 (11)
P2 = I 2 rV2 r cos j 2 r (12)
where
P0 = I 0V10 cos j0
Pc = I1scV1sc cosjsc = I12sc Rsc
P0
cos j 0 =
I 0V10
P
cos j sc = c
I1scVsc
The full, active and reactive power in short circuit mode: S sc = V sc I 1 sc , Psc = S sc cos j sc , Q sc = S sc sin j sc
Transformer efficiency:
P I 2 rV2 r cos j 2 r
Eff . = 2 = (13)
P1 I 2 rV2 r cos j 2 r + Pc + P0
Determining the characteristic
Rated voltage is applied to the primary winding and adjustable load – to the secondary. While varying
the load resistance, secondary voltage and current are measured.
The dependence of voltage across the secondary winding terminals on load current V2 = f ( I 2 ) is
called transformer’s external characteristic (Fig. 9.2.12-5).
Secondary voltage (Fig. 9.2.12-5) is equal to:
V2 = E 2 - Z 2 I 2 = E 2 - ( R2 + iX 2 ) I 2 » V20 - Z 2 I 2 (14)
98
When the load current increases, the secondary voltage sags due to the increase of voltage drop Z 2 I 2 on
the secondary winding and as a result of reduction of E2 (due to reduction of magnetic flux F when the
current I1 increases). However, for mixed resistive-capacitive load, when the current increases, the
voltage V2 will increase too.
Fig. 9.2.12-5
The lab for the study of the single phase transformer is comprised of three parts:
- the experiment in idling mode
- the experiment in short circuit mode
- determination of the external characteristic for three types of load: resistive, inductive,
capacitive.
Parameters of the equivalent circuit will be determined based on the open- and short circuit
experiments. Dependence of the transformer’s output voltage on load type will be determined based
on the external characteristic.
During the idling experiment apply AC voltage with rated magnitude and frequency from power source
~E to the primary winding of the transformer, the secondary winding must be unconnected. Measure
the current and voltage of the primary winding and voltage across the secondary winding.
During the short circuit experiment apply AC voltage with rated frequency from power source ~E to
the primary winding of the transformer, the secondary winding must be shorted. The magnitude of the
applied voltage is selected in such a way that the secondary current will be equal to its rated current.
Measure the current and voltage of the primary winding, and current of the secondary winding.
During the experiment the voltage with rated magnitude and frequency is applied to the primary
winding. A resistive element is connected to the secondary winding. Its value will be changed in several
steps during the experiment, from maximal value to the minimum. When measuring the currents the
voltage applied to the primary winding will change due to the voltage drop across the internal
impedance of the source. Therefore, to improve the accuracy, it is necessary to adjust the voltage of
the primary winding at each step, before taking the measurements.
Measure and record the secondary current and voltage at each step. Repeat the measurements for
several values of the capacitive and inductive loads. Based on the obtained data plot the I-V
characteristics for the resistive, inductive, and capacitive loads.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Single phase transformer line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will be
99
Fig. 9.2.12-6
Fig. 9.2.12-7
Fig. 9.2.12-8
Fig. 9.2.12-9
Fig. 9.2.12-10
100
with a respective source (see section 8.1 Controls common for all windows, subsection Trigger source
and trigger level selection).
Table 9.2.12-1
V1 rated [V] 3.00
V2 rated [V] 0.7
I1 rated [mA] 4.2
I2 rated [mA] 16.8
f rated [kHz] 10
R (load) [Ω] 20 to 100
L (load) [mH] 0.47
C (load) [uF] 1
Equations
V1r
1. Turns ratio: n =
V20
2. Full, active, and reactive power in no load mode: S 0 = V10 I 0 , P0 = S 0 cos j 0 , Q 0 = S 0 sin j 0
P Q
3. Core (iron) loss resistance and magnetization reactance: R0 = 02 , X 0 = 20
I0 I10
