Award Address
Depression and Gender
An International Review
Frances M. Culbertson
University of Wisconsin--Whitewater and Mental Health Associates
This article reviews and updates major research findings
on depressive disorders and gender relationships in the
United States and abroad. It also considers some of the
World Health Organization's assessment instruments that
may clarify the relationship between depression and gen-
der and its cross-cultural ramifications. With psychology
converging across national boundaries and with gender
being a variable in psychological research both nation-
ally and internationally, gender and its relationship to
depressive states is emerging as a focal point of interest
and concern.
B eginning in the 1970s and continuing to the present
day, two important and stimulating developments
in the area of depression have occurred cross-
culturally. One development was represented by the be-
ginning studies of Weissman and Klerman (1977) on sex
differences and the epidemiology of depression. The
other development was marked by the World Health Or-
ganization's (WHO's) initiations into the areas of stan-
dardization of psychiatric diagnosis, classification, and
statistics (Sartorius, 1972; WHO, 1973) and its concomi-
tant development of assessment instruments that have
proved to be reliable and valid across nations (Janca,
Ustun, & Sartorius, 1994).
Gender and Depression
For the past 30 years or so, in the United States and
internationally, women have experienced depression
about twice as frequently as men. Some researchers even
quote a f e m a l e - m a l e ratio of 3:1 for depression (Kler-
man & Weissman, 1989; Wetzel, 1994). For major de-
pression, which is more impairing than a number of other
medical conditions, the ratio has been reported as four
women for every man, although rates vary with ethnicity
and culture (Sileo, 1990). For bipolar disorder (manic
depression), the rates are equal between the sexes (Weis s -
man, 1987).
Given these ratios for depression in women and men,
gender is an important variable in cross-culturally con-
ceptualizing, assessing, and treating depression. Cross-
cultural research on depression and gender should help
January 1997 • American Psychologist
Copyright 1997 by the American Psychological Association, Inc. 0003-066X/97/$2.00
Vol. 52, No. 1, 25-31
answer some questions associated with the differences
between women and men in the occurrence of depression
observed in some countries.
Review of Literature on Gender and
Depression
Although there has been much research on gender in the
United States, gender as a research variable has not been
widely used in studies conducted outside the United
States. Despite W H O ' s long history of research on de-
pression, those efforts did not include psychology until
recently, and the inclusion of gender differences in de-
pression has not become part of W H O ' s research.
This article reviews seven significant publications
that together form an important part of the foundation for
a cross-cultural understanding of depression and gender
differences. These studies, listed chronologically, are as
follows: (a) W H O ' s publications from 1973 to 1995; (b)
studies by the National Institute of Mental Health
(NIMH; Depression Awareness, Recognition, and Treat-
ment [D/ART] Program, 1987); (c) psychiatric .studies of
Weissman and Klerman (1977; Klerman & Weissman,
1989); (d) an American Psychological Association (APA)
task force report (McGrath, Keita, Strickland, & Russo,
1990); (e) Nolen-Hoeksema's (1990) study on sex differ-
ences in depression; (f) 1993 publications by the Depres-
sion Guideline Panel and the Agency for Health Care
Policy and Research (AHCPR); and (g) the National Co-
morbidity Study by Kessler, McGonagle, and Zhao
(1994).
Editor's note. A version of this article was originally presented as
part of an Award for Distinguished Contributions to the International
Advancement of Psychology address at the 103rd Annual Convention
of the American PsychologicalAssociation, New York,August 1995.
Author's note. Frances M. Culbertson, Department of Psychology,
University of Wisconsin--Whitewater, and Mental Health Associates,
Madison, WI.
I would like to express my appreciation and thanks to Robert
Koehler and Alice Cunninghamfor their assistance in library searches.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
Frances M. Culbertson, Mental HealthAssociates, 20 South Park Street,
Suite 403, Madison, WI 53716.
25
World Hrmlth Organization's Studies
Research in the field of clinical depression has been an
ongoing task for WHO from the 1970s to the mid-1990s
and undoubtedly will continue for some time. In a WHO
report, Sartorius (1979) estimated that more than 100
million individuals in the world suffer from depression
and these 100 million people then affect three times as
many other people during their illness. Also, Sartorius
reported that the recognition of culture as an important
variable in depression studies led to studying depressive
disorders in five different cultures: Basel, Switzerland;
Montreal, Canada; Nagasaki and Tokyo, Japan; and Teh-
ran, Iran. Three goals in Sartorius et al.'s (1983) study
were to develop simple, reliable instruments to measure
depression in different cultures; to obtain descriptions of
the depressive states that may occur in these different
cultures"; and to establish a network of field centers for
further research. This 10-year study led to the findings
that cross-cultural studies were feasible and appropriate
for long-term, follow-up investigations and that the sim-
ple assessment instruments used in this study were reli-
able (Sartorius et al., 1983).
