Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Utilization of agricultural and forest industry waste and residues in

natural fiber-polymer composites: A review
Taneli Väisänen a,⇑, Antti Haapala b, Reijo Lappalainen a, Laura Tomppo a
a
Department of Applied Physics, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland
b
School of Forestry, Wood Materials Science, University of Eastern Finland, 80101 Joensuu, Finland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Natural fiber-polymer composites (NFPCs) are becoming increasingly utilized in a wide variety of appli-
Received 10 February 2016 cations because they represent an ecological and inexpensive alternative to conventional petroleum-
Revised 11 April 2016 derived materials. On the other hand, considerable amounts of organic waste and residues from the
Accepted 27 April 2016
industrial and agricultural processes are still underutilized as low-value energy sources. Organic materi-
Available online xxxx
als are commonly disposed of or subjected to the traditional waste management methods, such as land-
filling, composting or anaerobic digestion. The use of organic waste and residue materials in NFPCs
Keywords:
represents an ecologically friendly and a substantially higher value alternative. This is a comprehensive
Natural fiber-polymer composites
Biocomposites
review examining how organic waste and residues could be utilized in the future as reinforcements or
Agricultural waste additives for NFPCs from the perspective of the recently reported work in this field.
Forest industry Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Biochar
Sustainable development

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2. Natural fiber-polymer composites (NFPCs). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.1. Polymer matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.2. Natural fiber reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.3. Modification of natural fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.4. Properties of NFPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.4.1. Mechanical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.4.2. Water absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
2.4.3. Thermal properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3. Organic waste and residues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.1. Overview and traditional methods for waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.2. New approaches for waste management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
3.3. Organic waste and residues in NFPCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
4. Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 00

1. Introduction bio-based materials in a wide variety of applications (Ashori and

Nourbakhsh, 2010; Al-Oqla et al., 2015; Teuber et al., 2015). Fur-
The growing awareness of environmental issues and resource thermore, stringent legislative policies have forced many indus-
scarcity explains the increasing interest surrounding the use of tries to seek new materials from renewable sources to take place
of the traditional materials derived from non-renewable resources
⇑ Corresponding author. (Holbery and Houston, 2006; He et al., 2013).
E-mail address: taneli.vaisanen@uef.fi (T. Väisänen).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.04.037
0956-053X/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Please cite this article in press as: Väisänen, T., et al. Utilization of agricultural and forest industry waste and residues in natural fiber-polymer composites:
A review. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.04.037
2 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
At the level of policy generation, the principles embedded in the
circular economy are now emphasized in process and product
design. This has introduced several visionary concepts i.e. the bioe-
conomy, the bio-based society and the green economy that are
now redirecting the strategic planning of many industrial compa-
nies (McCormick and Kautto, 2013). Due to the pressure of more
stringent legislation and increased taxes throughout Europe, the
policy of simply dumping industrial waste in landfills will not be
the prevalent method for waste management. Today, wastes are
either incinerated, or even better, some other higher value use is
sought (Monte et al., 2009; Mendes et al., 2012; Alonso et al.,
2011). For this reason, it is important to devise different applica-
tions for previous waste materials, while taking into account the
environmental and economic factors of these waste treatments.
During the recent decades, there have been major developments
in the properties of biocomposites meaning that these products are
already interesting alternatives for conventional materials in a
number of end uses. The ever-increasing market demand and pro-
duction volumes of natural fiber based composites (Carus et al.,
2015) means that not only should there be political incentives
behind their manufacture but there also has to be a reasonable sup-
ply of feasible raw materials. As many natural fiber sources can be
utilized by the traditional converting industries (clothing, paper,
packaging, etc.) some availability and cost issues with native
high-grade fibers are bound to arise. With crude oil market prices
markedly lower than anticipated only a few years ago (Hass et al.,
2012; U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA), 2013), the
competition with petroleum-based materials requires not only
green values but also a good source of affordable biomass resources.
It is the combination of environmental awareness, financial dri-
vers and global policies that provides the incentives to the recovery
of organic waste components and then to their secondary utiliza-
tion. These aspects are also present in multiple environmental
certification programs, and many companies believe that the
implementation of these programs can lead to an improved com-
pany image as well as generating a competitive advantage
(González-Benito and González-Benito, 2005). However, NFPCs
need to maintain a good market image as high-performance and
ecological materials; i.e. the selection of these raw materials will
not happen if they provide an inferior product performance.
The industrial recovery and reuse of secondary or tertiary fiber
resources will ensure that there is a good supply of the raw mate-
rial as well as promoting the products’ competitiveness and also
the efficiency of their logistics. Suitable raw materials can be
obtained from chemical refining of wood (Weinert et al., 2010),
local forest harvesting (Moriana et al., 2015; Agnantopoulou
et al., 2012; Roy, 2006) and agriculture (Chaudhary et al., 2015;
Chen et al., 2015; Faezipour et al., 2014; Ibrahim and Mahmoud,
2015; Prithivirajan et al., 2015; Reixach et al., 2015). There are cel-
lulose containing residues or side streams (e.g. process rejects con-
sisting of cellulose fibers and fines (Mäkinen et al., 2012; Kotanen
et al., 2014), and pin chips (Smith, 2004; Hart, 2009) i.e. undersized
chips that are produced during chipping) which are not yet being
utilized on an industrial scale. In the future, these local tertiary cel-
lulose resources and the fibers of municipal solid wastes may be
used as biomass feedstocks taking the place of virgin pulp.
From this viewpoint, natural fiber-polymer composites (NFPCs)
possess significant advantages over the conventional materials like
petrochemical derivatives and metals. However, the use of recy-
cled raw materials, especially plastics, in NFPCs can be challenging
since recycled materials may exhibit different performances and
contain many grades, colors and contaminants (Najafi, 2013).
Natural fibers are abundantly available and their specific prop-
erties are comparable to the other fibers used for reinforcement
purposes. Moreover, natural fibers are inexpensive, have a low
density and are typically biodegradable (Ku et al., 2011; Faruk
Please cite this article in press as: Väisänen, T., et al. Utilization of agricultural and forest industry waste and residues in natural fiber-polymer composites:
A review. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.04.037
et al., 2012). It is the increasing demand from the automotive,
building and construction, electrical and electronic industries that
are also driving forward the natural fiber composites market
(Mohammed et al., 2015).
Although natural fibers have many advantages, there are certain
drawbacks that reduce their potential as polymer reinforcements
(Faruk et al., 2012; George et al., 2001). For example, the incompat-
ibility between natural fibers and the polymer matrix or their poor
dispersion may compromise the strength of the resulting compos-
ite. The low water resistance as well as the tendency to form aggre-
gates during processing are also notable disadvantages associated
with natural fibers (Saheb and Jog, 1999).
There are several different ways to overcome the limitations
related to NFPCs. The compatibility between the polymer matrix
and the fiber reinforcement can be improved by incorporating
specific additives, such as coupling agents (George et al., 2001;
Lu et al., 2000; Sobczak et al., 2013). Another approach is to utilize
organic wastes or residues in the composite formulations. For
example, the utilization of biochar in NFPCs is a rather new way
to improve the properties of the composites (Das et al., 2015b,
2015a, 2016b, 2016a; DeVallance et al., 2015; Ayrilmis et al.,
2015; Li et al., 2014). Organic wastes can be converted into biochar,
liquids and non-condensable gases by treating the feedstock at
high temperatures (400–700 °C) through the process of pyrolysis
(Cernansky, 2015; Das et al., 2015c). Biochar can also be used to
combat pollution by binding the heavy metals in soils and liquids,
and by reducing the nitrous oxide emissions because of its bulk
surface area, pore size distribution, particle size distribution, pack-
ing and density (Cernansky, 2015). Biochar consists mainly of car-
bon (60–90%), hydrogen and oxygen (Nachenius et al., 2013). The
physical and chemical properties of biochars vary according to
the processing method and raw materials used in their manufac-
ture, but the pyrolysis temperature is the most important parame-
ter affecting the properties of biochar (Das et al., 2015c).
There are two alternative approaches to the utilization of
organic wastes in NFPCs: organic waste materials can be used
either to reinforce a plastic matrix or they can be included as an
additive to improve the processability or the compatibility
between the main constituents of the composite. Natural and
affordable materials or waste can also be used as an inexpensive
and widely available filler material. There are two clear advantages
of utilizing organic wastes in NFPCs i.e. a reduction of raw material
costs and less need for traditional waste management, especially in
the long term. On the other hand, the properties of the resulting
composite should be competitive with traditional composites,
which means that there is a clear need for further developments
of NFPCs.
According to directive 2008/98/EC, waste means ‘‘any substance
or object which the holder discards or intends or is required to dis-
card”, and by-product is ‘‘a substance or object, resulting from a
production process, the primary aim which is not the production
of that item”. International Energy Agency (IEA) defines vegetal
residues as ‘‘biomass obtained from straw, vegetable husks, ground
nut shells and other wastes arising from the maintenance, crop-
ping and processing of plants”. In this review, the term residue cov-
ers both vegetal residues and by-products for reasons of general
consistency and clarity.
In this survey, recently reported studies concerning the utiliza-
tion of organic wastes and residues in NFPCs are reviewed, and the
most important issues in the development of novel composites are
examined. Recently, the research activity around the NFPCs, and
agricultural and forest industry wastes has been upsurging. This
review summarizes the studies and provides insights to the most
promising innovations in the field. The review focuses on polymer
composites of virgin, non-biodegradable polymers as a matrix,
hence excluding composites with biodegradable polymers.
 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx 3