4. Full, active, and reactive power in short circuit mode: S sc = V sc I 1 sc , Psc = S sc cos j sc ,
Q sc = S sc sin j sc
Psc
5. Resistance of the primary and secondary windings: Rsc = R1 + R2' = ,
I sc2
Qsc
6. Short circuit reactance: X sc = X 1 + X 2¢ = .
I sc2
Set the voltage29 (Voltage field) and frequency f rated (Frequency field) of ~E so that the
voltmeter V1 reading (voltage applied to transformer’s primary winding) is equal to V1rated (in
accordance with Table 9.2.12-1) and click Record.
save it.
6. Turn the Voltage knob to reduce the source voltage to zero.
7. Click Next on the work field and reassemble the circuit on the board in accordance with the
new circuit diagram. In this case the secondary winding will be shorted.
29
101
9. Turn the Voltage knob to gradually increase the source voltage until the secondary current
would reach the rated value (in accordance with Table 9.2.12-1), then click Record.
10. Enter the results obtained during the open- and short circuit experiments into the Table
9.2.12-2, calculate transformer’s parameters and fill in the remaining fields.
11. Turn the Voltage knob to reduce the source voltage to zero.
12. Click Next on the work field and reassemble the circuit on the board in accordance with the
new circuit diagram. In this case an adjustable resistance (x10 Ω) will be connected to the
secondary winding of the transformer.
14. Set the voltage29 (Voltage field) and frequency f rated (Frequency field) of ~E so that the
voltmeter V2 reading (voltage applied to transformer’s secondary winding) is equal to V2 rated (in
accordance with Table 9.2.12-1).
15. Disconnect one of the resistor’s terminals from the circuit and click Record to register the
measured results for no-load case.
16. Reconnect the resistor terminal and turn the x10 Ω knob on the board up to the maximum
value. Then start gradually decreasing the resistance to increase the secondary current from
zero to approximately 1.25I2r (4-5 steps). Click Record at each step.
Attention! Each time before clicking Record, adjust the ~E knob while checking the voltmeter
V1, making sure that the applied voltage is equal to primary winding rated voltage.
17. When finished, click Next. The screen should look like it is shown in Fig. 9.2.12-9.
18. Replace the resistor in the transformer’s secondary circuit with an inductor (Inductors zone on
the board), in accordance with Table 9.2.12-1.
19. Click Start/Stop
20. Set the rated voltage29 V2 rated (Voltage field) and frequency f rated (Frequency field) using the
data from Table 9.2.12-1.
21. Click New session, then Record.
22. When finished, click Next. The screen should look like it is shown in Fig. 9.2.12-10.
23. Replace the inductor in the secondary circuit of the transformer with a capacitor (Capacitors
zone on the board), in accordance with Table 9.2.12-1.
25. Set the rated voltage29 V2 rated (Voltage field) and frequency f rated (Frequency field) using the
data from Table 9.2.12-1.
26. Click New session, then click Record.
27. Based on the obtained data calculate the Turns ratio (n), full, active, reactive power in no load
and short circuit modes (S, P, Q), resistance and inductive reactance of the primary circuit, full
resistance of the primary and secondary windings and short circuit reactance. Fill the obtained
results into the Table 9.2.12-2.
102
Table 9.2.12-2
R
N. V1 A1 f V1 V2 A1 A2 j - j n cos S P Q R X
(load) v i
[Ω] [V] [mA] [kHz] [V] [V] [mA] [mA] [degrees] - - [VA] [W] [VAR] [Ω] [Ω]
1. No load
2. Short circuit
3. Resistive load 1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
4. Inductive load
5. Capacitive load
Report
Test Questions
1. Which factors affect a transformer’s turns ratio?
b) voltage in short circuit
a) losses in no load mode c) windings turns ratio
mode
V
2. If we neglect the stray flux, which of the transformer’s parameters can be determined by the no
load mode experiment?
a) full inductive reactance of b) resistance of the secondary c) mutual inductive reac-