In 1989, Sartorius reported that WHO was engaged
in a 10-year follow-up study of depression involving a
number of different countries to examine whether the
positive findings of symptom similarity would be more
generally confirmed. In addition, he reported that WHO
had produced new cross-cultural instruments for as-
sessing mental health status that were proving to be reli-
able and valid for cross-cultural studies.
Sartorius (1993) noted that WHO's program in epi-
demiological psychiatry had three achievements: The first
was its contribution of knowledge to the field of mental
illness in different sociocultural settings; the second was
its contribution to reliable and valid methods (e.g., assess-
ment procedures), which allow for meaningful national
and cross-cultural studies; and the third was the develop-
ment of a network of participating individuals and cen-
ters. The WHO reports on the assessment instruments
relevant for cross-cultural studies of depression, research
beginning in the 1980s and continuing into the 1990s,
are discussed later in this article.
WHO has been a major contributor to cross-cultural
studies of depression, but these research programs mainly
have been in primary medical care or hospital settings
where there are few, if any, psychologists. But this is now
a changing condition, and engagement of psychologists
in medical settings may provide avenues for psycholo-
gists to also become involved in WHO research. It should
be noted that with the influx of psychologists in this field
of study, gender studies may be more likely to become
part of WHO's research programs. As noted above, at
present, WHO studies do not involve gender compari-
sons, although they do include equal numbers of men
and women in their samples.
Awareness, Recognition, and
TDere•pression
tment Program
In 1987, NIMH published a review of the epidemiologi-
cal studies of depression conducted in the United States
26
and other Westem nations (NIMH, D/ART Program,
1987). The results of this major study reported the life-
time prevalence of affective disorders, which included
depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse, and
the comorbidity of these disorders. This review also in-
vestigated the relationship between gender and depres-
sion. It found that women had higher rates of depression
than men, with a ratio of 2:1 being very common. Only
bipolar depression occurred with equal frequency in
women and men. The D/ART Program review suggested
that there were three possible explanations for this differ-
ence: (a) Women were more willing than men to seek
help and thus were recorded in the database of depression
in higher numbers; (b) biological differences in women
and men may have been a causal factor; and (c) psychoso-
cial factors, such as different rearing environments, dif-
ferent social roles, and less favorable economic and so-
cial opportunities and positions in their world, may have
had a relevant influence. It was theorized that depression
in men may be concealed by their use of alcohol.
With regard to treatment strategies, the NIMH,
D/ART Program (1987) report indicated that antidepres-
sive drugs and short-term psychotherapies were effective.
The D/ART Program also stressed the need to research
gender in relation to treatment.
In addition, the NIMH, D/ART Program's (1987)
review of studies o f depression reported that although
women were more susceptible to depression than men in
later life, prior to adolescence there was no such gender
difference. Also in this report, the D/AKr Program noted
the progress that was occurring internationally in assess-
ment and diagnosis of psychiatric disorders by WHO,
especially in developing consistent diagnostic criteria for
depression, as much work continues to be needed in this
area. The hope was expressed that better cross-cultural
research studies would assist in determining the biologi-
cal and psychosocial determinants related to gender dif-
ferences and depression in all national and international
studies. The D/ART Program emphasized the importance
of longitudinal studies to support an understanding of the
relationship between early development and childhood
depression and between childhood depression and adult
depression.
Psychiatric Studies
In 1989, Klerman and Weissman reported findings of
several large epidemiologic studies that suggested a per-
sistent gender effect. The studies were conducted in the
United States, Sweden, Germany, Canada, New Zealand,
Puerto Rico, and Korea. The review of these studies by
Klerman and Weissman reported temporal changes in
depression for cohorts born after World War II as follows:
(a) Onset periods of depression were decreased, and in-
creases occurred in late adolescence or early adulthood;
(b) rates of depression increased for all participants from
1960 to 1975; (c) women were persistently reported to
be two-three times more likely to be depressed than
men across all adult ages; (d) a persistent family effect
occurred; and (e) there was a suggestion of a narrowing
January 1997 • American Psychologist
of differential risk to men and women due to a rise in
the risk of depression in young men. These findings oc-
curred in samples from the United States, Sweden, Ger-
many, Canada, and New Zealand but not in samples from
Korea and Puerto Rico nor in the sample of Mexican
Americans living in the United States.