2. Natural fiber-polymer composites (NFPCs)
NFPCs have two main constituents, the polymer matrix and the
organic reinforcement fiber. In an NFPC, natural fibers serve as a
reinforcement that enhances the strength and stiffness of the
end-composite. The conventional reinforcement fibers, such as
glass, carbon and aramid, can be produced with specific perfor-
mance ranges, whereas the properties of natural fibers vary consid-
erably depending on the origin of the fiber, the age of the plant and
the preconditioning process (Clemons and Caulfield, 2006).
Life cycle assessments conducted by Corbiere-Nicollier et al.
(2001) demonstrated that the use of renewable fibers instead of
glass fibers as a reinforcement in plastics was advantageous from
an ecological point of view. In addition, their study revealed that
the use of biomass in bio-based materials had a much higher sub-
stitution potential than the use of biomass for direct heat produc-
tion or the production of biofuels for transport. In many cases,
NFPCs display also better material performance than glass fiber
reinforced composites (Joshi et al., 2004) and confer other benefits
such as increased ecological (green) status and easier recycling
(Fowler et al., 2006) after the NFPCs’ intended use. Furthermore,
natural fibers have lower health risk when compared with glass
fibers (Huda et al., 2008), which is also an important aspect to con-
sider in the composite manufacturing.
2.1. Polymer matrix
Matrix materials can be classified into thermosets and thermo-
plastics. The most important limiting factor of the matrix material
in an NFPC is the processing temperature, which typically has to be
below 200 °C in order to avoid thermal degradation of the natural
fibers (Lilholt and Lawther, 2000). Thermoplastics have multiple
advantages over thermosets, such as recyclability and remoldabil-
ity, and thus most of the recently reported work has concentrated
on these kinds of polymers e.g. polyethylene (PE), polypropylene
(PP), polystyrene (PS) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Clemons,
2008). Polyurethane (PU), epoxy and polyesters are examples of
thermosets used in NFPCs. Table 1 summarizes the properties of
the most common thermoplastics and thermosets used in NFPCs.
2.2. Natural fiber reinforcement
As will be presented in Table 4, NFPCs have been intensively
studied in the recent decades. A large proportion of that research
has focused on wood-plastic composites (WPCs), but jute, hemp,
sisal and kenaf fiber reinforced NFPCs have also been extensively
studied. Other fiber types include coir, flax, bamboo and fruit
fibers. Recovered secondary fibers e.g. from pulping and paper-
making operations, and deinked or recycled pulp itself, have also
been investigated as a potential and abundant source of natural
fibers for incorporation into composites (Baroulaki et al., 2006;
Beg and Pickering, 2008; Sanadi et al., 1994). Table 2 provides
some basic information about the different fiber types used in
NFPCs.
The chemical compositions of natural fibers vary extensively
between the distinct fiber types, but the most abundant chemical
constituents are typically cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin
(Table 3). Other constituents include extractives, ash, pectin and
waxes.
2.3. Modification of natural fibers
Even though there is wide diversity in the chemical composi-
tions of natural fibers (Table 3), almost all natural organic fibers
have a hydrophilic nature (Clemons and Caulfield, 2006; Rowell
et al., 2000). This is due to the presence of hydroxyl (OH) and car-
boxylic acid (COOH) groups in heteropolysaccharides, such as
hemicelluloses and pectins. Additionally, cellulose is rich in hydro-
xyl groups, but the high linearity and crystallinity of cellulose
microfibrils reduce its hydrophilicity. However, free OH-groups
on the surface of the microfibrils are still susceptible to absorb sig-
nificant amounts of water. Lignin is the third major structural

Table 1
Properties of thermoplastics and thermosets used in NFPCs (Beyler and Hirschler, 2001; Ku et al., 2011; Bogoeva-Gaceva et al., 2007; Holbery and Houston, 2006).

