VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

BELAGAVI - 590018
KARNATAKA

A seminar report

On

“GREEN CONCRETE”

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree

of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING

Submitted by

VIVEK SHARMA
1DS12CV183

2015-2016

Department of Civil Engineering

Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering
Bengaluru – 560 078
 DAYANANDA SAGAR COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
BENGALURU-560 078

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

2015-16

This is to certify that the seminar entitled “GREEN CONCRETE” is a bonafide work
carried out by Mr. VIVEK SHARMA (1DS12CV183) in the partial fulfillment of the
seminar in 8th semester Bachelors of Engineering in Dayananda Sagar College of
engineering of Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi for the year 2015-16. It is
certified that all corrections/suggestions indicated for internal assessment have been
incorporated in the report deposited in the department library. The seminar report has been
approved as it satisfies the academic in respect of the seminar prescribed for the Bachelor of
Engineering degree.

Seminar Coordinators Signature of HOD

Seminar In-charge:
Name Signature

1.

2.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I take this opportunity to express my sincere thanks and gratitude to all those who have been
kind enough to guide when needed which has led to the successful completion of the
seminar.
I would like to convey my immense gratitude to Dr. C.P.S Prakash, Principal , Dayananda
Sagar College of Engineering and Dr. NAGARAJ SITARAM , Professor and Head,
Department of Civl Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering, Bangalore, for
their continuous support and encouragement which enabled me to come up with this seminar
and also thank them for providing the right ambience for carrying out the same.
I extend my thanks to my project guide Mr. SHIVA PRASAD H ,Associate Professor
,seminar guide Department of Civil Engineering, Dayananda Sagar College of Engineering,
Bangalore, for their guidance and suggestions for successful completion of my seminar.
I extend my gratitude to all the teaching and the non-teaching staff members of the
Department of Civil Engineering who rendered their valuable time for successful completion
of this seminar.

VIVEK SHARMA
(1DS12CV183)
 ABSTRACT

Green concrete is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. This was first
invented in Denmark in the year 1998. Green concrete has nothing to do with colour. It is a
concept of thinking environment into concrete considering every aspect from raw materials
manufacture over mixture design to structural design, construction, and service life. It is a
type of concrete that is made with concrete waste, uses less energy in its production and
produces less carbon dioxide than normal concrete. It can be defined as the concrete with
material as a partial or complete replacement for cement or fine or coarse aggregates. The
substitution material can be waste or residual product in the manufacturing process. The
substituted materials could be waste material that remain unused and maybe harmful
(material that contains radioactive elements). This concrete should follow reduce, reuse and
recycle technique or any two process in the concrete technology. The three major objective
behind green concept in concrete are to reduce greenhouse gas emission (carbon dioxide
emission from cement industry, as one ton of cement manufacturing process emits one ton of
carbon dioxide), secondly to reduce the use of natural resources such as limestone, shale,
clay, natural river sand, natural rocks that are being consumed for the development of
mankind, thirdly to use waste materials of concrete that occupies large area of land for its
storage that results in the air, land and water pollution.
 CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Environmental Goals 2
2. GENESIS 2
3. ADVANTAGES OF GREEN CONCRETE 5
4. METHODS TO PRODUCE GREEN CONCRETE 6
4.1. Desirable properties in green concrete 6
4.2. Energy consumption during the production 6
4.2.1. Energy consumption in concrete mix design 6
4.2.2. Energy consumption during cement and concrete production 8
4.3. Evaluation of inorganic wastes 8
4.4. Different ways to produce green concrete 9
5. LIMITATIONS OF GREEN CONCRETE 10