American Psychological Association's Task Force
on Depression
In 1990, APA published its task force findings on depres-
sion among women in the United States (McGrath et al.,
1990). The findings regarding gender and depression
were as follows: In the United States, women were at
higher risk for depression than were men because of
socioeconomic, biological, and emotional variables;
women's personalities and cognitive styles and lack of
problem-solving strategies were associated with de-
pressive states; posttraumatic stress, as in sexual or physi-
cal abuse, was noted as one of the major contributing
factors to depression; married women were more likely
to be depressed, and the more children there were in
the family, the greater was the frequency of reported
depression; and lastly, for women, economic status was
highly related to reported depressive symptoms, and pov-
erty was found to be a "pathway to depression"
(McGrath et al., 1990, p. xii). Given these findings,
McGrath et al. suggested that treatment involve a careful
diagnosis and that cognitive-behavioral, interpersonal,
and sociocultural feminist therapy as treatment modal-
ities, as well as medications, be closely monitored for
treatment efficacy.
Work by Nolen-Hoeksema
In 1990, Nolen-Hoeksema published her book Sex Differ-
ences in Depression, which reviewed studies of depres-
sion and gender conducted outside the United States.
Nolen-Hoeksema reported on gender differences in de-
pression in individuals from high-income countries (de-
veloped countries) and low-income countries (developing
countries). In her review of studies of treated cases of
depression outside the United States, Nolen-Hoeksema
reported that there was a mean 2:1 female-male ratio of
depression in developed nations. However, in studies of
depression outside the developed nations, she reported
no significant findings of female-male depression differ-
ences, especially in developing countries. These findings
led her to suggest that the culture of a country is a sig-
nificant determinant of female-male differences in
depression.
Nolen-Hoeksema (1990) also reported that high-
income countries, for example, Sweden, Denmark, and
Australia, had significant gender differences in depression
whereas low-income countries, for example, Nigeria and
Uganda, did not. However, these findings cannot be gener-
alized to all high-low-income countries. As Nolen-
Hoeksema noted, her review of studies from 1956 to 1981
included only those investigations that were considered
adequate in methodology and design; therefore, many
January 1997 • American Psychologist
other studies and countries were excluded from her analy-
ses. Of the studies she included in her analyses, women
were diagnosed as having depressive disorders signifi-
cantly more frequently than men, at a 2:1 ratio. She also
found that women reported a greater number of de-
pressive symptoms than did men.
Agency for Health Care Policy and Research
In 1993, AHCPR published two volumes on depression
in primary care. These volumes provide guidelines for
patients and primary care physicians regarding detection
and treatment of depression in primary care settings.
They also report gender differences related to depression.
In its epidemiologic report on depression in primary care,
AHCPR noted that in Western industrialized nations, for
major depression, the incidence was 2% for men and 5 -
9% for women. The lifetime risk factor was 7 - 1 2 % for
men and 2 0 - 2 5 % for women. AHCPR also found that
risk factors for gender differences occurred in community
samples and therefore were not due to female-seeking
behaviors, a factor reported to be associated with depres-
sion in women. These findings were also reported as
being unrelated to race, education, income, and civil
status.
The National Comorbidity Study
Finally, in 1994, Kessler eL al., in their National Comor-
bidity Study, conducted the first national mental health
survey in the United States using a modified WHO diag-
nostic instrument developed for cross-cultural work. The
results of this study revealed that women, as compared
with men, had a lifetime and 12-month prevalence of
depression of almost 2:1, confirming the findings pre-
viously reported. Other findings of interest were that fe-
male adolescents had a higher ratio of depression than
male adolescents, Hispanics in the sample were the high-
est reporters of depression, and African Americans were
the lowest reporters of depression. Kessler et al. noted
that despite the complexities of assessing and diagnosing
depression, a 2:1 ratio for depression in women com-
pared to men cross-culturally, especially in the developed
countries, has been fairly reliable.