Polymer Thermoplastics Thermosets

PE PP PS PVC PU Epoxy Polyester
3
Density (g/cm ) 0.91–0.96 0.90–0.92 1.04–1.06 1.40 1.20 1.10–1.40 1.04–1.46
Melt temperature (°C) 105–140 160–176 110–135 100–260 – – –
Tensile strength (MPa) 15–78 26–41 25–69 41–52 28–40 35–100 41–90
Elastic modulus (GPa) 0.055–1.5 1.0–1.8 4.0–5.0 2.8 0.025 3.0–6.0 2.1–4.4
Elongation at break (%) 2–800 15–700 1–3 40–80 600–720 1–6 1–3

Table 2
Basic properties of some natural fibers.

Fiber type Annual production (dry metric tons) Density (g/cm3) Tensile strength (MPa) Elastic modulus (GPa) Elongation at break (%) Reference
Softwood 1.4 100–170 10–50 8.0–14.0 [1,2]
1,750,000,000
Hardwood 1.4 90–180 10–70 11.0–13.0 [1,2]
Softwood kraft pulp 26,000,000 1.5 1000 40 4.4 [3–5]
Jute 2,300,000 1.3–1.5 200–770 20–55 2.0–3.0 [1–8]
Sisal 378,000 1.5 100–800 9–22 3.0–7.0 [1–3,5–9]
Kenaf 970,000 1.4–1.5 930 53 1.6 [2–4,6,8]
Coir 100,000 1.2 180 4–6 30.0 [2–6,8]
Flax 830,000 1.5 350–1040 28–70 2.0–4.0 [1–7,9]
Hemp 214,000 1.5 690 30–70 1.5–4.0 [1–6,8]
Bamboo 30,000,000 0.6–1.1 140–230 11–17 4.0–7.0 [2,6,10]
Wheat 720,000,000 0.6–0.8 10–200 1–12 2.7 [11,12]
Rice husk 120,000,000 0.7–1.0 55 22 2.0–5.0 [13–16]

[1] Lilholt and Lawther (2000), [2] Stokke et al. (2014), [3] Holbery and Houston (2006), [4] Ku et al. (2011), [5] Bledzki and Gassan (1999), [6] Faruk et al. (2012), [7] Saheb
and Jog (1999), [8] Zampaloni et al. (2007), [9] George et al. (2001), [10] Yu et al. (2014), [11] Reddy and Yang (2007), [12] Panthapulakkal et al. (2006), [13] Kumar et al.
(2012), [14] Ruseckaite et al. (2007), [15] Facca et al. (2006), [16] Pardo et al. (2015).

Please cite this article in press as: Väisänen, T., et al. Utilization of agricultural and forest industry waste and residues in natural fiber-polymer composites:
A review. Waste Management (2016), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2016.04.037
4 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 3
Chemical composition of some natural fibers.

Fiber type Cellulose (wt%) Hemicellulose (wt%) Lignin (wt%) Extractives (wt%) Ash (wt%) Pectins (wt%) Waxes (wt%) Reference
Softwood 40–45 30 26–34 2–5 0.2–0.8 0–1 0.4–0.5 [1,2]
Hardwood 40–50 23–39 20–30 2–4 0.2–0.4 0–1 0.4–0.5 [1,2]
Softwood kraft pulp 77.5–78.5 19.2–19.4 7–11 0.1–0.5 0 0–0.5 0 [3,4]
Jute 45–63 14–20 12–25 1–2 0.5–2.0 4–10 0.5 [1,5–8]
Sisal 50–64 12 9.9 1–2 1.0 0–1 2.0 [1,2,5,7,9]
Kenaf 45–71 12–22 8–13 3.2 4.7 3–5 0.4–0.8 [1,2,5,6,8,10]
Coir 30 15–25 40–45 2–3 2.7–10.2 3–4 1.0–2.0 [1,5,8,9,11,12]
Flax 65–85 18.6–20.6 1–4 2.3 1.5 5–12 1.5 [1,5–8,13]
Hemp 60–77 15 3–10 3.6 2.6 5–14 0.8 [1,2,5,6,8]
Bamboo 26–43 30 21–31 3–5 1.7–5.0 0–0.2 1.0–2.0 [2,5,13,14]
Wheat 38–41 15–31 12–16 1–3 6.0–8.0 0–1 0.5–1.0 [1,2,5,11,15–17]
Rice husk 25–45 18–33 8–31 2–5 10–20 10–15 14–17 [5,18–22]

[1] Lilholt and Lawther (2000), [2] Rowell et al. (2000), [3] Saarimaa et al. (2007), [4] Spence et al. (2010), [5] Faruk et al. (2012), [6] Bogoeva-Gaceva et al. (2007), [7] Bledzki
and Gassan (1999), [8] Liu et al. (2012), [9] Espert et al. (2004), [10] Reddy and Yang (2007), [11] Reddy and Yang (2005), [12] Narendar and Priya Dasan (2012), [13] Fu et al.
(2012), [14] Scurlock et al. (2000), [15] Panthapulakkal et al. (2006), [16] Volynets and Dahman (2011), [17] Sun and Sun (2001), [18] Ruseckaite et al. (2007), [19] Gerardi
et al. (1998), [20] Chabannes et al. (2014), [21] Sayed et al. (1992), [22] El-Saied et al. (2012).