6. SCOPE IN INDIA 11

7. CONCLUSIONS 13

8. REFERENCES 14
1. INTRODUCTION

The size of construction industry all over the world is growing at faster rate. The huge
construction growth boosts demand for construction materials. Aggregates are the main
constituent of concrete. Due to continuously mining the availability of aggregates has
emerged problems in recent times. To overcome this problem, there is need to find
replacement to some extent.
Nowadays, there is a solution to some extent and the solution is known as “Green Concrete”.
Green concrete has nothing to do with color. It is a concept of thinking environment into
concrete considering every aspect from raw materials manufacture over mix design to
structural design, construction, and service life. Green concrete is also cheap to produce
because, waste products are used as partial substitute for cement, charges for the disposal are
avoided, energy consumption in production is lower, and durability is greater. Waste can be
used to produce new products or can be used as admixtures so that natural resources are used
more efficiently and the environment is protected from waste deposits.
The CO2 emission related to concrete production, inclusive of cement production, is between
0.1 and 0.2 t per ton of produced concrete. However, since the total amount of concrete
produced is so vast the absolute figures for the environmental impact are quite significant,
due to the large amounts of cement and concrete produced. Since concrete is the second most
consumed entity after water it accounts for around 5% of the world‘s total CO2 emission
(Ernst Worrell, 2001). The solution to this environmental problem is not to substitute
concrete for other materials but to reduce the environmental impact of concrete and cement.
Pravin Kumar et al, 2003, used quarry rock dust along with fly ash and micro silica and
reported satisfactory properties.
The potential environmental benefit to society of being able to build with green concrete is
huge. It is realistic to assume that technology can be developed, which can halve the CO2
emission related to concrete production. With the large consumption of concrete this will
potentially reduce the world‘s total CO2 emission by 1.5-2%. Concrete can also be the
solution to environmental problems other than those related to CO2 emission. It may be
possible to use residual products from other industries in the concrete production while still
maintaining a high concrete quality. During the last few decades society has become aware
of the deposit problems connected with residual products, and demands, restrictions and
taxes have been imposed. And as it is known that several residual products have properties
suited for concrete production, there is a large potential in investigating the possible use of
these for concrete production. Well-known residual products such as silica fume and fly ash
may be mentioned.
The concrete industry realized at an early stage that it is a good idea to be in front with regard
to documenting the actual environmental aspects and working on improving the environment,
rather than being forced to deal with environmental aspects due to demands from authorities,
customers and economic effects such as imposed taxes. Furthermore, some companies in

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concrete industry have recognized that reductions in production costs often go hand in hand
with reductions in environmental impacts. Thus, environmental aspects are not only
interesting from an ideological point of view, but also from an economic aspect.

1.1. Environmental Goals

Green Concrete is expected to fulfil the following environmental obligations:

1. Reduction of CO2 emissions by 21 %. This is in accordance with the Kyoto

Protocol of 1997.
2. Increase the use of inorganic residual products from industries other than the
concrete industry by approx. 20%.
3. Reduce the use of fossil fuels by increasing the use of waste derived fuels in the
cement industry.
4. The recycling capacity of the green concrete must not be less compared to existing
concrete types.
5. The production and the use of green concrete must not deteriorate the working
environment.
6. The structures do not impose much harm to the environment during their service
life.

2. GENESIS

Considering the time elapsed since the commencement of the use of concrete, green concrete
is very young a material. It was invented in 1998 in Denmark.
The increasing awareness and activity to conserve the environment and the realization that
concrete production too releases a considerable amount of CO2 in the atmosphere were
strong initiatives to catalyze the genesis of Green Concrete.
In 1997, the Kyoto Conference took place, in which several countries, after deliberating over
the then environmental conditions laid down several guidelines which would be the directive
principles to the participating countries on their environment related practices. The guidelines
– Kyoto Protocol, as they are called, needed the countries to cut down their CO2 emissions to
a certain degree as assigned. The given goal had to be achieved by the year 2012. Since then
several countries started to focus on several available options but Denmark focused on
cement and concrete production because approximately 2% of Denmark‘s total CO2
emission stems from cement and concrete production.
Realizing the necessity of such a technology and the prospects associated the Danish
government soon released a proposal. The proposal is in accordance with the International
and European Conventions and Protocol, with the nationally agreed goals that comply with

