WETLAND CONSERVATION AND LAW

Introduction
Many of us have come across some areas where water is the primary factor which is controlling
the environment and the associated plant and animal life. We have seen the occurrence of these
areas where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by
water. These areas in general are known as ‘Wetlands’.
We can define the Wetlands as the land transitional between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem
where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land which is covered by shallow
water. It basically refers to all the area with the water covered periodically, seasonally, or
permanently, such as, respectively, tidal flats, and flooded areas near rivers, rice paddies,
swamps or lakes.
These areas perform numerous valuable functions such as recycle nutrients, purify water,
attenuate floods, recharge ground water and also serves in providing drinking water, fish, fodder,
fuels, wildlife habitat, control rate of runoff in urban areas, buffer shorelines against erosion and
recreation to society.
The Wetlands share the characteristics of both the environments yet it cannot be classified
unambiguously as either an aquatic or terrestrial. The only key factor is the presence of water for
some significant period of time, which changes the soils, the microorganisms, the plant and
animal communities, such that the land functions in a different way from the either aquatic or dry
habitats.
As these wetlands are a valuable part of the environment, some of countries adopted the
Convention on Wetlands of International Importance famously known to us as the Ramsar
Convention by signing it in 1971. Under Article 1.1 of the Ramsar Convention the wetlands are
defined as:
“areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or
temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of
marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres”.
Also in order to protect the coherent sites it is provided under the Article 2.1 of the Ramsar
Convention it is provided that the wetlands to be included in the Ramsar List of internationally
important wetlands:
“may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or
bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands”.
These wetlands have limits which can be categorized as Upland and Aquatic limits of wetlands.
The Upland Limits of Wetlands is basically:
1. The boundary between land with the predominantly hydrophytic cover- and land with
predominantly mesophytic or xerophytic cover.
2. The boundary between soil that is predominantly hydric- and soil that is predominantly
non-hydric.
3. In the case of wetlands without vegetation or soil, the boundary between land that is
flooded or saturated at some time each year-and land that is not.
The Aquatic limits of wetlands is basically:
1. The boundary between the wetland and deep water habitat.
2. In marine and estuarine ecosystems- 6 m during low tide.
3. In riverine, lacustrine and palustrine system- 2 m.
There are five major wetland types which are generally recognized:

 Marine: these includes areas not influenced by the river flows. For e.g., shorelines and
coral reef.
 Estuarine: Where the rivers meet the sea and salinity is intermediate between the salt and
the freshwater. For e.g., the deltas, mudflats. Salt marshes.
 Lacustrine: Areas of permanent water with little flow. For e.g., ponds, kettle lakes,
volcanic crater lakes.
 Riverine: Land which is periodically inundated by river overtopping. For e.g., water
meadows, flooded forests, oxbow lakes.
 Palustrine: the area where there is more or less permanent water. For e.g., papyrus
swamp, marshes, fen.
In addition to these areas there are also human-made wetlands such as the fish and shrimp ponds,
farm ponds, irrigated agricultural land, salt pans, reservoirs, gravel pits, sewage farms and
canals. However, the Ramsar Convention has adopted a Ramsar Classification of Wetland Type
which includes 42 types, grouped into three categories: Marine and Coastal Wetlands, Inland
Wetlands, and Human-made Wetlands.
The areas called Wetlands occur everywhere, from the tundra to the topics. It is not known
exactly how much of the earth’s surface is presently composed of wetlands. The UNEP-World
Conservation Monitoring Centre has suggested an estimate of about 570 million hectares (5.7
million km Sq.) – roughly 6% of the Earth’s land surface – of which 2% are lakes, 30% bogs,
26% fens, 20% swamps, and 15% floodplains. Mitsch and Gosselink, in their standard textbook
Wetlands, 3d ed. (2000), suggest 4 to 6% of the Earth’s land surface. Mangroves cover some
240,000 km Sq. of coastal area, and an estimated 600,000 km Sq. of coral reefs remain
worldwide. Nevertheless, a global review of wetland resources prepared for Ramsar COP7 in
1999, while affirming that “it is not possible to provide an acceptable figure of the areal extent of
wetlands at a global scale”, indicated a ‘best’ minimum global estimate at between 748 and 778
million hectares. The same report indicated that this “minimum” could be increased to a total of
between 999 and 4,462 million hectares when other sources of information were taken into
account.
The Ramsar Convention which is basically the Convention on Wetlands of International
Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat was the first of the modern global intergovernmental
treaties on Conservation and wise use of the natural resources. The mission of the Ramsar
Convention is “the conservation and wise use of wetlands by national action and international
cooperation as a means to achieving sustainable development throughout the world". The
Convention provides a framework for international cooperation and was established following
the concern in the 1960s about the serious decline in populations of waterfowl. A list of sites was
made where changes in ecological character have occurred, are occurring or are likely to occur,
the consequent study of threats to the wetland, there commended solutions and resulting funds
obtained from the Global Environment Facility (1990). The Ramsar Convention is thus vitally
important in the conservation of the world's wetlands. At the Centre of the Ramsar philosophy is
the "Wise Use" concept. The wise use of wetlands is defined as "the maintenance of their
ecological character, achieved through the implementation of ecosystem approaches, within the
context of sustainable development". "Wise use" therefore has at its heart the conservation and
sustainable use of wetlands and their resources, for the benefit of humankind. The existing
Ramsar site list of 25 sites in India clearly proves that all the biogeographically regions of India
are not properly represented, and some of the potential sites are missing, e.g. many important
sites in the Gangetic Plain, North-east, Semi-Arid, Desert and Deccan. The Ramsar Contracting
Parties, or Member States, have committed themselves to implementing the "Three Pillars" of the
Convention: to designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance
("Ramsar List") and ensure their effective management; to work towards the wise use of all their
wetlands through national land-use planning, appropriate policies and legislation, management
actions, and public education; and to cooperate internationally concerning transboundary
wetlands, shared wetland systems, shared species, and development projects that may affect
wetlands.

CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS
Wetlands are among the world’s most productive environments. They are cradles of biological
diversity, providing the water and primary productivity upon which countless species of plants
and animals depend for survival. They support high concentrations of birds, mammals, reptiles,
amphibians, fish and invertebrate species. Wetlands are also important storehouses of plant
genetic material. Rice, for example, which is a common wetland plant, is the staple diet of more
than half of humanity. The multiple roles of wetland ecosystems and their value to humanity
have been increasingly understood and documented in recent years. This has led to large
expenditures to restore lost or degraded hydrological and biological functions of wetlands. But
it’s not enough – the race is on to improve practices on a significant global scale as the world’s
leaders try to cope with the accelerating water crisis and the effects of climate change. And this
at a time when the world’s population is likely to increase by 70 million every year for the next
20 years. Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 – more than
double the rate of population growth. One third of the world’s population today lives in countries
already experiencing moderate to high water stress. By 2025, two out of every three people on
Earth may well face life in water stressed conditions. The ability of wetlands to adapt to
changing conditions, and to accelerating rates of change, will be crucial to human communities
and wildlife everywhere as the full impact of climate change on our ecosystem lifelines is felt.
Small wonder that there is a worldwide focus on wetlands and their services to us. In addition,
wetlands are important, and sometimes essential, for the health, welfare and safety of people who
live in or near them. They are amongst the world’s most productive environments and provide a
wide array of benefits. Also there are inherent values which are attributed to the wastelands such
as Wetlands provide tremendous economic benefits, for example: water supply (quantity and
quality); fisheries (over two thirds of the world’s fish harvest is linked to the health of coastal
and inland wetland areas); agriculture, through the maintenance of water tables and nutrient
retention in floodplains; timber production; energy resources, such as peat and plant matter;
wildlife resources; transport; and recreation and tourism opportunities. In addition, wetlands
have special attributes as part of the cultural heritage of humanity: they are related to religious
and cosmological beliefs, constitute a source of aesthetic inspiration, provide wildlife
sanctuaries, and form the basis of important local traditions. These functions, values and
attributes can only be maintained if the ecological processes of wetlands are allowed to continue
functioning. Unfortunately, and in spite of important progress made in recent decades, wetlands
continue to be among the world’s most threatened ecosystems, owing mainly to ongoing
drainage, conversion, pollution, and over-exploitation of their resources.
But the Wetlands are in threats and therefore are in danger.
In India, The Wildlife Institute of India's survey reveals that 70-80% of individual freshwater
marshes and lakes in the Gangetic flood plains have been lost in the five decades. At present,
only 50 percent of India's wetlands remain. They are disappearing at a rate of 2- 3% every year.
Prior to the1980's wetlands were mainly converted to agricultural lands. Since the 1980's it is
estimated that over 80% of wetland losses are due to non-agricultural activities (Brown & Lant,
1999). Indian mangrove areas have been halved almost from 700,000 hectares in 1987 to
453,000 hectares in 1995 (Sustainable Wetlands, Environmental Governance-2, 1999). A recent
estimate based on remote sensing shows only 4000 sq. km area of mangroves resource in India.
The loss of wetlands leads to environmental and ecological problems, which have a direct impact
on the socioeconomic benefits of the associated populace. Serious consequences, including
increased flooding, species decline, deformity, or extinction and decline in water quality could
result. Wetlands are also important as a genetic reservoir for various species of plants including
rice, which is a staple food for 3/4thof the world's population.
The factors which are responsible for wetland's threats, loss and degradation are as follows-
Wetlands loss and Degradation
“Wetland loss” is the loss of wetland area, due to the conversion of wetland to non- wetland
areas, as a result of human activity (Reduction in wetland area).