primary and secondary winding tance of primary and
windings secondary windings
103
9.3 Transient response in series circuits with resistive, capacitive and
inductive elements
9.3.1 Series RC circuit transient response
Lab Objectives
The experimental study of transient processes in a circuit containing a series connected resistance and
a capacitor. Plotting the graphs i (t ) and v (t ) .
A transient process is the circuit response to switching from one state of equilibrium to another. A
transient is caused by commutation, i.e. when the circuit is connected to or disconnected from an
external power supply, or an abrupt change of circuit parameters.
First Law of Commutation
Inductor current immediately before commutation iL (0- ) is equal to the current during commutation
and to the inductive current immediately after commutation iL (0+ ) , since the inductor current cannot
change instantaneously:
iL (0 - ) = iL (0) = iL (0 + ) (1)
Second Law of Commutation
Capacitor voltage immediately before commutation vC (0 - ) is equal to the voltage during
commutation and to capacitor voltage immediately after commutation vC (0 + ) , since the capacitor
voltage cannot change instantaneously:
VC (0 - ) = VC (0) = VC (0 + ) (2)
Circuit’s transient response may take place due to the energy that was already stored in reactive
elements L and C , or due to external power applied to the circuit. Transient response due to the
energy stored in the reactive elements L and C is called natural or free oscillation response; the
mode of circuit’s operation that establishes after the transient is called steady state. In the general
case the voltages and currents in the circuit in transient mode are expressed as the sum of steady-state
and free components:
v = vss + vnat (3)
i = iss + inat (4)
where
v nat , inat - natural response of voltage and current, respectively
v ss , iss - the steady state components of voltage and current
Fig. 9.3.1-1
Transient response in linear circuits of first order is described by exponential equations. When a square
T
wave signal with duty factor 0.5 and period T ( >> t ) is applied to an RC-network, the
2
104
instantaneous values of voltage vC and current iC across the capacitor are described by the following
equations:
T
when the input voltage rises from 0 to V at the time 0 £ t £
2
t
dV (t ) -
iC (t ) = C C = I 0e t (5)
dt
t
-
vC (t ) = V (1 - e t ) (6)
t
-
v R (t ) = Ve t
(7)
T
when the input voltage drops from V to 0 at the time t ³ ,
2
T T
dVC ( + t ) -2
+t
iC (t ) = 2 = - I 0e t
(8)
dt
T
+t
-2
vC (t ) = Ve t
(9)
T
+t
-2
v R (t ) = -Ve t
(10)
where
V - the input voltage applied to the RC network
V
I 0 = - the current at time t = 0
R
V T
I T / 2 = - the current at time t =
R 2
t = RC - time constant
T
t = 0; ;... - commutation time
2
v,vC
1 v
V
vC
V
t
0
iC τ 2τ 3τ T/2 T/2+τ T/2+2τ T/2+3τ T
1
iC
IT/2
Fig. 9.3.1-2
vC ( t ) i (t )
Normalized voltage and current C graphs during the voltage rise and following drop are
V IT / 2
v( t )
shown in Fig. 9.3.1-2. The bold line on the graph is the normalized input voltage .
V
105
The response of voltage or current in the circuit is characterized by the time constant t - the time
period during which, in the case of input voltage drop from the maximum to zero, the natural
component will decrease e times (e =2.71828…) compared with the initial value or, in the case of input
voltage rise from zero to maximum, will reach 1 - 1 / e » 0.632 of the maximum value.
Transient duration is usually considered in the 3 to 4 t range. After this time period the remaining
share of natural component is equal to a fraction of the initial value.
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source with a resistor and a capacitor
connected in series. The AC voltage has a square shape with a period 3-4 times longer than the circuit’s
time constant.
Plot and save the graphs of the circuit current (A1) and capacitor voltage (V3) for various source
voltage, resistance and capacitance values. Based on the obtained experimental results determine the
time constant of the natural component of voltage and current and compare with calculated values.
To obtain the time constant from the scope record:
- determine the steady state value of the studied parameter (by the end of transient:
Yss = Yend - Ystart )
- click on the cross hair icon ( ) of the Graph plotter instrument and drag the horizontal cursor
vertically to the position matching Ystart + 0.63Yss on the Y axis. Then drag the vertical cursor to
the crossing point of the horizontal cursor and the transient curve.
- the time constant will be equal to the length of the segment between the transient start and