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these. An important aspect is Denmark‘s obligation to reduce the CO2-emission as
previously mentioned. The proposal covers the following environmental aspects: Greenhouse
effect, depletion of the ozone layer, photochemical oxidation, eutrophication, acidification,
materials harmful to the environment and health, water and resources. The above mentioned
priorities were included in a large Danish projects about cleaner technologies in the life cycle
of concrete products. Furthermore, priorities have been made for the other participating
countries, i.e. Greece, Italy, and The Netherlands, and for Europe and the International
World. Although there are differences in the political environmental priorities, all agree that
five environmental impacts given highest priority are: CO2, Energy, Water, Waste and
Pollutants. These, coupled with the cost reduction benefits allured the concrete producers to
incorporate green concrete into their paradigm.
Cement and concrete may have an important role to play in enabling the developed countries
to fulfil their obligation to reduce the total CO2 emission by 21 % compared to the 1990-
level before 2012, as agreed at the Kyoto conference. This is because the volume of concrete
consumption is large. The CO2 emission related to concrete production, inclusive of cement
production, is between 0.1-0.2 tons per ton produced concrete. This corresponds to a total
quantity of CO2 emission of 0.6 - 1.2 m tons per year. Approximately 5% of world‘s total
CO2 emission stems from cement and concrete production.
The potential environmental benefit to society of being able to build with green concrete is
huge. It is realistic to assume that technology can be developed which can half the CO2
emission related to concrete production. With the large consumption of concrete this will
potentially reduce Denmark’s total CO2 emission by 0.5 % (Glavind, 2000). The somewhat
soft demands in the form of environmental obligations result in rather specific technical
requirements for the industry - including the concrete industry. These technical requirements
include among others new concrete mix designs, new raw materials, and new knowledge
(practical experience and technical models) about the properties of the new raw materials and
concrete mix designs.
Due to growing interest in sustainable development engineers and architects were motivated
more than ever before to choose concrete that is more sustainable. However this is not as
straight forward as selecting an energy star rated appliance or a vehicle providing high gas
mileage. On what measurement basis can engineers and architects compare materials and
choose one that is more sustainable or specify a material in such a way as to minimize
environmental impact?
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) seems to offer a solution. LCA considers materials over the
course of their entire life cycle including material extraction, manufacturing, construction,
operations, and finally reuse/recycling. LCA takes into account a full range of environmental
impact indicators—including embodied energy, air and water pollution (including
greenhouse gases), potable water consumption, solid waste and recycled content just to
name a few. Building rating systems such as LEED and Green Globes are in various stages
of incorporating LCA so that they can help engineers and architects select materials based on

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their environmental performance or specify materials in such a way as to minimize
environmental impact.
Every 1 ton of cement produced leads to about 0.9 tons of CO2 emissions and a typical cubic
yard (0.7643 m3) of concrete contains about 10% by weight of cement. There have been a
number of articles written about reducing the CO2 emissions from concrete primarily
through the use of lower amounts of cement and higher amounts of supplementary
cementitious material (SCM) such as fly ash and slag. Table 1 has been developed based on
data presented by Marceau et al, 2002.

The following observations can be made:

 Since a cubic yard of concrete weighs about 2 tons, CO2 emissions from 1 ton of
concrete varies between 0.05 to 0.13 tons.
 Approximately 95% of all CO2 emissions from a cubic yard of concrete are from
cement manufacturing and so it is no wonder that much attention is paid to using
greater amounts of SCM hence use green concrete.

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3. ADVANTAGES OF GREEN CONCRETE

Green concrete has manifold advantages over the conventional concrete. Since it uses the
recycled aggregates and materials, it reduces the extra load in landfills and mitigates the
wastage of aggregates. Thus, the net CO2 emissions are reduced. The reuse of materials also
contributes intensively to economy. Since the waste materials like aggregates from a nearby
area and fly ash from a nearby power plant are not much expensive and also transport costs
are minimal.
Green concrete can be considered elemental to sustainable development since it is eco-
friendly itself. Green concrete is being widely used in green building practices. It also helps
the green buildings achieve LEED and Golden Globe certifications. Use of fly ash in the
concrete also increases its workability and many other properties like durability to an
appreciable extent. One of the practices to manufacture green concrete involves reduction of
amount cement in the mix, this practice helps in reducing the consumption of cement overall.
The use waste materials also solve the problem of disposing the excessive amount industrial
wastes.
There are several other advantages related to green concrete and can be summarized as
below:
a) Reduced CO2 emissions.
b) Low production costs as wastes directly substitute the cement.
c) Saves energy, emissions and waste water.
d) Helps in recycling industry wastes.
e) Reduces the consumption of cement overall.
f) Better workability.
g) Sustainable development.
h) Greater strength and durability than normal concrete.
i) Compressive strength and Flexural behavior is fairly equal to that of the conventional
concrete.
j) Green concrete might solve some of the societies ‘problems with the use of inorganic,
residual products which should otherwise be deposited.