 Agricultural conversion
 Reclamation for development
 Excessive siltation
 Climate change impact

“Wetland degradation" is the impairment of wetland functions as a result of human activity

(Reduction in wetland functions).

 Reduced water quality

 Changes in the water regime
 Excessive biomass removal
 Loss of biodiversity
 Introduction of exotic species
 Climate change impacts

Wetland loss: Underlying Causes

 Information failures- Lack of awareness among people about the values of conserved
wetlands.
 Market failures- The failure of markets to reflect the full or true cost of goods or services
provided by conserved wetlands.
 Intervention failures- Absence of appropriate integrated resource management policies
and inter- sectoral policy inconsistencies leads to wetland loss and degradation.
Process of wetland loss
The wetland loss in India can be divided into two broad groups namely acute and chronic losses.
The filling up of wet areas with soil constitutes acute loss whereas the gradual elimination of
forest cover with subsequent erosion and sedimentation of the wetlands over many decades is
termed as chronic loss.
a) Acute wetland losses
Agriculture conversion

In the Indian subcontinent due to rice culture, there has been a loss in the spatial extent of
wetlands. Rice farming is a wetland dependent activity and is developed in riparian zones, river
deltas and savannah areas. Due to captured precipitation for fishpond aquaculture in the
catchment areas and rice-farms occupying areas that are not wetlands, water is deprived to the
downstream natural wetlands. Around 1.6 million hectares of freshwater are covered by
freshwater fish ponds in India. Rice-fields and fish ponds come under wetlands, but they rarely
function like natural wetlands of the estimated 58.2 million hectares of wetlands in India, 40.9
million hectares are under rice cultivation (Anon. 1993).

Direct deforestation in wetlands

Mangrove vegetation are flood and salt tolerant and grow along the coasts and are valued for fish
and shellfish, livestock fodder, fuel wood, building materials, local medicine, honey, beeswax
and for extracting chemicals for tanning leather (Ahmad 1980). Alternative farming methods and
fisheries production has replaced many mangrove areas and continues to pose threats. Eighty
percent of India's 4240 km2 of mangrove forests occur in the Sundarbans and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands (Anon. 1991). But most of the coastal mangroves are under severe pressure due
to the economic demand on shrimps. Important ecosystem functions such as buffer zones against
storm surges, nursery grounds and escape cover for commercially important fishery are lost. The
shrimp farms also caused excessive withdrawal of freshwater and increased pollution load on
water like increased lime, organic wastes, pesticides, chemicals and disease causing organisms.
The greatest impacts were on the people directly dependent on the mangroves for natural
materials, fish proteins and revenue. The ability of wetlands to trap sediments and slow water is
reduced.