the crossing of transient graph with the cursor line.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Series RC circuit transient response line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
the resistance and capacitance values, in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
5. Enter the values of used resistance and capacitance into the corresponding value fields in the
Fig. 9.3.1-3
106
Table 9.3.1-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
f [kHz] 0.4
~E [V] 5
C [uF] 0.022 0.044
R [Ω] 2000 2300 2600 2900 2000 2300 2600 2900
Equations
1. Time constant: t = RC
2. Transient time: t » 3t
t
-
3. Voltage transient: vC (t ) = V (1 - e ) t
t
-
4. Current transient: iC (t ) = I 0 e t
3. Based on the used values of R and C, calculate the time constant t .
4. For the signal source ~E check the Show controls field and select Square in the Signal type field.
Set the voltage30 (Voltage field) and frequency (Frequency field) of ~E in accordance with the
lab version assigned by the instructor (Table 9.3.1-1).
6. For best results, disconnect the voltmeter V1 from the circuit, then right click in the scope
traces area, and from the drop-down menu choose Freeze->ON.
7. On the frozen image, using the method described in The Experimental Procedure section
above, determine the time constant for the voltage (V3). Obtain a screenshot and save it.
8. Use the expressions (5, 6) and values of the experiment (V, R, C) to calculate the voltage and
current of the transient for time values corresponding to the time values in column t in
Measured value section in Table 9.3.1-2.
9. Click on the MS Excel button to open Excel table then fill the obtained results into the
Calculated value section.
10. Compare the calculated and experimentally obtained results.
Table 9.3.1-2
N f R C ~E t V3 A1 t VC IC τ
[Hz] [Ω] [uF] [V] [τ] [V] [mA] [us] [V] [mA] [us]
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
30
107
Report
Test Questions
1. What will be the ratio of capacitor voltage in t seconds after transient start to steady state
voltage?
a) 0.34 b) 0.63 c) 1.1
V
2. If the capacitance is increased, the transient time:
108
9.3.2 Series RL circuit transient response
Lab Objectives
The experimental study of transient processes in a circuit containing a series connected resistance and
an inductor. Plotting the graphs i (t ) and v (t ) .
First Law of Commutation
Inductor current immediately before commutation iL (0- ) is equal to the current during commutation
and to the inductive current immediately after commutation iL (0+ ) , since the inductor current cannot
change instantaneously:
iL (0 - ) = iL (0) = iL (0 + ) (1)
Second Law of Commutation
Capacitor voltage immediately before commutation vC (0 - ) is equal to the voltage during
commutation and to capacitor voltage immediately after commutation vC (0 + ) , since the capacitor
voltage cannot change instantaneously:
VC (0 - ) = VC (0) = VC (0 + ) (2)
Circuit’s transient response may take place due to the energy that was already stored in reactive
elements L and C , or due to external power applied to the circuit. Transient response due to the
energy stored in the reactive elements L and C is called natural or free oscillation response; the
mode of circuit’s operation that establishes after the transient is called steady state. In the general
case the voltages and currents in the circuit in transient mode are expressed as the sum of steady-state
and free components:
v = vss + vnat (3)
i = iss + inat (4)
Fig. 9.3.2-1
Transient response in first order linear circuits is described by exponential equations. When a square
T
wave signal with duty factor 0.5 and period T ( >> t ) is applied to an RL-network, the
2
instantaneous values of voltage v L and current iL across the inductor are described by the following
equations
T
- when the input voltage rises from 0 to V at the time 0 £ t £ :
2
t
-
iL (t ) = I 0 (1 - e ) t
(5)
t
diL (t ) -
v L (t ) = L = Ve t
(6)
dt
109
t
-
v R (t ) = V (1 - e t ) (7)
T
- when the input voltage drops from V to 0 at the time t ³ :
2
T
+t
-2
iL (t ) = I 0e t
(8)
T T
diL ( + t ) - 2
+t
v L (t ) = L 2 = -Ve t (9)
dt
T
+t
- 2
v R (t ) = Ve t
(10)
where
V - the input voltage applied to the RC network
V
I0 = - the current at t = 0
R
L
t = - time constant
R
t = 0 - commutation start time
v (t ) i (t )
Normalized voltage L and current L graphs during the voltage rise and following drop are
V I0
v( t )
shown in Fig. 9.3.2-2. The bold line on the graph is the normalized input voltage .
V
The response of voltage or current in the circuit is characterized by the time constant t - the time
period during which, in the case of input voltage drop from the maximum to zero, the natural
component will decrease e times (e =2.71828…) compared with the initial value or, in the case of input