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4. METHODS TO PRODUCE GREEN CONCRETE

4.1. Desirable properties in green concrete

Today, it is already possible to produce and cast very green concrete. Even a super green type
of concrete without cement but with, for example, 300 kg of fly ash instead can be produced
and cast without any changes in the production equipment. But this concrete will not develop
strength, and it will of course not be durable. Therefore, the concrete must include aspects of
performance like:
a) Mechanical properties (strength, shrinkage, creep, static behaviour etc.).
b) Fire resistance (heat transfer, etc.).
c) Workmanship (workability, strength development, curing, etc.).
d) Durability (corrosion protection, frost, new deterioration mechanisms, etc.).
e) Environmental impact (how green is the new concrete?).
Meeting these requirements is not an easy task, and all must be reached at the same time if
constructors are to be tempted to prescribe green concrete. A constructor would not normally
prescribe green concrete if the performance is lower than normal, for example, a reduced
service life. The new technology will therefore need to develop concretes with all properties
as near normal as possible.

4.2. Energy consumption during the production

4.2.1. Energy consumption in concrete mix design

The type and amount of cement has a major influence on the environmental properties of a
concrete. An example of this is shown in Figure 2, where the energy consumption in mega
joules per kilogram of a concrete edge beam through all its life cycle phases is illustrated.
The energy consumption of cement production make up more than 90% of the total energy
consumption of all constituent materials and approximately one-third of the total life cycle
energy consumption. By selecting a cement type with reduced environmental impact, and by
minimizing the amount of cement, the environmental properties of the concrete are
drastically changed. This must, however, be done while still taking account of the technical
requirements of the concrete for the type and amount of cement. One method of minimizing
the cement content in a concrete mix is by using packing calculations to determine the
optimum composition of the aggregate. A high level of aggregate packing reduces the

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cavities between the aggregates, and thereby the need for cement paste. This results in better
concrete properties.

Another way of minimizing the cement content in a concrete is to substitute parts of the
cement with other pozzolanic materials. It is common to produce concrete with fly ash and/or
micro silica. Both of these materials are residual products (from production of electricity and
production of silicon, respectively) and both have a pozzolanic effect. Thus, a material with
large environmental impact, i.e. the cement, is substituted with materials with reduced
environmental impacts. Although there is no guideline given by the BIS on the addition of
above components, the Danish Standards have laid down certain restrictions as given in
Table 2.
4.2.2. Energy consumption during cement and concrete production

It is also possible to reduce the environmental impact of concrete by reducing the

environmental impact of cement and concrete production. As regards concrete production,
experience with the reduction of primarily water consumption, energy consumption and
waste production is available. Even though the contribution of concrete production to the
environmental profile of concrete is minor, it does contribute, and is important

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environmentally and economically to the single concrete producer. By selecting a cement
type with reduced environmental impacts and by minimizing the amount of cement the
concrete‘s environmental properties are drastically changed. This must, however, be done
whilst still taking account of the technical requirements of the concrete for the type and
amount of cement. Denmark‘s cement manufacturer, Aalborg Portland, prioritizes
development of cements with reduced environmental impacts.

4.3. Evaluation of inorganic wastes

The materials, which have been judged as useable for concrete production and selected for
further development, are shown in Figure 1. The judgment was based on an evaluation
concerning both concrete technology and environmental aspects. Inorganic residual products
from the concrete industry (e.g. stone dust and concrete slurry) and products which pose a
huge waste problem to society and which are in political focus (e.g. combustion ash from
water-purifying plants, smoke waste from waste combustion and fly ash from sugar
production) have been given highest priority.

Stone dust: Stone dust is a residual product from the crushing of aggregates. It is an inert
material with a particle size between that of cement and sand particles. Stone dust is expected
to substitute part of the sand.

Concrete slurry: Concrete slurry is a residual product from concrete production, i.e.
washing mixers and other equipment. The concrete slurry is can be either a dry or wet
substance, and can be recycled either as a dry powder or with water. In the case of recycling
of the dry material, it is necessary to process it to powder. The concrete slurry can have some
pozzolanic effect, and might therefore be used as a substitute for part of the cement or for
other types of pozzolanic materials such as fly ash.

Combustion ash from water-purifying plants: This type of combustion ash has the same
particle size and shape as fly ash particles. The content of heavy metals in the slurry is
expected to be approximately at the same level as for fly ash. The slurry can also have some
pozzolanic effect.
Smoke waste from waste combustion: This smoke waste can have some pozzolanic effect.
The content of heavy metals is significantly higher than that of ordinary fly ash. Furthermore,
the content of chlorides, fluorides and sulphates can result in negative effects in connection
with reinforcement corrosion, retardation and possible thaumasite reactions. Further
processing will be necessary before its use in concrete.