organic polymer of lignocellulosic materials. Unlike the
carbohydrate-based fractions of the cell wall, particularly hemicel-
luloses, lignin has a hydrophobic structure (Stokke et al., 2014).
The majority of the matrix polymers used in NFPCs are hydropho-
bic, which lead to the problem of poor surface wetting of plant
fibers by the polymers (George et al., 2001; Adekunle, 2015). This
can lead to impaired stress transfer and the formation of void
spaces within the composite.
Another concern related to the use of NFPCs is the plant fibers’
tendency for moisture absorption under fluctuating weather con-
ditions and the consequent dimensional instability (Wang et al.,
2006; Adhikary et al., 2008; Espert et al., 2004; Stark and
Matuana, 2004). The swelling of plant fibers may evoke a stress
in the surrounding matrix, which may eventually result in compos-
ite damage, even its failure (George et al., 2001; Sombatsompop
and Chaochanchaikul, 2004). In addition, the high moisture uptake
increases the susceptibility to biodegradation due to microbial and
fungal attack (Klyosov, 2007).
There are several procedures intended to overcome the prob-
lems associated with NFPCs. A typical goal of these approaches is
to create a chemical bond between polymer matrix and reinforce-
ment by the incorporation of an interacting substance (George
et al., 2001; Clemons, 2008; Lu et al., 2000). The treatments that
aim to improve compatibility and adhesion between natural fibers
and the polymer matrix can be roughly divided into two
categories:
1. Compatibilization. The surface of a plant fiber is modified to
increase its wetting by the matrix polymer.
2. Coupling. Bifunctional chemical reagents are utilized to promote
a chemical reaction between the fiber surface and the polymer
matrix.
Compatibilizers are used to lower the surface energy of the
fibers, which makes the fibers less polar and thus more similar to
the polymer matrix. The typical compatibilizers added into NFPCs,
especially in thermoplastic systems, include maleic anhydride
grafted polypropylene (MAPP), monofunctional isocyanates and
m-phenylene bismaleimide modified fibers (George et al., 2001;
Lu et al., 2000). Dispersing agents are also classified as compatibi-
lizers, because they reduce the interfacial energy at the natural
fiber-polymer interface and in that way, they reduce aggregation
and facilitate the formation of new interfaces (Lu et al., 2000). Stea-
ric acid and its metallic salts are examples of dispersing agents.
Coupling agents form chemical bridges between the fibers and
the polymer matrix by covalent bonding, polymer chain entangle-
ment or hydrogen bonding (Lu et al., 2000). Thus, the main differ-
ence between compatibilizers and coupling agents is that
compatibilizers do not form strong adhesive bonds at the fiber-
polymer interface. However, some compatibilizers, such as MAPP,
also act as coupling agents in NFPCs.
Physical modifications, such as low temperature plasma,
sputtering, corona discharge, stretching, calandering, thermo-
treatment and the production of hybrid yarns, change the structural
properties of the fiber and thus improve its mechanical bonding
with the matrix (Mukhopadhyay and Fangueiro, 2009; Dányádi
et al., 2010; Moghadamzadeh et al., 2011; Oporto et al., 2007;
Adekunle, 2015). Furthermore, some techniques change the surface
properties of the composite components, thus having an effect on
the melt viscosity and the mechanical properties of composites.
Chemical modification methods include silane treatments, iso-
cyanate treatment, graft copolymerization, impregnation of fibers,
and alkali swelling and substitution reactions (George et al., 2001).
The chemical bonding theory alone is not considered sufficient to
understand the mechanisms of coupling in materials (Adekunle,
2015). Thus, the understanding of other concepts, such as the
acid-base reactions at the interface, surface energy and the wetting
phenomena, have also become necessary (Bogoeva-Gaceva et al.,
2007).
Silane treatments increase the interfacial strength between the
polymer matrix and natural fibers by reducing the number of cel-
lulose hydroxyl groups in the fiber-matrix interface (Li et al., 2007),
thus improving the chemical affinity to the polymer matrix
(Bogoeva-Gaceva et al., 2007; Xie et al., 2010). Similarly, iso-
cyanates react with the hydroxyl groups in fibers, thereby creating
better compatibility with the polymer matrix (Li et al., 2007;
Bogoeva-Gaceva et al., 2007). Graft polymerization is another
effective method of surface chemical modification of natural fibers
as this technique imparts physical, chemical and thermal resis-
tance to the fibers (Thakur et al., 2014). The grafting parameters
are influenced by the concentration and type of initiator, monomer
to be grafted and the reaction conditions (Thakur et al., 2014;
George et al., 2001). Impregnation of natural fibers with polymer
monomers compatible with the polymer matrix can also enhance
the properties of the NFPC. Compounds that are highly reactive
to the hydroxyl groups of the fiber constituents include epoxides,
isocyanates, anhydrides, lactones and diols (Puglia et al., 2005).
Alkali treatment, also known as mercerization, changes the surface
morphology of the fibers, increasing their mechanical interlocking
(Gassan and Bledzki, 1999; Li et al., 2007; Valadez-Gonzalez et al.,
1999). Moreover, by removing the natural and artificial impurities,
alkali treatment leads to fibrillation of fiber bundles into smaller
fibers, thereby increasing the aspect ratio (Valadez-Gonzalez
et al., 1999). In substitution reactions, the OH-groups present in

