Assignment 1

IC ENGINE

Emission reduction techniques in I.C. Engines.

Submitted to - Dr. Dilip Sharma

Submitted by -

Denish panchani (2018ume1758)

Vishal Mishra (2018ume1234)

Harish Yadav (2018ume1602)

Shivam Kumar (2018ume1611)

Mayank Srivastava (2018ume1238)

INDEX

● INTRODUCTION…………………………………………3
● CAUSES OF EMISSION IN SI ENGINES………………4
● REDUCTION METHODS FOR SI ENGINES………………8
● CAUSES OF EMISSION IN CI ENGINES………………14
● REDUCTION METHODS FOR CI ENGINES………………14
● MODERN STANDARDS FOR EMISSION…………………15
● BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………17

INTRODUCTION
Emissions is a collective term that is used to describe the undesired gases and particles which are
released into the air or emitted by various sources,its amount and the type change industrial
activity,technology,and a number of other factors.
EFFECTS IN GENERAL:-
Before beginning the causes of emissions in i.c engines and how to reduce them in both C.I and S.I.
engines.We have to know first why we are interested in emissions due to these IC engines as they
cause severe effects on human health and environment also.
ITS EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH:-
Aggravates heart disorders and affects the central nervous system.
Some cause irritation in eyes along with respiratory irritations.
Some exhausts discharge from IC engines are responsible for lung cancer.
Some (inorganic lead compounds)can cause liver and kidney damage,abnormality in pregnancy.
ITS EFFECTS ON EARTH:-
These exhausts cause vehicular pollution which is the major contributing one in overall pollution
It increases the amount of PM2.5, PM10
Decreases the ability of green plants to survive.

THESE CAUSES STATE THAT THESE EMISSIONS CAN CAUSE SEVERE DAMAGE TO OUR
ENVIRONMENT AND US SO ITS STUDY,CAUSES AND SOLUTIONS ARE IMPORTANT.

CAUSES OF EMISSION IN SI ENGINE

• NITROGEN OXIDES (NOx)

Under the high pressure and temperature conditions in an engine, nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the
air react to form various nitrogen oxides, collectively known as NOx. Nitrogen oxides, are the reason
behind Acid Rains and Ozone Depletion

• CARBON MONOXIDE
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of incomplete combustion and occurs when carbon in the fuel is
partially oxidized rather than fully oxidized to carbon dioxide (CO). Carbon monoxide reduces the flow
of oxygen in the bloodstream and is particularly dangerous to persons with heart disease.
• CARBON DIOXIDE
In recent years, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has started to view carbon dioxide,
a product of “perfect” combustion, as a pollution concern .Carbon dioxide does not directly impair
human health, but it is a “greenhouse gas” that traps the earth’s heat and contributes to the potential
for global warming.
Evaporative Emissions
Hydrocarbon pollutants also escape into the air through fuel evaporation. Evaporative emissions
occur several ways:
DIURNAL: Gasoline evaporation increases as the temperature rises during the day, heating the fuel
tank and venting gasoline vapours.
RUNNING LOSSES: The hot engine and exhaust system can vaporise gasoline when the car is
running.
HOT SOAK: The engine remains hot for a period of time after the car is turned off, and gasoline
evaporation continues when the car is parked.
REFUELING: Gasoline vapours are always present in fuel tanks. These vapours are forced out when
the tank is filled with liquid fuel.
SI engine vehicles without emission control have three sources of emissions

Exhaust emissions : Almost all of 100% of NOx and CO, and 60% of HC
are emitted through the engine exhaust or vehicle
tailpipe.

Crankcase emissions : About 20% of HC are emitted via crankcase blow by

gases

Evaporative Emissions : Fuel evaporation from tank, fuel system, carburettor

and permeation through fuel lines constitute another
20% of total HC.

Table 1.1

Typical Exhaust Emission Concentrations

SI Engine (Gasoline fuelled)
Depending upon engine operating conditions without catalytic control engine out emissions range :

CO : 0.2 to 5% by volume (v/v)

HC : 300 to 6000 ppmc1*, v/v

NOx : 50 to 2000 ppm, v/v

Table 1.2
*ppmc1= parts per million as methane measured by Flame Ionization Analyzer/Detector(FIA or FID)
CO emissions are high under engine idling and full load operation when engine is operating on fuel
rich mixtures. HC emissions are high under idling, during engine warm-up and light load operation,
acceleration and deceleration. NOx are maximum under full engine load conditions.
Emission Formation in SI Engines
Origin of SI engine exhaust emissions is shown schematically in Fig 1.1

Fig 1.1 schematic of progress of combustion in si engine and pollutant formation .