voltage rise from zero to maximum, will reach 1 - 1 / e » 0.632 of the maximum value.
Transient duration is usually considered in the (3 to 4) t range. After this time period the remaining
share of natural component is equal to a fraction of the initial value.
Fig. 9.3.2-2
By comparing the current and voltage transients ( iL and v L ) in RL -network (Fig. 9.3.2-2) with current
and voltage transients ( iC and v C ) in RC -networks (Fig. 9.3.1-2), it is clear that the curves iL and vC
are identical to that of v L and iC , since the transient values change by the same laws.
It is clear from the graphs that the current in RL -network is gradually rising to the steady state
current. The larger the time constant t , the slower the rise rate.
110
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source with a resistor and an inductor
connected in series. The AC voltage has a square shape with a period 2-3 times longer than the circuit’s
time constant.
Plot and save the graphs of the circuit current (A1) and inductor voltage (V2) for various source
voltage, resistance and inductance values.
Based on the obtained experimental results determine the time constant of the natural component of
voltage and current and compare with calculated values.
To obtain the time constant from the scope record:
- determine the steady state value of the studied parameter (by the end of transient:
Yss = Yend - Ystart )
- click on the cross hair icon ( ) of the Graph plotter instrument and drag the horizontal cursor
vertically to the position matching Ystart + 0.63Yss on the Y axis. Then drag the vertical cursor to
the crossing point of the horizontal cursor and the transient curve.
- the time constant will be equal to the length of the segment between the transient start and
the crossing of transient graph with the cursor line.
Preparations
3. Double click on the Series RL circuit transient response line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic will
the resistance values and inductors, in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
Fig. 9.3.2-3
Table 9.3.2-1
N 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
f [kHz] 2
~E [V] 5
L [mH] 10 20
R [Ω] 1000 1300 1600 1900 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
111
Equations
L
1. Time constant: t =
R
2. Transient time: t » 3t
t
-
3. Voltage transient: v L ( t ) = Ve t
t
-
4. Current transient: iL (t ) = I 0 (1 - e t )
3. Based on the used values of R and L, calculate the time constant t .
4. For the signal source ~E, check the Show controls field and select Square in the Signal type field.
Scope window).
6. Right click in the scope traces area, and from the drop-down menu choose Freeze->ON.
7. On the frozen image, using the method described in The Experimental Procedure section
above, determine the time constant using the voltage V2, which is proportional to current.
Obtain a screenshot and save it.
8. Use the expressions (5, 6) and values of the experiment (V, R, L) to calculate the voltage and
current of the transient for time values corresponding to the time values in column t in
Measured value section in Table 9.3.2-2.
9. Click on the MS Excel button to open Excel table then fill the obtained results into the
Table 9.3.2-2
N f R L ~E t V3 A1 t VL IL τ
[Hz] [Ω] [mH] [V] [τ] [V] [mA] [us] [V] [mA] [us]
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
Report
31
112
Test Questions
1. If the time constant t increases, the transient duration:
V
2. If the inductance decreases, the transient duration:
113
9.3.3 Series RLC circuit transient response
Lab Objectives
The experimental study of transient processes in a circuit containing a series connected resistance,
capacitor, and an inductor. Plotting the i (t ) , v C (t ) and v L (t ) graphs.
A
i R
L V
V
e V
C V
Fig. 9.3.3-1
A circuit with a resistor, inductor and a capacitor connected in series (Fig. 9.3.3-1), can be described
with a second-order differential equation. The solutions of this equation are functions of current and
voltage across the inductor and capacitor vs. time. The nature of these functions depends on the
relationship between the actual values of R , L and C in the circuit.
For an input voltage step the current and the voltage drops on the circuit elements are described by
the following expression:
1 di (t )
R × i ( t ) + ò i ( t ) dt + L =V (1)
C dt
The general solution of this expression is:
i (t ) = A1e p1t + A2 e p2t (2)
where A1 and A2 are determined based on the initial conditions, whereas p1 and p 2 are the roots of
the following characteristic equation:
R 1
p2 + p + =0 (3)
L LC
For our case, there are two possibilities:
L
a) when R > 2 the roots of the characteristic equation p 2 + 2a p + w02 = 0 are real and negative