Hydrologic alteration

Alteration in the hydrology can change the character, functions, values and the appearance of
wetlands. The changes in hydrology include either the removal of water from wetlands or raising
the and-surface elevation, such that it no longer floods. Canal dredging operations have been
conducted in India from 1800s due to which 3044 km2of irrigated land has increased to 4550
km2 in1990 (Anon. 1994). Initial increase in the crop productivity has given way for reduced
fertility and salt accumulations in soil due to irrigated farming of arid soils. India has 32,000 ha
of peat-land remaining and drainage of these lands will lead to rapid subsidence of soil surface.

Inundation by dammed reservoirs

Presently, there are more than 1550 large reservoirs covering more than 1.45 million ha and
more than 100000 small and medium reservoirs covering 1.1 million ha in India (Gopal 1994).
By impounding the water, the hydrology of an area is significantly altered and allows for
harnessing moving water as a source of energy. While the benefits of energy are well recognized,
it also alters the ecosystem.

b) Chronic Wetland Losses

Alterations of upper watersheds

Watershed conditions influence the wetlands. The condition of the land where precipitation falls,
collects and runs-off into the soil will influence the character and hydrologic regime of the
downstream wetlands. When agriculture, deforestation or overgrazing removes the water-holding
capacity of the soil then soil erosion becomes more pronounced. Large areas of India's watershed
area are being physically stripped of their vegetation for human use.

Degradation of water quality

Water quality is directly proportional to human population and its various activities. More than
50,000 small and large lakes are polluted to the point of being considered 'dead' (Chopra 1985).
The major polluting factors are sewage, industrial pollution and agricultural runoff, which may
contain pesticides, fertilizers and herbicides.

Ground water depletion

Draining of wetlands has depleted the groundwater recharge. Recent estimate indicates that in
rural India, about 6000 villages are without a source for drinking water due to the rapid depletion
of ground water. Introduced species and extinction of native biota- Wetlands in India support
around 2400 species and subspecies of birds. But losses in habitat have threatened the diversity
of these ecosystems (Mitchell & Gopal 1990). Introduction of exotic species like water hyacinth
(Eichornia crassipes) and salvinia (Salvinia molesta) have threatened the wetlands and clogged
the waterways competing with the native vegetation. In a recent attempt at prioritization of
wetlands for conservation, Samant (1999) noted that as many as 700 potential wetlands do not
have any data to prioritize. Many of these wetlands are threatened.

Urbanization

Wetlands near urban centers are under increasing developmental pressure for residential,
industrial
and commercial facilities. Urban wetlands are essential for preserving public waters supplies.

Anthropogenic activities

Due town planned urban and agricultural development industries, road construction,
impoundment, resource extraction and dredge disposal, wetlands have drained and transformed,
causing substantial economic and ecological losses in the long term.

Agricultural activities
following the green revolution of the 1970s, vast stretches of wetland shave been converted to
paddy fields. Construction of large number of reservoirs, canals and dams to provide for
irrigation
significantly altered the hydrology of associated wetlands.

Hydrologic activities

Construction of canals and diversion of streams and rivers to transport water to lower arid
regions for irrigation has altered the drainage pattern and significantly degraded the wetlands of
the region.

Deforestation

Removal of vegetation in the catchments leads to soil erosion and siltation.

Pollution

Non-point source pollution from agricultural runoff, seepage from septic wastewater, and
contaminated storm water can overwhelm the filtering capacity of wetlands; impacting
downstream coastal waters. Unrestricted dumping of sewage and toxic chemicals from industries
has polluted many freshwater wetlands.

Salinization
Over withdrawal of groundwater has led to salinization.

Aquaculture

Demands for shrimps and fishes have provided economic insensitive to convert wetlands and
mangroves forest to develop pisci culture and aquaculture ponds.