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 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
cellulose molecules are substituted with some chemical agents in
the presence of alkali. The substitution reactions include acetyla-
tion by acetic anhydride and cyanoethylation (George et al., 2001).
2.4. Properties of NFPCs
2.4.1. Mechanical properties
Low density, low cost, stiffness and relatively high strength
make natural fibers suitable reinforcing materials for many com-
modity plastics. The mechanical properties of NFPCs are highly
dependent on the type of natural fibers, fiber treatments, the type
of plastic, additives and processing methods (Clemons and
Caulfield, 2006). A comparison of mechanical properties between
polymers (Table 1) and natural fibers (Table 2) reveals that tensile
strength and Young’s modulus of natural fibers are typically many
times higher than those of the polymers themselves. Thus, the
presence of natural fibers in the polymer matrix typically increases
the strength and modulus of the composite, as shown by many
authors (Mutje et al., 2007; Mohanty et al., 2006; Rashed et al.,
2006; El-Shekeil et al., 2012; Li et al., 2014; Premalal et al., 2002;
Joseph et al., 1999). Both the polymer matrix and the fiber rein-
forcement constitute the mechanical performance of the NFPC.
Tensile strength is more sensitive to the properties of the polymer
matrix, whereas the elastic modulus of the composite is primarily
dependent on the properties of the fiber (Saheb and Jog, 1999). If
one wishes to increase tensile strength, a strong fiber-matrix inter-
face, fiber orientation and low stress concentration are required,
whereas the maximization of tensile modulus requires fiber wet-
ting in the matrix phase, high fiber concentration and a high ratio
of fiber length to diameter (aspect ratio). The fracture properties of
NFPCs are also highly dependent on the aspect ratio of the fibers
(Stark, 1999; Bouafif et al., 2009; Stark and Rowlands, 2003;
Nyström et al., 2007).
In order to achieve the fully stressed properties to the fiber in
the polymer matrix, the fiber must have a certain minimum length
that is termed as the critical fiber length (Stark and Rowlands,
2003; Bourmaud and Baley, 2007). The critical length depends on
the fiber characteristics and shear strength of the matrix-fiber
bond. If the length of the fiber is less than its critical length, the
matrix-fiber-interface is likely to fail due to the debonding at lower
stresses (Beg and Pickering, 2008; Stark and Rowlands, 2003;
Bourmaud and Baley, 2007). Conversely, exceeding the critical fiber
length may reduce the strength of the composite because the effec-
tive stress transfer may be impaired due to fiber curling and fiber
bending (Sreekumar et al., 2007). The maximized impact strength
can be achieved with the optimum bonding level, degree of adhe-
sion and fiber pullout (Mueller and Krobjilowski, 2003). The impact
strength of an NFPC is typically linearly dependent on the fiber
loading up to 60 wt% fiber content. At higher fiber loadings, the
impact strength of NFPCs becomes deteriorated due to insufficient
wetting of fibers by the polymer, and fiber agglomeration (Saheb
and Jog, 1999; Mueller and Krobjilowski, 2004).
Even though the mechanical properties of NFPCs are highly
dependent on the characteristics of their main constituents, the
manufacturing process and the processing parameters are also
important influencing factors on the mechanical properties of the
final product (Wielage et al., 2003). NFPCs are typically processed
by extrusion, injection molding, compression molding or thermal
forming (Stokke et al., 2014). Rashed et al. (2006) studied the
effects of fiber length and fiber content on the tensile strength of
jute fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites and demonstrated
that tensile strength enhanced by increasing the fiber size and fiber
content up to a certain level. Similarly, the findings by Migneault
et al. (2008) showed that the increasing fiber length had beneficial
effects on the tensile and flexural modulus and toughness of WPC.
Investigations by Mueller and Krobjilowski (2004) proved a strong
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5
influence of the thermal process conditions during compression
molding on the impact strength of NFPCs. Joseph et al. (1999)
demonstrated that the mixing technique and mixing parameters
had considerable effects on the tensile properties of sisal-fiber-
reinforced polypropylene composites.
2.4.2. Water absorption
Water absorption (24 h) of the natural fibers examined in this
review is typically in a range between 7% and 20% (Stokke et al.,
2014; Mohanty et al., 2000). The corresponding value for thermo-
plastics and thermosets is less than 0.9% (Holbery and Houston,
2006; Cheung et al., 2009). Thus, the water absorption of an NFPC
increases with higher fiber loading. Some authors detected an
almost linear correlation between fiber loading and water absorp-
tion of the NFPC (George et al., 1998). The water absorption of an
NFPC is highly dependent on the fiber size as shown by
Migneault et al. (2008). Tajvidi et al. (2006) evaluated long-term
water uptake behavior of natural fiber-PP composites with several
types of fiber reinforcements (wood fiber, rice husks, newsprint
fibers and kenaf fibers) and noted that the maximum water
absorption for the composites was 1.1–13.2%. However, they
emphasized that the composites with a high fiber loading (50 wt
%) had still not reached the moisture equilibrium during their
5-week experiment. According to Defoirdt et al. (2010), it may take
months before WPCs reach their moisture equilibrium.
Diffusion theory is a traditional way to explain the mechanisms
of moisture absorption in NFPCs. According to this theory and
Fick’s law, water absorption of NFPC is a result of the random
movement of water molecules from a higher to a lower concentra-
tion (Wang et al., 2006; Espert et al., 2004). This theory, however,
applies to homogeneous materials and does not take account of the
considerably different water absorption properties of polymer
matrix and natural fibers. Wang et al. (2006) found that the diffu-
sion process is the dominant mechanism of water absorption in
NFPCs with high fiber loadings when the fibers are abundantly
linked together. However, they concluded that at low fiber con-
tents, the primary mechanism was percolation, which takes into
account the randomness of the composite structure.
2.4.3. Thermal properties
The thermal properties of NFPCs are primarily governed by the
characteristics of the natural fibers. The thermal properties of an
NFPC can be determined by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA),
derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), and differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC). In general, the thermal degradation process of
NFPCs can be roughly divided into five parts (Saheb and Jog,
1999; Monteiro et al., 2012; Stokke et al., 2014; Beyler and
Hirschler, 2001):
1. 100–200 °C: Weight loss of NFPCs because of the evaporation of
water from the fiber surfaces.
2. 200–270 °C: Thermal decomposition of hemicelluloses.
3. 250–350 °C: Thermal decomposition of celluloses.
4. 280–500 °C: Thermal decomposition of lignin.
5. 200–500 °C: Polymer matrix macromolecular degradation or
depolymerization.
The thermal degradation of natural fibers has a high signifi-
cance on the extrusion temperature for thermoplastic composites
as well as on the curing temperature of thermosets (Saheb and
Jog, 1999). Since it is necessary to avoid the thermal degradation
of natural fibers, NFPCs are typically manufactured below 200 °C.
Overall, natural fibers as alike the other cellulose-based materials
have similar TGA and DTG curves (Yao et al., 2008a).
The degradation of the natural fiber will exert multiple effects
on the characteristics of the NFPC (Fig. 1). For example, weakened
6 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
Fig. 1. Thermal decomposition ranges for NFPC constituents and subsequent effects on the characteristics of the composite constituent.
mechanical properties and poor organoleptic properties such as
odor and color have been reported (Gonzalez and Myers, 1993).
In addition, Tajvidi et al. (2006) claimed that incorporation of nat-
ural fibers into PP reduced the glass transition temperature of the
material, but increased the a transition temperature. Manfredi
et al. (2006) studied the fire resistance properties of NFPCs rein-
forced with flax, sisal and jute fibers. Their results showed that flax
fibers had the longest ignition time and the longest period prior to
reaching the flashover point, whereas jute fiber reinforced NFPCs
showed a short duration but a quickly spreading fire.
3. Organic waste and residues
3.1. Overview and traditional methods for waste management
One of the greatest environmental challenges today is to find
novel ways to utilize waste and residues originating from indus-
trial or agricultural processes. In 2012, the total amount of waste
generated worldwide was 1.2  1012 kg, approximately half of
which was organic material (Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012).
Landfilling has remained the primary means of waste treatment,
but issues related to odor, land availability, emissions of green-
house gases such as methane and residue run-off have come to