NOx and CO are formed in the burned gases in the cylinder. Unburned HC emissions originate when
fuel escapes combustion due to several processes such as flame quenching in narrow passages
present in the combustion chamber and incomplete oxidation of fuel that is trapped or absorbed in oil
film or deposits NOx is formed by oxidation of molecular nitrogen.
During combustion at high flame temperatures, nitrogen and oxygen molecules in the inducted air
breakdown into atomic species which react to form NO.
Some NO2 is also formed and NO and NO2 together are called as NOx. CO results from incomplete
oxidation of fuel carbon when insufficient oxygen is available to completely oxidize the fuel.
CO rises steeply as the air-fuel (A/F) ratio is decreased below the stoichiometric A/F ratio.
HC originates from the fuel escaping combustion primarily due to flame quenching in crevices and on
cold chamber walls,and presence of liquid fuel in the cylinder during cold start Air-fuel ratio is one of
the most important parameter that affect the engine exhaust emissions.
 Fig 1.2 variation in CO, NO2 & HC emission for SI engine.

REDUCTION METHODS FOR SI ENGINES

Besides all-round advancements in engine technology and after treatment systems happening all the
time, in the past few years alternative power trains also for vehicles have been developed which
provide a higher fuel efficiency in addition to low emissions. Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) are
already in market place.Fuel cell vehicles using hydrogen as energy source are in an advanced stage
of development and they completely eliminate the use of IC engines as a propulsion system.

Categorization of Emission Control Techniques

The emission control techniques may be grouped into the following broad categories:

● Engine design and fuel system parameters

● Engine add-ons to enable reduction of engine-out emissions and
● Exhaust after treatment

ENGINE DESIGN PARAMETERS

The following engine parameters have large influence on emissions and hence have undergone
substantial modifications since the pre-emission control era.

● Engine compression ratio,Combustion chamber design – low crevice volume, high turbulence
● Spark timing
● Air-fuel ratio
● Fuel system design: carburetor giving way to fuel injection
● Multivalves and variable valve actuation
● Engine temperature control

Engine Compression Ratio

Engine compression ratio affects :

● Surface to volume ratio of the combustion chamber

● Engine combustion temperature
 ● Thermodynamic efficiency
● Fuel octane number for knock free engine operation

A high compression ratio is desirable because internal combustion engines are heat engines, and
higher compression ratios permit the same combustion temperature to be reached with less fuel,
while giving a longer expansion cycle, creating more mechanical power output and lowering the
exhaust temperature.

The premium high performance car engines during 1960s employed CR of 10 to 11:1. The engine CR
was lowered to 8.5 to 9.0:1 when stringent emission standards were legislated for the first time in
1975.

The combustion chamber with a lower CR has lower surface/volume ratio resulting in a reduction in
volume of quench layer on the combustion chamber surface. Typical effect of surface/volume ratio of
combustion

FIG 1.3

High Turbulence Combustion Chambers

● Small cylinders with hemispherical and pent roof type combustion chambers are now more
commonly used in SI engines.
● Smaller cylinders have smaller amount of burned gases that form the high temperature
adiabatic core. More heat transfer takes place from the burned gases as the walls are nearer
to the bulk gases. It results in lower NOx.
● The compact hemispherical combustion chambers shape provides the lowest surface
● to volume ratio and minimum tendency to engine knock.

Fuel System

From 1990 onwards electronically controlled multi-point port fuel injection (MPFI or PFI) system
replaced the carburettor on all the production cars in the USA. Port fuel injection systems require one
injector per cylinder that injects fuel into intake port of each cylinder.Some engines use an additional
injector to supply extra fuel required during starting and warm-up.

● Advantages of PFI over convectional carburation techniques :

● Increased power and torque due to improved volumetric efficiency
● Faster fuel evaporation
● More uniform fuel distribution
● More precise control of air-fuel ratio cold-start and warm up
 Fig 1.4

● In the EFI systems, for control of fuel injection rate and in turn the air-fuel ratio, airflow to the
engine is measured by a hot-wire or hot-film anemometer.
● Air-fuel ratio is more precise.
● Use of port fuel injection alone provided 20- 30 % reduction in HC and 50 to 60% reduction in
CO compared to carburettor when tested over the urban driving cycle.

Valve Gear Design

Multiple Valves:

Four valves per cylinder are now common on the SI engines. The use of multiple valves:

● Increases valve flow area compared to two valves

● Spark plug can be placed centrally reducing the maximum flame travel distance hence faster
and less knocking tendency combustion,
● The two intake valves may be provided with different valve timings and different valve lifts to
obtain higher volumetric efficiency.
● At low engine speeds due to backflow of residual gases in the intake system a low valve
overlap is desired.
● With increase in valve overlap, residual gas fraction at low speeds increases giving lower NOx
emissions, but HC emissions increase.
● Ideally the valve timings should vary with the engine speed.