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 4.4. Different ways to produce Green concrete

1) To increase the use of conventional residual products:

To minimize the clinker content, i.e. by replacing cement with fly ash, micro silica in
larger amounts than are allowed today.
2) By developing new green cements and binding materials:
By increasing the use of alternative raw materials and alternative fuels, and by
developing/improving cement with low energy consumption \
3) Concrete with inorganic residual products:
Stone dust, crushed concrete as aggregate in quantities and cement stabilized
foundation with waste incinerator slag, low quality fly ash or other inorganic residual
products.

Firstly, an information-screening of potential inorganic residual products is carried out. The

products are described by origin, amounts, particle size and geometry, chemical composition
and possible environmental impacts.

5. LIMITATIONS OF GREEN CONCRETE

Although green concrete seems very promising when it comes to an environment friendly
sustainable development, the cardinal concern is its durability. Refutations are being
constantly raised regarding the service life of structures made with green concrete. Further
the split tension of green concrete has been found much less than that of conventional
concrete. Another challenge before green concrete is that of a market. Until the properties of

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green concrete are at par with the conventional concrete, green concrete is unlikely to find
many customers.

Several researchers have argued that green concrete can be made durable by using stainless
steel reinforcements, but the predicament is that by using stainless steel concrete the cost of
the construction increases considerably. Even after this, green concrete is not as durable as
the conventional concrete.
The limitations of using green concrete can be summarized as below:
a) By using stainless steel, cost of reinforcement increases.
b) Structures constructed with green concrete have comparatively less life than
structures with conventional concrete.
c) Split tension of green concrete is less than that of conventional concrete. d) Not as
durable as conventional concrete.

Given these limitations coupled with the urgent need of reduction in greenhouse gas
emissions, has sparked off a number of researches across the globe to make green concrete
more durable and bring it up to the mark with conventional concrete.

6. SCOPE IN INDIA

Green concrete is a revolutionary topic in the history of concrete industry. Concrete is an

indispensable entity for a developing country like India which desperately needs a

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continuously expanding infrastructure. India is the second largest producer of cement in the
world. Further India would be facing an exponential growth in the concrete demand by 2011
(Schumacher, 1999).

Being produced in voluminous quantities in India, the concrete industry has a considerable
part in the net CO2 emissions from the country. The net CO2 emissions from the
construction agency are greater than any other industry.

In order to act in a responsible manner towards a sustainable development of the nation,

Green concrete is the need of the hour. India being a developing country produces concrete in
gargantuan quantities which result in huge volumes of CO2 being emitted into the
atmosphere each year. The total energy consumption (a rough estimate of the net CO2
emissions) during the manufacture of cement in India is tabulated as below:

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The above statistics, though old, can be used as a guideline since the technological
advancements have been scarce. As not much has been done and not much can be done to
reduce these consumptions, the only alternative left is that of a green concrete, which will
reduce the net CO2 emissions in the whole life cycle of concrete.

Thus we can deduce that, for a greener future, India needs to adopt Green concrete into
practice as soon as possible. The other advantageous factor is its economy. As green
concrete is made with concrete wastes and recycled aggregates, which are cheaper than
conventional substitutes, and also with most of the industries facing problems with their
waste disposal, put it out of the question to discard it.

Another type of green concrete, pervious concrete, is also a precious entity when it comes to
storm water management and rain water harvesting. Using pervious concrete we can easily
tame the run-off and harness it for future uses in relatively dry areas, which would have
otherwise drained away. With the alarmingly increasing cases of droughts each year pervious
concrete would prove to be a utilitarian tool. (Wikipedia)

The above facts clearly state a wide and promising scope of Green Concrete in the near
future.

7. CONCLUSIONS

The overview of the present state of affairs regarding concrete types with reduced
environmental impact has shown that there is considerable knowledge and experience on the
subject. The Danish and European environmental policies have motivated the concrete
industry to react, and will probably also motivate further development of the production and
use of concrete with reduced environmental impact. The somewhat vague environmental
requirements that exist have resulted in a need for more specific technical requirements, and
the most important goal is to develop the technology necessary to produce and use resource
saving concrete structures, i.e. green concrete. This applies to structure design, specification,
manufacturing, performance, operation, and maintenance.