the fore (Das et al., 2015b; Odlare et al., 2011). Furthermore, the
fees and prohibitions imposed on landfilling now mean that energy
conversion or recovery and secondary utilization of waste are
important issues of economic profitability. Therefore, greater
attention has been given to the development of alternative solu-
tions for efficient waste management.
Composting and anaerobic digestion are efficient ways for
reducing the amount of organic waste. Composting is a rapid and
simple decomposition process of organic matter under aerobic
and controlled conditions. It is a result of the combined activity
of a variety of microbial populations and several physical and
chemical factors, which produce a stable, humus-like, product
called compost that can be used as an organic amendment
(Jurado et al., 2015). Anaerobic digestion has multiple advantages,
such as high-energy efficiency and low sludge production (Chen
et al., 2008). The process involves the stabilization and subsequent
degradation of organic materials under anaerobic conditions by
microorganisms, which leads to the formation of biogas and micro-
bial biomass (Kelleher et al., 2002).
Nonetheless, these processes result in significant amounts of
leftover materials, such as composts and sludge (Odlare et al.,
2011, 2008). These by-products can be sustainably used as sources
of plant nutrients in agriculture. However, there is some uncer-
tainty related to the use of organic composts in agriculture,
because most of the studies have been conducted on either labora-
tory or greenhouse scales (Odlare et al., 2011). In addition, sewage
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sludge sometimes contains heavy metals, and the anaerobic diges-
tate from source separated household waste may contain organic
contaminants (Marttinen et al., 2003; Amir et al., 2005). An excess
amount of ammonia-nitrogen can also cause problems in the
anaerobic process (Krylova et al., 1997). Thus, more long-term field
experiments are needed to evaluate the effects of abundant appli-
cations of organic waste on the properties of soil.
3.2. New approaches for waste management
Biomass residues can be used as a raw material for biochar pro-
duction (Yao et al., 2011; Inyang et al., 2010; Sun et al., 2013;
Schouten et al., 2012; Neumann et al., 2015). Biomass can be con-
verted into biochar through pyrolytic processes, such as torrefac-
tion and slow or fast pyrolysis. Biochar possesses the potential to
become an inexpensive adsorbent, being capable of storing some
of the most common environmental pollutants. Almost all types
of biomass can be converted into biochar. Roberts et al. (2009) con-
cluded that waste biomass streams have the greatest potential to
be economically viable sources of biochar, whereas processing of
agricultural residues has high yield of energy generation and
greenhouse gas reduction, and also has a moderate potential to
be profitable. In general, the most important parameters for the
economic viability of pyrolysis-biochar systems are the pyrolysis
process and the feedstock production costs.
Anaerobic digestion processes produce considerable amounts of
fibrous digestate that is not a favorable fuel in energy production
due to its high ash content, low ash melting point and slagging
(Neumann et al., 2015). In contrast, the production of biochar
and biofuels from digestates through pyrolysis is a promising tech-
nology. Neumann et al. (2015) produced bio-oil, pyrolysis char and
non-condensable gases from digestates derived from an anaerobic
digestion plant through intermediate pyrolysis. They were able to
convert over 91% of the original energy content of the biomass into
usable products. Kratzeisen et al. (2010) postulated that digestate
pellets (primarily composed of maize silage) constituted an excel-
lent alternative fuel for wood as they had comparable calorific
values. Yao et al. (2011) compared biochars produced from anaer-
obically digested and undigested sugar beet tailings through slow-
pyrolysis. Their analyses showed that anaerobic digestion
enhanced the phosphate adsorption ability of biochar and that only
anaerobically digested sugar beet tailing biochar displayed col-
loidal and nano-sized periclase (MgO) on its surface. Overall, the
physico-chemical properties of both biochars were similar.
In addition to the plant fibers, cattle (Schouten et al., 2012) or
chicken (Hass et al., 2012) manure can be used as a source of bio-
chars. Schouten et al. (2012) prepared biochar from cattle manure
to evaluate whether anaerobically produced digestate and biochar
possessed a higher carbon sequestration potential than the
 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
manure. Additionally, they hypothesized that the nitrogen miner-
alization of the digestate and biochar would be lower than with
the manure. Their results clearly revealed that the release of nitro-
gen in soil derived from the by-product declined with anaerobic
digestion and even more after pyrolysis. However, the carbon
sequestration potential of cattle manure via the digestion-
pyrolysis route was only 15% compared with 53–55% for the
untreated cattle manure. Hass et al. (2012) observed that the appli-
cation of chicken manure biochar to a typical acid and highly
weathered soil increased pH, improved nutrient availabilities and
reduced levels of toxic and nonessential elements.
To summarize, the utilization of organic waste and residues
through the conventional or even new approaches is strongly
focused on the energy conversion sector, but in reality, there is still
an abundance of under- or even totally, unutilized leftover mate-
rial. The value of these materials could be significantly increased
by incorporating them further into new applications instead of
using them as a local energy source.
3.3. Organic waste and residues in NFPCs
The possibility to utilize organic wastes and residues as addi-
tives or reinforcements in NFPCs has attracted substantial interest
especially during the present decade. Fig. 2 presents some possible
ways for the utilization of organic waste and residues in NFPCs. The
exploitation of organic residues in NFPCs offers multiple advan-
tages. For example, one can achieve reductions in the relative
amounts of constituents derived from non-renewable sources,
such as the matrix polymers and some additives. Hence, one will
increase the share of raw materials from renewable sources, which
may also reduce the overall raw material costs of the composites. It
is evident that organic wastes and residues can be incorporated
into NFPCs in versatile ways. Table 4 summarizes the reported
work on NFPCs, where organic waste materials have been
used as additives or reinforcing components.
NFPCs have been manufactured by reinforcing HDPE and HDPP
with animal manures (Rowell et al., 2007). The resulting compos-
Fig. 2. Possible ways for the utilization of organic waste and residues in NFPCs.
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7
ites were not mechanically as durable as pine flour-filler thermo-
plastics, but they were strong enough for multiple applications.
The comparison of different agro-wastes and residues (sunflower
stalk, corn stalk and bagasse) as the reinforcement in NFPCs
revealed that the composites reinforced with bagasse fiber had
superior mechanical properties, which was due to the high cellu-
lose content of bagasse (Ashori and Nourbakhsh, 2010). The study
by Ashori and Nourbakhsh (2010) also showed that the fiber mor-
phology, e.g. the aspect ratio, does not dominantly define the
mechanical characteristics of the NFPC. Instead, the chemical nat-
ure of the fibers, such as cellulose content, also has a considerable
effect on the characteristics of NFPC because it comprehensively
affects the interfacial interaction between fibers and the polymer
matrix.
The addition of biochar or charcoal into WPC has been reported
to enhance its thermal stability (Li et al., 2014; Das et al., 2015a;
DeVallance et al., 2015), lower the heat release rate (Das et al.,
2015a), enhance the thermal conductivity (Das et al., 2016b),
reduce water absorption (Li et al., 2014; Ayrilmis et al., 2015;
DeVallance et al., 2015) and improve the bending (Ayrilmis et al.,
2015; DeVallance et al., 2015), flexural (Das et al., 2015b; Li
et al., 2014) and tensile properties of WPCs (Li et al., 2014; Das
et al., 2015a; DeVallance et al., 2015). Furthermore, an addition
of waste paper sludge has been observed to affect positively the
flexural properties, water resistance and dimensional stability of
WPCs (Hamzeh et al., 2011). Interestingly, the findings by
Hamzeh et al. (2011) showed that waste paper sludge could effec-
tively improve the flexural properties of WPCs even in the absence
of coupling agent, which is a significant advantage. The process ori-
gin of added paper mill sludge has been shown to affect the prop-
erties of an HDPE composite (Soucy et al., 2015). Variations in the
sludge type have exerted clear effects on the mechanical properties
of the composites, probably due to the differences in their chemical
compositions, especially ash and cellulose content. Another inter-
esting approach was presented by Ashori (2010), who prepared
hybrid NFPCs from wood flour, waste newsprint fiber, PP and
MAPP. The aspect ratio of newspaper fibers was almost 9 times
8 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