Effects of Variable Valve timings

● Reductions of 30 to 70 % in NOx with variable valve timing are observed.

● Change in HC emissions between the fixed and variable valve timings is however, small.
● The CO emissions however, are a function of air-fuel ratio.
Variable Swept Volume and Downsizing

● Downsizing in relation to the internal combustion engine is a reduction in swept volume while
keeping or increasing engine power as well as reducing fuel consumption.
● Operation of the engine with lower swept volume would be at a higher mean effective pressure
which would result in better fuel economy and lower CO and HC emissions.
● At part loads, the supercharged and downsized engine can result in fuel economy
improvements of upto 25% and accompanied benefits related to lower CO, HC and CO2
emissions.

CAUSES OF EMISSION IN CI ENGINE

Most Common Causes of Failures for 1975- 2001 Diesel vehicles

High Opacity (Diesels Only)

· Injection timing/pump timing maladjusted · Restricted air intake system

· Incorrect fuel pump pressure · Dirty air cleaner

· Injectors fouled, leaking or mismatched · Engine mechanical defect

Possible Causes of High Diesel Opacity Emissions

In order to pinpoint the cause of excessive diesel opacity (smoke), the following systems (if
applicable) and possible defects will need to be checked, usually in this order:

Ø Restricted Airflow
Any restriction to the flow of air into the engine can cause excessive smoke emissions. This includes
the air filter, air inlet pipes or ducts, and the intake manifold. Similar to the air filter and inlet ducts, the
turbo pressure also can affect the smoke emissions of a diesel engine.

Ø Injection Timing

The technician must make sure that the injection pump is timed to the correct cylinder and that timing
is set to manufacturer’s specifications.

Ø Injection Quality
Diesel fuel injectors that are restricted can cause excessive smoke. Other injector defects such as
worn valve seat, sticking nozzle, and incorrect opening are also responsible.
Ø Exhaust Gas Recirculation Devices

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) devices are used to control NOx emissions in many diesel vehicles
but if the rate of EGR flow is excessive, smoke emissions can increase significantly.

Ø Oxidation Catalyst

The performance of the catalyst can have a significant effect on smoke emissions. The technician
should refer to the manufacturer’s recommended procedures and specifications for testing of these
components.

Ø Compression

Engine compression is a measure of piston/cylinder sealing integrity and should be checked with a
compression test as per manufacturer’s recommended procedure.

Ø Injection Pump Calibration

If all else fails, the injection pump may require an overhaul or re-calibration.

Most Common Causes of Failures for 2002 – Present Diesel Vehicles

On-Board Diagnostic Failure

The cause(s) of an OBD failure is dependent upon the diagnostic trouble code(s) stored in the
vehicle’s on-board computer. The most common causes are:

Air/fuel mixture out of control range

· Catalytic converter efficiency too low

· EGR system malfunction

· Misfire
 · Evaporative control system malfunction

Reduction OF EMISSION IN CI ENGINE

In diesel engines, controlling combustion is the key approach to reducing engine out
particulate emissions by optimizing the mixing between the fuel and air in the combustion
chamber.
Reducing the compression ratios has been shown effective in lowering combustion
temperatures and, in turn, NOx emissions.
In general, higher combustion temperatures promote complete oxidation of the fuel, thus less
soot, but also cause more formation of NOx.

Exhaust Controls

Technology
Diesel oxidation catalyst (DOC)
Emission Impact
High reduction of HC/CO emissions, small to moderate PM conversion. The oxidation
of NO to NO2 enhances the performance of SCR/DPF systems
Significance

Widely used on Euro 2/3 cars and on some US1994 and later heavy- and medium-duty diesel
engines. In modern engines, used as an auxiliary catalyst in SCR/DPF aftertreatment systems (NO2
generation, ammonia slip control).
Diesel Particulate Filters
a Closed Crankcase Ventilation

In most turbocharged, aftercooled diesel engines, the crankcase is vented to the

atmosphere often using a downward directed draft tube. The particles are predominantly a
liquid aerosol generated by the rapidly moving parts in the crankcase. When vented into the
engine compartment, they are not only emitted, uncontrolled into the atmosphere, they can
easily make their way into the passenger compartment of the vehicle. This PM goes
undetected in any kind of engine-out PM measurement. Emissions through the
crankcase vent may exceed 0.7 g/bhp-hr during idle conditions on recent model year
engines.
Filtered gases are returned to the intake system, balancing the differential pressures
involved. Typical systems consist of a filter housing, a pressure regulator, a
pressure relief valve and an oil check valve. These systems greatly reduce
crankcase emissions.
 Fig Closed Crankcase Emission Control System.

b Flow-Through or Partial Diesel Particulate Filters

Flow-through filters employ catalyzed metal wire mesh structures or tortuous flow, metal foil-
based substrates with sintered metal sheets to reduce diesel PM Partial. Flow-through filters
are capable of achieving PM reduction of about 30 to 75 percent, depending on the engine
operating characteristics.