Non-native predators

Feral cats, mongooses, rodents, cattle egrets, and common barn owls eat native ground nesting
birds and their chicks. Bullfrogs and cane toads eat fish eggs, native insects, and even young
water birds. These predators can decimate native bird populations. Non-native plants such as
California grass and non-native pickle weed out-compete native plants, and can quickly create
single species colonies in wetlands, reducing wetland plant diversity and ecological function.
Non-native fish prey on native damselflies and devour wetland vegetation, reducing food
availability for water birds.
Hybridization

The endangered, endemic koloa maoli duck, found only in Hawaii, is currently at risk of
extinction due to cross-breeding with feral mallards.

Climate Change
Increases in global temperatures contribute to sea level rise, which will impact coastal wetland
systems. Future changes in local precipitation and higher temperatures will impact bogs at higher
elevations, and ephemeral (seasonal) wetlands may dry up.

Importance of Wetlands

In terms of human development and land use, wetlands have often been viewed as wastelands or
areas with limited development potential. Historically wetlands have been drained or filled-in so
that the land area could be "used for beneficial human purposes". This view of wetlands does not
reflect the values and benefits associated with them. It is estimated that wetlands covered 220
million acres of the lower 48 states prior to European settlement (Brown & Lant, 1999). By the
mid-1980s wetland areas had been reduced to 103million acres, representing a loss of about 54%
of the nation's wetland areas. The importance of wetlands has changed with time. Back in the
swampy environments of the Carboniferous Period, some 350million years ago, wetlands
produced and preserved many of the fossil fuels (coal and oil) upon which we depend today.
More recently, wetlands along some of major rivers of the world, including the Tigris, Euphrates,
Niger,
Nile, Indus and Mekong, nurtured the great civilizations of history. These wetlands provided
fish, drinking water, pasture land and transport and were part of the cultural history of early
people, being a central element of mythology, art and religion. As scientific understanding of
wetlands has increased, more subtle goods and services have become apparent. Wetlands have
been described both as "the kidneys of the landscape", because of the functions they can perform
in the hydrological and chemical cycles, and as "biological supermarkets" because of the
extensive food webs and rich biodiversity they support (Mitsch & Gosselink,1993). Wetlands are
among the Earth's most productive ecosystems. The features of the system may be grouped into
components, functions and attributes. The components of the system are the biotic and non-biotic
features which include the soil, water, and plants and animals. The interactions between the
components express themselves as functions, including nutrient cycling and exchange of water
between the surface and the groundwater and the surface and the atmosphere. The system also
has attributes, such as the diversity of species. Wetland systems directly support millions of
people and provide goods and services to the world outside the wetland. People use wet land
soils for agriculture, they catch wetland fish to eat, and they cut wetland trees for timber and fuel
wood and wetland reeds to make mats and to thatch roofs. Direct use may also take the form of
recreation, such as bird watching or sailing, or scientific study. For example, peat soils have
preserved ancient remains of people and track ways which are of great interest to archaeologists.
Apart from using the wetlands directly, people benefit from wetland functions or services. As
flood water flows out over a flood plain wetland, the water is temporarily stored; this reduces the
peak river level and delays the time of the peak, which can be a benefit to riparian dwellers
downstream. Wetlands serve a number of important functions and provide benefits to humans
and wildlife.
The following benefits of wetlands are often overlooked:

Erosion control

Wetlands support vegetation that acts as a flood buffer and reduces stream bank erosion during
flooding events.

Flood water storage

Wetlands store water during flooding events and then slowly release the water as flooding
subsides. This can significantly reduce peak flood flows and resulting flood damage downstream.
Wetlands also serve as a reservoir for runoff water during heavy rain periods. These wetland
reservoirs can typically hold more water than it appears, allowing for a reduction in the amount
of flooding.

Ground water recharge

Wetlands store surface water, which then infiltrates into the ground, providing recharge to
aquifers. This ground water recharge in turn is slowly released back to adjacent surface water
bodies, such as streams, providing water during low flow periods (base flow).