Table 4
Reported work on the utilization of organic wastes and residues in NFPCs.

Fiber reinforcement Matrix polymer Type of organic waste used as an additive in NFPC Reference
Animal manure PE – [1]
PP
Bagasse PP – [2]
PE [3]
Bamboo PP – [4]
PVC [5,6]
Epoxy [7]
Banana PE – [3]
PP [8]
PVC [9]
Epoxy [10]
Cellulose PP Liquid by-product from slow pyrolysis of hardwood [11]
PU – [12]
Coir Epoxy – [13,14]
Polyester [15]
PP Lignin [16,17]
Corncob PE – [18]
Corn stalk PP – [2,19,20]
PE [18]
Corn stem PP – [21]
Flax PP – [22,23]
Hemp PP – [24]
PE [25,26]
Epoxy Lignin [27]
Jute PP – [4,28–30]
PE [31]
Kenaf PU – [32]
PP [33,34]
Oilseed stalk PP – [19]
Paper mill sludge PE – [35]
Reed stalk PP – [19]
Rice husk PP – [36–38]
PE [39]
Rice straw leaf PE – [39]
Rice straw stem PE – [39]
Rice whole straw PE – [3,39]
Sisal PE – [26]
PP [40]
Sunflower stalk PP – [2]
Thermally modified wood PP Liquid by-product from slow pyrolysis of hardwood [11,41]
Liquid by-product from ThermoWoodÒ process [42]
Sanding dust from medium-density fiberfoard PP – [43]
Wheat straw PP – [21,22,38,44]
PE [18]
Wood flour PP Biochar from slow pyrolysis of waste wood [45–49]
– [38]
Biochar from sewage sludge and poultry litter [45]
Charcoal from waste wood [50]
Waste newspaper fiber [51]
PE Waste paper sludge [52]
Bamboo charcoal [53]
– [18,39]
PVC [5]

[1] Rowell et al. (2007), [2] Ashori and Nourbakhsh (2010), [3] Habibi et al. (2008), [4] Nahar et al. (2012), [5] Ge et al. (2004), [6] Wang et al. (2008), [7] Shih (2007), [8] Paul
et al. (2008), [9] Zainudin et al. (2009), [10] Sapuan et al. (2006), [11] Väisänen et al. (2016c), [12] Silva and Silva (2005), [13] Harish et al. (2009), [14] Mishra and Aireddy
(2010), [15] Monteiro et al. (2008), [16] Morandim-Giannetti et al. (2012), [17] Rozman et al. (2000), [18] Panthapulakkal and Sain (2007), [19] Nourbakhsh and Ashori (2010),
[20] Flandez et al. (2012), [21] Panthapulakkal and Sain (2006), [22] Hornsby et al. (1997), [23] Arbelaiz et al. (2005), [24] Mutje et al. (2007), [25] Mishra and Naik (1999),
[26] Mishra and Naik (2005), [27] Wood et al. (2011), [28] Rashed et al. (2006), [29] Rana et al. (1999), [30] Brodowsky and Mäder (2007), [31] Mohanty et al. (2006), [32]
El-Shekeil et al. (2012), [33] Zampaloni et al. (2007), [34] Hao et al. (2013), [35] Soucy et al. (2015), [36] Premalal et al. (2002), [37] Yang et al. (2004), [38] Ashori and
Nourbakhsh (2009b), [39] Yao et al. (2008b), [40] Joseph et al. (1999), [41] Väisänen et al. (2016a), [42] Väisänen et al. (2016b), [43] Madhoushi et al. (2014), [44]
Panthapulakkal et al. (2006), [45] Das et al. (2015b), [46] Das et al. (2015a), [47] Das et al. (2016b), [48] DeVallance et al. (2015), [49] Das et al. (2016a), [50] Ayrilmis et al.
(2015), [51] Ashori (2010), [52] Hamzeh et al. (2011), [53] Li et al. (2014).

higher when compared with wood flour, which typically indicates ever, as expected, the mechanical properties of the composites
better strength properties (Stark and Rowlands, 2003). Similar to were even better after the addition of MAPP. The TGA analyses
the findings by Hamzeh et al. (2011), the composites exerted by Ashori (2010) showed that all the composite formulations were
higher strength than pure PP even without coupling agents. How- thermally more stable than pure PP. The largest improvement on