C
R 1
( p1 and p 2 ) , and are not equal to each other; a = , w02 = .
2L LC
The transient is non-periodic (Fig. 9.3.3-2) and is described by the following equations:
V
i (t ) = (e p1t - e p2t ) (4)
L( p2 - p1 )
di V
v L (t ) = L = ( p1e p1t - p2 e p2t ) (5)
dt p2 - p1
V
vC (t ) = ( p2 e p1t - p1e p2t ) (6)
p2 - p1
114
Fig. 9.3.3-2
L
b) If a < w0 , and R < 2 the roots of the characteristic equation p 2 + 2a p + w02 = 0 are complex
C
conjugate:
p1,2 = -a ± iw f ,
where
R
a= – transient damping factor
2L
w f = w02 - a 2 – free (natural) oscillations angular frequency for a real oscillator
1
w0 = – natural oscillations angular frequency for an ideal oscillator ( R = 0 ).
LC
Transient current is represented by damped oscillations (Fig. 9.3.3-3) described by eq. (7):
V -a t
i (t ) = e sin(w f t ) (7)
wf L
Fig. 9.3.3-3
In this case the transient is oscillatory due to periodical redistribution of the energy between the
magnetic field in the inductor L and the electric field in the capacitor C . The speed of fading depends
1 2L
on the circuit’s time constant t = = and is determined by the damping decrement
a R
I aT V aT
D = m1 = e f or D = Cm1 = e f , where T f is the period of free oscillations, I m1 I m 2 , VCm1 and VCm 2 -
Im2 VCm 2
the amplitudes of the first and second peak of current and voltage oscillations across the capacitor,
respectively. The natural logarithm of D is called logarithmic decrement of damping:
2pa
Θ = lnΔ = a T f = (8)
wf
wherefrom the damping factor
1 I 1 V
a = ln m1 or a = ln Cm1 (9)
Tf I m2 T f VCm 2
115
In this lab we shall study a circuit consisting of an AC voltage source with a resistor, inductor, and a
capacitor connected in series. The AC voltage has a square shape with a period 2-3 times longer than
the circuit’s time constant. Plot and save the graphs of the circuit current (A1) and inductor voltage
(V2) for various source voltage, resistance and capacitance values.
Based on the obtained experimental results determine:
- transient nature
1 I 1 V
- damping factor a = ln m1 or a = ln Cm1
Tf I m2 T f VCm 2
Based on the input values of the experiment calculate:
R
- a=
2L
1
- w0 =
LC
- w f = w02 - a 2
Preparations
3. Double click on the Series RLC Circuit Transient Response line in the list of labs. Circuit schematic
will be displayed, with component and device fields positioned appropriately (Fig. 9.3.3-4).
Fig. 9.3.3-4
the resistance values and inductors, in accordance with the lab version assigned by the
5. Enter the values of used resistance, inductance and capacitance into the corresponding value
Table 9.3.3-1
N 1 2 3
f [kHz] 1.5
~E [V] 8
L [mH] 20 10
C [uF] 0.022 0.022 0.1
32
R [Ω] 100
32
This is the resistor value on the board. The value that is entered into the field R(Ohm) on the lab Front Panel, and used in
calculations, you should also account for the source impedance (50Ω) and the inductor coil resistance (25Ω for 10 mH).
116
Equations
R
1. Damping factor (theoretical): a =
2L
1 I 1 VCm 2
2. Damping factor (experimental): a = ln m1 or a = ln
Tf I m2 T f VCm 2
1
3. Natural frequency (ideal oscillator): w0 =
LC
4. Natural frequency (real oscillator): w f = w02 - a 2
R
3. Based on the used values of R and L, calculate transient damping factor: a = .
2L
4. For the signal source ~E check the Show controls field and select Square in the Signal type field.
5. Open the Scope window and set it up to monitor the voltages V1, V2, V3 and current A1 (see
8.3 Scope window).
6. Right click in the scope traces area, and from the drop-down menu choose Freeze->ON.
7. Obtain a screenshot and save it.
1 VCm1
8. On the frozen image, using the voltage transient curve (V3), calculate a = ln .
T f VCm 2
R
9. Using the values of the components installed on the board (V, R, L, C), calculate a = ,
2L
1
w f = w02 - a 2 , w0 = and enter the obtained results into the Table 9.3.3-2.
LC
10. Click on the MS Excel button to open Excel table, then fill the obtained results into the
Table 9.3.3-2
N f R C L ~E Tf VCm1 VCm2 ω0 ωf α (exp.) α (theor.)
[Hz] [Ω] [uF] [mH] [V] [us] [V] [V] [rad/s]
1
2
Report
33
117
Test Questions
1. Will the transient have oscillatory or non-periodical nature if R=100 Ω, L=10mH, C=1uF?
c) depends on the voltage
a) non-periodical b) oscillatory
step magnitude
V
2. With the increase of resistance the transient duration:
118
10 SUPPORT
We value your feedback. For any support information, or for troubleshooting please get in touch using
the following contact information:
Integrator LTD
123 Hovsep Emin St, Yerevan 0051, Armenia
Tel. +374 (98) 36-05-04, +374 (10) 21-97-51
Email: support@integrator.am, info@integrator.am
WEB: http://integrator.am
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2.2 Circuit board description