Current Status of Gender Differences in
Depression
Some recent studies, however, have reported different
findings--findings showing a higher rate of depression
among men, which may lead to changes in the currently
accepted ratio of 2:1 between women and men. In 1992,
Weissman, Bruce, Leaf, Florio, and Holzer found the
ratio of depression in women to men to b e 2.41:1. But,
the more recent National Comorbidity Study by Kessler
et al. in 1994 showed a ratio of 1.7:1 of women compared
to men, indicating a higher relative rate of depressive
disorders for men than previously reported. Furthermore,
in both studies, the rates of depression in men between
the ages of 20 and 30 were higher than in women, similar
to the NIMH, D/ART Program (1987) findings. Kessler
27
et al.' s findings of higher ratios of depression for female
adolescents as compared with male adolescents support
the 1991 data of Reinherz, Frost, and Bilge that higher
ratios of depression were occurring in younger people
than in older people and, at younger age levels, female
adolescents were reported to be experiencing higher lev-
els of depression than male adolescents.
It must be noted that not all of the research findings
across cultures are the same with respect to rates of de-
pression and gender differences. In developing countries,
the depression and gender ratios are not the same as those
reported above. Kisekka (1990) noted the 1972 study of
Orley in which gender differences in psychiatric institu-
tions of Africa were compared. Orley found higher rates
for men than for women, in contrast to the findings of
no gender differences by Nolen-Hoeksema (1990). To
account for this difference, Kisekka speculated that the
gender differences may have been due to men in the work
situation being more readily referred for mental health
assistance; that men were more aggressive, and this ag-
gression was more likely to be noted by the police; and
that most referrals to institutions came from the police.
To account for the women's findings, Kisseka noted that
women, more often than men, might seek out alternative
facilities for help, such as churches and "indigenous,
traditional healers."
Another study of psychiatric disorders in two Afri-
can villages in Uganda by Orley, Blitt, and Wing (1979)
found no differences in depressive states between men
and women. An interesting sidenote to their study is that
they found depression to be the highest reported disorder
for all Ugandans and that Ugandan village women, as
compared with women living in the inner suburbs of
London, were more likely to report depression; the re-
ported depression was more severe; and twice as many
of the Ugandan women as compared with the British
women were reported to be depressed.
Studies of depression in developed nations provide
some fairly consistent findings regarding gender differ-
ences in depression. The findings from low-income na-
tions, such as Africa, yield mixed gender-depression ra-
tios. Further cross-cultural research, including that done
on high-income and low-income nations' differences, and
developed and developing countries' differences, in
gender-depression relationships is needed to allow re-
searchers to understand the underlying factors of gender-
depression ratio differences. Cross-cultural research will
prevent researchers from making erroneous assumptions
and inferences about depression as well as illuminate
cultural variables that contribute to or mitigate against
depression, particularly gender differences.
Although continued cross-cultural research is
needed to gain a better understanding of depression and
gender (see discussion in the Conceptualization of De-
pression section below), there is another important issue
that needs to be addressed as research data are gathered.
That issue is the conceptualization and assessment of
depression in research studies and its importance to the
understanding of these differences.
28
Conceptualization of Depression
There appear to be consistent findings, no matter what
diagnostic instruments are used or where people are as-
sessed (e.g., in a community, a hospital, a primary care
facility, educational settings), that women experience de~
pressive states more frequently than men, with the ratio
of 2:1 appearing to be robust. However, it is not known
if the depressive states are similar or different. Who is
more likely to show depressive-anxiety disorders? Who
is more likely to experience major depressive disorders?
Is the depressive experience similar in men and women?
Are the symptoms of depression similar or different
across cultures? Do male and female assessors in differ-
ent nations evaluate depression and patient problems sim-
ilarly? To answer these questions, reliable and valid in-
struments are needed that will generate accurate and
meaningful data.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (4th ed.; American Psychiatric Association,
1994) is an attempt to provide a common diagnostic plan
with an agreed-upon conceptualization and language for
mental disorders in the United States. This manual, as
well as the International Classification of Diseases
(WHO, 1992), provides a system for classification of
disordered behaviors and diagnoses of mental disorders,
such as depression, that can be used in most countries
around the world. However, although these diagnostic
systems are presently used, a universally acceptable con-
ceptualization, assessment, and diagnosis of depression
continues to be problematic (Kleinman & Good, 1985).
World Health Organization's Assessment
Instruments
In an endeavor to provide instruments of "common lan-
guage," WHO, over three decades, developed and re-
searched a group of instruments for assessing mental
disorders, labeled the Composite International Diagnos-
tic Interview (CIDI), the Schedules for Clinical Assess-
ment in Neuropsychiatry (SCAN), and the International
Personality Disorder Examination (IPDE; Loranger et
al., 1994). To date, these instruments have been field-
tested in 30 centers around the world. Data are now
emerging that indicate the instruments are deemed to
be generally acceptable, appropriate, and reliable across
cultures (Janca et al., 1994; Sartorius, 1994; Wing, Babor,
Jablensky, Regier, & Sartorius, 1990; Wittchen, Rob-
ins, & Cottler, 1992).