Water purification

Wetlands improve water quality by filtering polluted runoff from cities and agricultural lands.
They trap sediments, utilize excess nutrients present in runoff, and breakdown many waterborne
contaminants. Constructed wetlands are being used to treat contaminated waters from mines,
sewer systems, and urban storm water runoff. These reservoirs also filter the water that is
brought through the wetland. Before reaching the water table below, wetlands are able to filter
out sediment, nutrients and toxic chemicals. The great diversity in plants, each one varying in its
physiological capabilities, prevent nutrient and toxic chemical build up form disturbing the
natural cycle of the wetland.

Recreation & Economic Benefits

Wetlands are often visited for recreational purposes such as hiking, bird watching, wildlife
photography, and hunting. These activities can translate into dollars spent at local businesses,
adding to the economy. Research has been conducted to try and determine what the economic
benefits of wetlands. Wetlands recycle nitrogen, they improve water quality downstream. By
benefiting in this way, people are making indirect use of the wetland functions. These functions
may be performed by engineering schemes such as dams, sea walls or water treatment plants, but
such technological solutions are normally more expensive than when performed by wetlands.
Not all wetlands, however, perform all of these hydrological functions to the same extent, if at
all. Indeed, some wetlands perform hydrological functions which may be contrary to human
needs, such as riparian wetlands which may act as runoff generating areas, thus increasing flood
risk downstream. It is therefore crucial to quantify the functions of a wetland before valuing it.
The mere existence of wetlands may be of great significance to some people. Those who have
grown up in wetlands, but have moved away to a town, may have placed a high value on the
wetland because it is part of their cultural heritage, even though they may never visit the wetland.
The monetary value of the ecological functions that various ecosystems provide, relative to what
it would cost for humans to engineer facilities to perform the functions was evaluated by Mitsch
and Gosselink (2000). Estuaries and Wetlands had much higher values than other ecosystems.

Functional Ecological Value of Wetlands and other Ecosystems

Ecosystem Type Unit Value ($/ha/year)

Estuaries $22,832
Wetlands $14,785
Lakes and Rivers $8,498
Forests $969
Grasslands $232

If researchers are to value wetland uses and decision-makers are to take these into account when
making policies that affect wetlands, then a framework for distinguishing and grouping these
values is required. The concept of total economic value (TEV) provides such a framework and
there is an increasing consensus that it is the most appropriate one to use. Simply put, total
economic valuation distinguishes between use values and non-use values, the latter referring to
those current or future (potential) values associated with an environmental resource which rely
merely on its continued existence and are unrelated to use (Pearce and Watford, 1993).
Typically, use values involve some human 'interaction' with the resource whereas non-use values
do not. The total economic valuation framework, as applied to wetlands, is illustrated in Table.4.
Use values are grouped according to whether they are direct or indirect. The former refers to
those uses which are most familiar to us: harvesting of fish, collection of fuel wood and use of
the wetlands for recreation (Table No. 4. lists several others as well).

Direct uses of wetlands could involve both commercial and non-commercial activities, with
some of the latter activities often being important for the subsistence needs of local populations
in developing countries or for sport and recreation in developed countries. Commercial uses may
be important for both domestic and international markets. In general, the value of marketed
products (and services) of wetlands is easier to measure than the value of non-commercial and
subsistence direct uses. As noted above, this is one reason why policy makers often fail to
consider these non-marketed subsistence and informal uses of wetlands in many development
decisions. In contrast, various regulatory ecological functions of wetlands may have important
indirect use values. Their values derive from supporting or protecting economic activities that
have directly measurable values. The indirect use value of an environmental function is related to
the change in the value of production or consumption of the activity or property that it is
protecting or supporting. However, as this contribution is un marketed, goes financially
unrewarded and is only indirectly connected to economic activities, these indirect use values are
difficult to quantify and are generally ignored
in wetland management decisions.