Fig. 2.2-1 Functional zones on the board

Fig. 4.1-1 System architecture

4.2 Test bench hardware

4.3 Additional hardware requirements

4.4 Software requirements

5.2 Installing the circuit board on the NI ELVIS workstation

Fig. 5.2-1 Installing the board on NI ELVIS

Fig. 5.2-2 System Assembly

6.1 NI software installation

6.2 Lab software installation

7.2 Working with the circuit board

Fig. 7.2-1 Connector leads Fig. 7.2-2 Mating the plugs

7.3 Powering up and preparing for operation

Fig. 7.3-2 Circuit board power switch and

Fig. 7.4-1 Lab software start screen

Fig. 7.4-3 Device selection

The Registration menu element will open the registration window

Fig. 7.5-1 A typical lab software panel

7.5.6 Controlling the adjustable sources

Fig. 8.1-1 Axis control and scaling

Threshold level, at which synchronization mechanism will be

8.2 Graph plotter window

Fig. 8.2-1 Graph plotter window

1. Scope traces area

Fig. 8.3-1 Scope window

1. Vectors display area

Fig. 8.4-1 Vector diagrams window

Fig. 8.4-2 Vector definition

PART II: Study the dependence I = f(R) when V = const

a) R1 > R2 > R3 b) R1 < R2 < R3 c) R1 = R2 = R3

a) V1 > V2 > V3 b) V1 < V2 < V3 c) V1 = V2 = V3

The Experimental Procedure

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

a) -13mA b) 7mA c) -7mA

a) Req=3 Ω b) Req=4 Ω c) Req=6 Ω

N f R ~E V1 A1 jv - ji Z (exp.) Z (set) %Error (Z) cos P

a) 0.25 b) 0.4 c) 0.75

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

The Experimental Procedure

3. The equivalent inductance of two inductors connected in series: L12 exp = X L = X L or

The Experimental Procedure

3. The equivalent inductance of two inductors connected in parallel: L12 exp = X L = X L or

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

The experiment in short circuit mode

a) full inductive reactance of b) resistance of the secondary c) mutual inductive reac-

a) 0.34 b) 0.63 c) 1.1

a) will decrease b) will increase c) will not change

123 Hovsep Emin St, Yerevan 0051, Armenia

Tel. +374 (98) 36-05-04, +374 (10) 21-97-51

Email: support@integrator.am, info@integrator.am

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