The CIDI instrument has a core version (CIDI Core
Version 1:1) that is a highly structured instrument in-
tended for use by trained lay interviewers. The SCAN
instrument is primarily designed for experienced clinical
psychologists or psychiatrists to apply in clinical settings.
It is a semistructured assessment instrument for adults
and consists of an interview schedule, a present-state
examination, a glossary of differential definitions, an
item-group checklist, and a clinical-history schedule. It
is a much more comprehensive instrument than the CIDI.
The IPDE assesses characteristics of mental health prob-
January 1997 • American Psychologist
lems relevant to a diagnosis of personality disorder. This
instrument is also intended to be used by experienced
clinical psychologists or psychiatrists.
The University of Michigan Survey Research Center
used a modified CIDI instrument in Kessler et al.'s (1994)
study of lifetime and 12-month prevalence of Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (3rd ed.,
rev.; American Psychiatric Association, 1987) psychiatric
disorders in the United States. This was the first study
to administer a structured psychiatric interview (modified
CIDI) to a national probability sample. Recently,
Wittchen et al. (1992) conducted a study on the cross-
cultural feasibility and reliability of the CIDI. WHO and
other researchers are continuing to collect data using
these assessment instruments across a number of
countries.
Training and reference centers throughout the world
are now open to assist mental health clinicians, psycholo-
gists, psychiatrists, and other researchers in the use of
these instruments. Training in the administration and in-
terpretation of the CIDI in the United States is available
at the Department of Psychiatry of the Washington Uni-
versity School of Medicine. Training in the administration
and interpretation of the SCAN instrument is available
at the University of Connecticut Health Center, Farm-
ington; the Washington University School of Medicine;
and the Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and
Public Health. IPDE training centers are located at the
Cornell Medical Center. These instruments should be a
significant resource for psychologists interested in cross-
cultural research in mental disorders, especially depres-
sion, by providing common assessment tools for cross-
cultural comparisons. It is important for researchers to
remember that except for Kessler et al.'s (1994) study,
gender in WHO work has not been a variable, and yet
the importance of understanding the role of gender in
mental health assessment and treatment is crucial, nation-
ally and internationally.
How Cross-Cultural Research Informs
Work on Women and Depression
The additional issues regarding depression in women that
need to be considered for cross-cultural comparisons are
(a) continued work on symptom similarities of depres-
sion in men and women; (b) risk factors for depression,
such as educational, economic, social, political, and cul-
tural factors and their interactions; and (c) developmental
stages and their relationships with depressive disorders.
Generally, depression is defined as a disorder of the
mind that affects the physical, psychological, and social
functioning of an individual. Most investigators consider
reports of sadness, helplessness, eating disturbances, so-
cial withdrawal, loss of ability to concentrate, ideas of
inadequacy or worthlessness, tension, lack of energy, and
anxiety to be signs or symptoms of depression (Beck,
Ward, Mendelsohn, Mack, & Erbaugh, t961; McGrath
et al., 1990). Are these symptoms universal and cross-
culturally similar? This question is presently being put-
January 1997 • American Psychologist
sued by WHO (Sartorius, 1989). Hopefully, gender com-
parisons will also be explored.
Risk factors that lead to depressive states in a culture
are also being studied by WHO. McGrath et al. (1990)
reported that in the United States, women's risk factors
for depression include reproductive issues, personality
styles, sexual and physical abuse, marriage and children,
minority status, and genetic factors. Are these risk factors
for depression common to women around the world?
Developmental stages and their relationships to de-
pressive disorders, particularly in the aging population,
have become an important research area in understanding
depressive states. Are there psychological differences and
stresses at different age levels (developmental periods
of life) that give rise to depressive disorders? Do these
different developmental inputs and depressive disorders
require different treatment approaches?
The significance of developmental levels to the un-
derstanding and treatment of aging persons and depres-
sion has been pinpointed in the work of Newman, Engel,
and Jensen (1991). They investigated characteristics of
early and later aging in women, particularly their de-
pressive symptom differences. Their findings indicated
that there were two different depressive symptom patterns
in the aging sample. The pattern in the younger age co-
horts was labeled depressive syndrome. The pattern in
the older age cohorts was labeled depletion syndrome.