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 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx
the thermal stability of hybrid composites was achieved when the
wood fiber content was high, which was probably due to the high
thermal stability of lignin present in wood fibers. Hybridization of
multiple fiber types in NFPCs should also be tested more in the
future. First, the simultaneous use of physically and chemically dif-
ferent fibers may offer advantages that cannot be achieved with a
single fiber type composite system. Second, the exploitation of
multiple types of organic waste materials in NFPCs implies resili-
ent use of wastes and residues.
The concern of overusing natural wood resources (Hamzeh
et al., 2011; Viksne et al., 2010) has spurred researchers to develop
new NFPCs from industrial process residues. Medium-density
fiberboard (MDF) sanding dust has shown good potential as a rein-
forcement in PP, and the incorporation of nanoclay particles
improved the water resistance of the composites (Madhoushi
et al., 2014). Although the findings were significant in respect of
economical viewpoints and using process residues in new applica-
tions, the authors could not comprehensively explain their find-
ings. As MDF fibers were used in the composite formulations, the
significance of resin glues and other additives present in the fibers
were neglected. For example, the possible interactions between the
resin and the nanoclay particles (Ashori and Nourbakhsh, 2009a)
could have affected the results obtained.
The water resistance and mechanical properties of the commer-
cial WPCs has also been improved by slow pyrolysis liquid addition
(Väisänen et al., 2016c, 2016a, 2016b). Furthermore, lignin has
been used as an additive in coir-PP composites (Morandim-
Giannetti et al., 2012; Rozman et al., 2000). The addition of lignin
led to an increase in the initial decomposition temperatures as well
as in the oxidation induction times, but no improvement was
observed in tensile strength. Moreover, the addition of lignin
reduced water absorption of the composite (Rozman et al., 2000).
Lignin is one of the most abundant raw materials on earth, and sig-
nificant amounts of lignin are produced by the pulp and paper
industry (Gosselink et al., 2004).
It is also possible to produce ethene and propene monomers,
potential raw materials for the polymer matrix of NFPCs, from
the tall oil fractions obtained from Norway spruce pulp (Pyl
et al., 2012). Hydrodeoxygenation of the pulp with a commercial
NiMo hydrotreating catalyst yielded over 35 wt% of ethene and
over 18 wt% of propene from tall oil fatty acids.
The evaluation of the studies clearly shows that the research
activity in this area is rapidly increasing. Numerous recently pub-
lished papers indicate that the exploration for new methods and
materials that utilize wastes and residues, offset the use of fossil
fuels, and are not harmful to the environment, is one of the modern
trends in the composite industry. The suitability of fibers derived
from organic waste as the reinforcement for NFPCs is evident from
the studies presented in Table 4. However, the poor interactive
properties of the main constituents, natural fibers and the polymer
matrix, remains a challenge, and the incorporation of coupling
agents or other additives is still compulsory to manufacture com-
mercial NFPCs with adequate properties. In addition, the current
volume of NFPC market (Mohammed et al., 2015) is not sufficient
to solve the potential problems associated with the ever-increasing
annual waste generation levels that are, according to Hamzeh et al.
(2011), estimated to elevate to 19 billion tons by the year of 2025.
To simultaneously overcome the challenges associated with
NFPCs and waste management, new ways to treat wastes and mod-
ify NFPCs are needed. The utilization of the products originating
from the thermochemical conversion of biomass, i.e. biochars and
liquids, in NFPCs seems to be an increasing trend. The studies by
Das et al. (2015a, 2015b, 2015c), Ayrilmis et al. (2015), Li et al.
(2014), and DeVallance et al. (2015) demonstrate the high potential
of char as a reinforcing filler in WPCs. Though the studies give plenty
of new information, it would be also worth attempting to manufac-
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9
ture and investigate other types of NFPCs with biochar, such as
hemp and jute fiber polymer composites. In addition, it is unclear
whether the manufacture of the composites was possible without
including e.g. coupling agents or lubricants; thus, further studies
of NFPCs with biochars but without other additives are needed.
Despite the positive outcomes, the experimental setups by
DeVallance et al. (2015) and Ayrilmis et al. (2015) contradict the
idea of using waste and residue materials as substitutes for
petroleum-derived plastics as they replaced wood fibers with the
char while keeping the PP content unchanged. The economic
aspects of using biochar as a filler in NFPCs have not yet been com-
prehensively examined even though the overview by Das et al.
(2015d) implies that wood-plastic and biochar composite system
can be economically resilient.
Similarly to biochars, NFPCs modified with different pyrolysis
liquids should be more extensively studied. The potential of wood
slow pyrolysis liquids as additives in WPCs has been shown by
Väisänen et al. (2016a, 2016b, 2016c), but further studies of NFPCs
consisting solely of natural fibers, polymers and pyrolysis liquids
should be conducted. As shown by Väisänen et al. (2016a,
2016b), the incorporation of pyrolysis liquids into WPCs signifi-
cantly affects the VOC profile of the composites, which should also
be studied deeper in the future studies. The material safety and
VOC characteristics of NFPCs should be carefully assessed when
waste materials are added to the composites.
4. Future trends
The shortage of landfill space, greenhouse gas emissions and
residue run off have spurred efforts to find alternative ways for tra-
ditional waste management. Hence, new composites utilizing
organic waste and residues from agricultural and industrial pro-
cesses have been developed. Several studies have shown that
NFPCs consisting of waste or residue materials have comparable
properties with the traditional NFPCs. It seems likely that research
activity in this field will increase rapidly, because the demand for
sustainable materials derived from renewable sources continues
to rise. Since there are many types of natural fibers with highly
complex structures, the properties of NFPCs can be tailored accord-
ing to the different fiber types. Additionally, it is possible to modify
the properties of NFPCs with proper addition of waste materials
from multiple sources. However, more data on the properties of
NFPCs and organic waste materials is required to establish broader
and safe use of these materials.
NFPCs offer multiple advantages over traditional thermoplastic
composite materials with conventional reinforcements, such as E-
Glass, Kevlar or carbon fiber, for example, reductions in processing
temperature, cycle time and density. However, there are character-
istic factors that affect the overall performance of NFPCs, which may
limit the applicability of NFPCs. The inherent hydrophilicity of nat-
ural fibers deteriorates the bonding between the polymer matrix
and the fiber reinforcement, which dictates the final properties of
the composite. Moreover, the moisture and thermal instability of
natural fibers are well-recognized drawbacks associated with
NFPCs. Nonetheless, one can safely predict that the development
of NFPCs modified or reinforced with organic waste and residues
will be able to overcome these limitations. The replacement of
petroleum-derived and ecologically unfriendly NFPC constituents,
such as polymers and additives, with more sustainable alternatives
is the current trend of the modern polymer composite industry.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Ewen MacDonald, D.Pharm., for linguistic
advice.
10 T. Väisänen et al. / Waste Management xxx (2016) xxx–xxx

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