In 1994 cement industry consumed 6.6 EJ of primary energy, corresponding with 2% of

world energy consumption. Worldwide 1126 Mt CO2 or 5% of the CO2 production
originates from cement production. The carbon intensity of cement making amounts to 0.81

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kg CO2/kg cement. In India, North America, and China the carbon intensity is about 10%
higher than on average. Specific carbon emissions range from 0.36 kg to 1.09 kg CO2/kg
cement mainly depending on type of process, clinker/cement ratio and fuel used.

The potential environmental benefit to society of being able to build with green concrete is
huge. It is realistic to assume that the technology can be developed, which half the CO2
emission related to concrete production, and this can will mean a potential reduction of total
CO2 emission by 2% (Obla 2009).

Seventeen different energy efficiency improvement options are identified. The improvement
ranges from a small percentage to more than 25% per option, depending on the reference
case (i.e. type of process, fuel used) and local situation. The use of waste instead of fossil
fuel may reduce CO2 emissions by 0.1 to 0.5 kg/kg cement (varying from 20 to 40%). An
end-of-pipe technology to reduce carbon emissions may be CO2 removal. Probably the main
technique is combustion under oxygen while recycling CO2 (Hendriks, 2004). However,
considerably research is required to all unknown aspects of this technique.

It is important to keep a holistic cradle to cradle perspective when it comes to the use of a
material. Based on a research Gajda et al. concluded that occupant energy use accounts for
99% of life cycle energy use of a single family home. Less than 1% of the life cycle energy
used in that home was due to manufacturing cement and producing concrete. The global
cement industry accounts for approximately 5% of global CO2 emissions. So whatever way
one looks at it focusing on just the production of concrete accounts for a very small percent
of overall CO2 emissions. This is not to say that progress should not be made in reducing the
CO2 emissions from concrete as produced. However one should keep in mind that whatever
CO2 emission reductions that are possible will still account for at best a 2% global CO2
reduction (assuming a challenging 21% reduction in global CO2 emissions from cement
manufacture from now on).

8. REFERENCES

1. Au Youn Thean Seng http://www.madisonvelocity.blogspot.com/

2. Carbon di oxide Information Analysis Centre, http://cdiac.ornl.gov/
3. Concrete Materials, DS 481:1998 [in Danish].
4. Gajda, J., VanGeem, Martha G., Marceau, Medgar L., ―Environmental Life Cycle
Inventory of Single Family Housing‖, SN2582a, Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL, PCA, 2002, www.cement.org
5. Glavind M. and Munch-Petersen C., ― Green‘Concrete in Denmark‖, Structural
Concrete, 1(1), March 2000.

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6. Green Globes, The Green Building Initiative, Portland, Oregon,
http://www.thegbi.org/
7. Hendriks, C. A., Worrell, E., de Jager, D., Blok, K. and Riemer P., ―Emission
Reduction of Greenhouse Gases from the Cement Industry‖, Conference Paper-
Cement, 2004, http://www.ieagreen.org.uk/
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/Pervious_Concrete
9. http://www.enercon.com/
10. Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED), U.S. Green Building
Council, Washington, DC, http://www.usgbc.org/
11. Medgar L. Marceau, Michael A. Nisbet, and Martha G. VanGeem, ―Life Cycle
Inventory of Portland Cement Concrete‖, SN3011, Portland Cement Association,
Skokie, IL, PCA, 2002, www.cement.org
12. Obla, K. H., ―What is Green Concrete? ‖, Point of view, The Indian Concrete
Journal, 24(4):26-28, April 2009.
13. Pravin K., Kaushik S.K. ―SCC with crusher sludge, fly ash and micro silica.‖ The
Indian Concrete Journal. 79(8): 32-37, August 2005.
14. Shahul Hameed, M. and Sekar, A. S. S., ―Properties of Green Concrete containing
quarry rock dust and marble sludge powder as fine aggregate‖ ARPN journal of
engineering and applied sciences, 4(4), June 2009.
15. Shumacher, K. and Sathaye J., ―India‘s Cement Industry: Productivity, Energy
Efficiency and Carbon Emissions‖, Energy Analysis Program, Environmental Energy
Technologies Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, July
1999.
16. TERI, 1996: Teri Energy Data Directory and Yearbook 1996/97, Tata Energy
Research Institute, New Delhi, India: Pauls Press.

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