Economic Valuation of Wetlands

For example, the storm protection and shoreline stabilization functions of a wetland may have
indirect use value through reducing property damages, yet often coastal or riverine wetland
systems are drained in order to build still more waterfront property. Mangrove systems are
known to be breeding grounds and nurseries for shrimp and fish that are essential for coastal and
marine fisheries, yet these important habitats are currently being converted rapidly in many
regions for aquaculture, particularly shrimp ponds. Natural flood plains may recharge
groundwater used for dry land agriculture, grazing livestock and domestic or even industrial use,
yet many of these flood plains are threatened by dams and other barrages diverting water for
upstream irrigation and water supply. A special category of value is option value, which arises
because an individual may be uncertain about his or her future demand for are source and/or its
availability in the wetland in the future. In most cases, the preferred approach for incorporating
option values in to the analysis is through determining the difference between ex ante and ex post
valuation. If an individual is uncertain about the future value of a wetland, but believes it may be
high or that current exploitation and conversion may be irreversible, then there may be quasi-
option value derived from delaying the development activities. Quasi-option value is simply the
expected value of the information derived from delaying exploitation and conversion of the
wetland today. Many economists believe that quasi-option value is not a separate component of
benefit but involves the analyst in properly accounting for the implications of gaining additional
information. In contrast, however, there are individuals who do not currently make use of
wetlands but nevertheless wish to see them preserved' in their own right'. Such an 'intrinsic' value
is often referred to as existence value. It is a form of non-use value that is extremely difficult to
measure, as existence values involve subjective valuations by individuals unrelated to either their
own or others' use, whether current or future. An important subset of non-use or preservation
values is bequest value, which results from individuals placing a high value on the conservation
of tropical wetlands for future generations to use. Bequest values may be particularly high
among the local populations currently using a wetland, in that they would like to see the wetland
and their way of life that has evolved in conjunction with it passed on to their heirs and future
generations in general.
Education

Wetlands make excellent and inexpensive outdoor laboratories for students of all ages. For
example, the Cherry River recreation site located on the north side of Bozeman, Montana is
visited by hundreds of school children each year. The students get to see numerous plants and
animals, and the cost to local schools is minor, other than the transportation. Research has been
conducted to try and determine what the economic benefits of wetlands are. The monetary value
of the ecological functions that various ecosystems provide, relative to what it would cost for
humans to
engineer facilities to perform the functions was evaluated by Mitsch and Gosselink (2000).

Wildlife habitat
Many species are dependent upon wetlands for all or a portion of their life cycle. Wetlands
provide
habitat for fish, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrates. Wetlands are arguably
one of the most important ecological structures in existence. Wetlands are depending on by
countless animal and plant species. They serve as breeding grounds for migrating birds and
resident amphibians, permanent homes for fish species, social interaction amongst mammals
who congregate there for water, and an escape from the heat of the sun for countless reptiles,
amphibians and mammals. Rarely is there a wetland seen without vegetation fighting for the
resources wetlands provide. Some vegetation species only are found amongst swamps and
ephemeral ponds. Wetlands are seen as the cornerstone of wildlife populations. Diverse species
of mammals, plants, insects, amphibians, reptiles, birds and fish rely on wetlands for food,
habitat or
shelter. Wetlands are some of the most biologically productive natural ecosystems in the world,
comparable to tropical rain forests or coral reefs in the number and variety of species they
support. Although wetlands make up only about 5 percent of the land area of the lower 48 states,
more than one third of threatened and endangered species live only in wetlands. An additional
20% of the country's threatened and endangered species use or inhabit wetlands at some time in
their life. Some species must have a wetland in order to reproduce. Migrating waterfowl rely on
wetlands for resting, eating and breeding areas, leading to increased populations. As noted, the
appeal of wetlands and the diversity of plant and animal life they attract contribute to or support
many businesses.