The elderly depletion syndrome had the features of
self-worthlessness, a feeling of no interest in things, loss
of appetite, a general sense of hopelessness, and thoughts
of death or dying. Symptoms of dysphoric mood and
self-blame were not significant variables, as is usually
found in the classic depressive symptom model. Thus, it
was suggested that older persons may be at decreased
risk for the classic depression syndrome but at increased
risk for a quieter, more unconventional form that is not
recognized in the mental health setting. Newman et al.
(1991) stated that two very different pictures of the men-
tal health of the aging population, especially regarding
depression, may be emerging. These findings need further
study in order to test their cross-cultural validity and
reflect the importance of including developmental stages
in cross-cultural research on depression.
Conclusion
From the review of the studies reported in this article,
the ratio of women to men for depression is about 2:1 in
developed countries, but for developing countries, the
ratios vary, with most reporting no differences in ratios.
For major depression, the ratio is more often reported as
3:1 or 4:1, and for bipolar disorder, it is more likely to
be reported as 1:1. According to the literature reported
above, these ratio differences appear to be fairly reliable
and stable. Symptom similarities for depression across
nations also appear to be fairly reliable. Findings from
current, ongoing WHO studies (Sartorius, 1993; Thorni-
croft & Sartorius, 1993), with many more nations partici-
paring in these studies, will more firmly establish the
findings reported here.
29
 Progress t o w a r d commonality in the conceptualiza-
tion of depression and the development o f a c o m m o n
language across nations is occurring. Assessment instru-
ments that will hopefully prove to be reliable and valid
across cultures are continuing to be tested, and the find-
ings for reliability and validity, to date, are encouraging.
The number of national and international studies o f
depression that involve gender comparisons has in-
creased for both developed and developing countries. The
cultural dimension of depression in analysis o f data is
being recognized as significant, in addition to the biopsy-
chosocial aspects o f depressive disorders. However, more
research is needed.
The relationship o f developmental ages and depres-
sion needs much research, especially as the early develop-
mental ages in which depression occurs appear to have
a significant relationship with adult depression. In these
research areas, internationally and cross-culturally, psy-
chologists have been only minimally involved, but they
have much to contribute. With the growth o f health psy-
chology, as well as clinical, developmental, and school
psychology, international involvement of psychologists
into questions in this area and into cross-cultural research
programs could be most productive.
Recently, Desjarlais, Eisenberg, Good, and Klein-
man (1995) stressed the importance of multidisciplinary
involvement and advanced training and education across
the professions as essential elements for cross-cultural
work in low-income countries.
W H O and its training centers in the United S t a t e s - -
the World Federation o f Mental Health, the International
Council o f Psychologists, the International Association
o f Applied Psychology, the International Association o f
Cross-Cultural Psychology, the Inter-American Society
o f P s y c h o l o g y - - a n d APA's Committee on International
Relations foster and promote individual, group, and inter-
disciplinary interactions and research opportunities.
International studies are important for understanding
normal and abnormal behaviors, particularly depression
in women, depression across the life cycle, and the multi-
ple factors that contribute to the varied disorders o f
depression.
In the world today, to understand depression, find-
ings from reliable and valid assessments across cultures,
cross-cultural commonalities and differences, treatment
strategies, as well as gender differences across nations
are sorely needed. The international agencies noted above
foster individual, group, and interdisciplinary research
opportunities as well as networking, communicating, and
meeting with colleagues with similar interests. They also
encourage research collaboration in cross-cultural work
and reporting and publishing of results at their conven-
tions and in their journals. These are inviting opportuni-
ties for psychologists who wish to engage in studies on
gender, culture, and other factors. These fields o f study
can be exciting and rewarding ones for the psychologists
involved and should lead to significant contributions to
human welfare.
30
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Correction to "APA-Accredited Predoctoral Internships

for Doctoral Training in Psychology: 1996"

In the article "APA-Accredited Predoctoral Internships for Doctoral Training in Psychology:

1996" (American Psychologist, 1996, Vol. 51, No. 12, pp. 1287-1305), Central Louisiana State
Hospital was incorrectly listed under Programs Withdrawing From Accreditation at the End of
Training Y e a r 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 9 6 on page 1305. Central Louisiana State Hospital should h a v e been
included in the official listing of APA-accredited professional internships as follows:

Central Louisiana State Hospital

P.O. Box 5031
Pineville, LA 71360
March 30, 1964
Accredited
Next site visit scheduled 1997

J a n u a r y 1997 • A m e r i c a n P s y c h o l o g i s t 31