WETLANDS CONSERVATION

All local decision makers, whether elected or appointed officials, volunteer committee members,
or staff, face difficult questions about how to meet community needs for housing, public
infrastructure, and economic development while also protecting sensitive natural resources.
Though wetlands were once perceived as wastelands, today the natural functions and public
benefits of wetlands are well understood by both scientists and land managers. Wetlands now
receive special protections under both state and federal law and public support for wetland
preservation has increased tremendously in recent decades. Ramsar Convention into force in
1975 and currently has 100 Contracting Parties, which are obliged to undertake four main
activities. These are:
 To designate wetlands for inclusion in the 'List of Wetlands of International Importance'
and to maintain their ecological character.
In develop national wetland policies, to include wetland conservation considerations within their
national land-use planning, to develop integrated catchment management plans and, in particular,
to adopt and apply the guidelines for implementation of the Wise Use Concept, which is the
sustainable utilization of wetlands for the benefit of mankind in a way compatible with the
maintenance of the natural properties of the ecosystem.
 To promote the conservation of wetlands in their territory through establishment of nature
reserves and to promote training in wetland research, management and wardening.
 To consult with other Contracting Parties about transfrontier wetlands, shared water
systems, shared species and development aid for wetland projects.
In this way the Convention plays an important role in helping to prevent detrimental changes to
wetland sites in states that are party to the Convention. Technical support on wetland
conservation is provided to the Convention from organizations such as IUCN-The World
Conservation Union and Wetlands International (a new body formed from the International
Waterfowl and Wetland Research Bureau, the Asian Wetland Bureau and Wetlands for the
Americas).
Notable successes include:
 Prevention of agricultural development of habitat for Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia in the
Hortobagy Ramsar site.

Information Sheet on Ramsar Wetlands

In India alone there are 37 Ramsar Sites covering 1,067,939 ha.

Deepor Beel

A permanent freshwater lake in a former channel of the Brahmaputra river, of great biological
importance and also essential as the only major storm water storage basin for the city of
Guwahati. The beel is a staging site on migratory flyways and some of the largest concentrations
of aquatic birds in Assam can be seen, especially in winter. Some globally threatened birds are
supported, including Spotbilled Pelican (Pelicanus philippensis), Lesser and Greater Adjutant
Stork (Leptoptilos javanicus and dubius), and Baer's Pochard (Aythya baeri). The 50 fish species
present provide livelihoods for a number of surrounding villages, and nymphaea nuts and
flowers, as well as ornamental fish, medicinal plants, and seeds of the Giant water lily Euryale
ferox provide major revenue sources in local markets; orchids of commercial value are found in
the neighboring forest. Potential threats include over-fishing and hunting pressure upon
waterbirds, pollution from pesticides and fertilizers, and infestation by water hyacinth Eichhornia
crassipes. A proposal to create a sewage canal from the city directly to the beel is considered to
be disastrous in its potential
effects. Ramsar site no. 1207. Most recent RIS information: 2002.

Loktak Lake

Added to the Montreux Record, 16 June 1993. A large, but shrinking freshwater lake and
associated swamplands supplied by several streams. Thick, floating mats of weeds covered with
soil (phumids') are a characteristic feature. The lake is used extensively by local people as a
source of water for irrigation and domestic use and is an important wintering and staging area for
waterbirds, particularly ducks. It also plays an important role in flood control. Included on the
Montreux Record in 1993 as a result of ecological problems such as deforestation in the
catchment area, infestation of water hyacinth, and pollution. The construction of a dam for
hydroelectric power generation and irrigation purposes has caused the local extinction of several
native fish species. Ramsar site no. 463. Most recent RIS information: 1990.

Rudrasagar Lake

A lowland sedimentation reservoir in the northeast hills, fed by three perennial streams
discharging to the River Gomti. The lake is abundant in commercially important freshwater
fishes like Botia spp, Notopterus Chitala, Mystus spp., Ompok pabda, Labeo bata, and
freshwater scampi, with annual production of 26 metric-tons, and an ideal habitat for IUCN Red
listed Three-striped Roof Turtle Kachuga dhongka. Owing to high rainfall (2500mm) and
downstream topography, the wetland is regularly flooded with 4-5 times annual peak, assisting in
groundwater recharge. Aquatic weeds are composed of rare marginal-floating emergent-
submerged weeds. Lands are owned by the state with perennial water areas leased out to the
subsistent fishermens' cooperative, and surrounding seasonal waterbodies are cultivated for
paddy. Main threats are increasing silt loads due to deforestation, expansion of agricultural land
and intensive farming, and land conversion for population pressure. Vijaya Dashami, one of the
most important Hindu festivals with various sports events, attracts at least 50,000 tourists and
devotees every year. A management plan is underway by the MoEF-India. Ramsar site no. 1572.
Most recent RIS information: 2005.