Figure . Metallic flow-through filter made up of corrugated metal foil and layers of porous
metal fleece.

c High Efficiency Filters

. Filters were introduced on new diesel passenger cars in Europe in mid-2000,

with more than four million filter-equipped cars sold since that first introduction. Very few
performance or maintenance issues have been reported in Europe with passenger car
DPFs. Peugeot (PSA) was the first manufacturer to introduce DPF system for European
diesel cars in 2000. Other European automobile manufacturers, such as Audi, Fiat, Ford,
VW, BMW, Renault and Mercedes, are now offering DPF systems based on the PSA
system and the use of fuel-borne catalysts, or catalyzed filter systems that do not employ
a fuel-borne catalyst.
The most common high efficiency filter is based on a porous wall, square cell, honeycomb
design where every alternate channel is plugged on each end These wall-flow filters can be
made from a variety of ceramic materials. High efficiency ilters made of sintered metal fibers
are also available. Wall flow filters exhibit high strength and thermal durability.
NOx Reduction Technologies
Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)

As the name implies, EGR involves recirculating a portion of the engine’s exhaust back to the
charger inlet (or intake manifold in the case of naturally aspirated engines).
In most systems, an intercooler lowers the temperature of the recirculated gases. The cooled
recirculated gases, which have a higher heat capacity and lower oxygen content than air,
lower the combustion temperature in the engine, thus inhibiting NOx formation. There are two
types of EGR:

● High pressure EGR captures the exhaust gas prior to the turbocharger and redirects
it back into the intake air.
● Low pressure EGR collects the clean exhaust after the turbocharger and after a diesel
particulate filter and returns it to the intercooler.
 Figure . Low Pressure Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) + DPF.

EGR systems typically recirculate about 25 to 40 percent of the combustion atmosphere to

cool combustion temperatures
At low engine speeds and loads, the low pressure EGR system maintains the energy flow to
the turbine (and thus power and efficiency), while, at higher speeds and high load portions of
the engine map, the high pressure EGR system matches the flow requirements within the
optimal turbine geometry to minimize losses.

Lean NOx Catalysts

In the oxygen-rich environment of diesel exhaust, it is difficult to chemically reduce NOx to

molecular nitrogen. Direct NOx decomposition is thermodynamically attractive, but the
activation energy is very high for this method and no catalysts have been developed for
wide-spread use.

Catalysts have been developed that use a reductant like HC, CO, or H 2 to assist in the
conversion of NOx to molecular nitrogen in the diesel engine exhaust stream. They are
generally called “lean NOx catalysts.” Because sufficient quantities of reductant are not
present to facilitate NOx reduction in normal diesel exhaust, most lean NOx catalyst systems
inject a small amount of diesel fuel, or other reductant, into the exhaust upstream of the
catalyst. The added reductant allows for a significant conversion of NOx to N 2. This process
is sometimes referred to as hydrocarbon selective catalytic reduction (HC- SCR).

NOx Adsorber Catalysts

NOx adsorber catalysts, also referred to as lean NOx traps (LNT), provide another
catalytic pathway for reducing NOx in an oxygen rich exhaust stream.

Operating Characteristics and Performance

NOx adsorber technology removes NOx in a lean (i.e. oxygen rich) exhaust
environment for both diesel and gasoline lean-burn GDI engines. The mechanism
 involves (see Figures)

● Catalytically oxidizing NO to NO2 over a precious metal catalyst.

● Storing NO2 in an adjacent alkaline earth oxide trapping site as a nitrate.
● The stored NOx is then periodically removed in a two-step regeneration step by
temporarily inducing a rich exhaust condition followed by reduction to nitrogen by a
conventional three-way catalyst reaction.

As discussed above, under normal lean diesel engine operation, the NOx adsorber
stores the NOx emissions. In order to reduce the trapped NOx to nitrogen, called the
NOx regeneration cycle

● Intake air throttling

● Exhaust gas recirculation
● Post combustion fuel injection in the cylinder
● In-exhaust fuel injection

Figure(black) . NOx trap regeneration occurs under brief periods of rich operation.

Figure(pink) . NOx trapping mechanisms under lean operating conditions.

Figure . Advanced NOx storage materials can lower conversion temperatures and broaden
operating window for NOx adsorber catalysts (square - potassium-based, circle – barium-
based, triangle - advanced barium-based technology) (SAE 2006-01-1369).
.3b Impact of Fuel Sulfur and Durability

Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)

SCR has been used to control NOx emissions from stationary sources such as power plants
for over 20 years. More recently, it has been applied to select mobile sources including cars,
trucks, marine vessels, and locomotives. Applying SCR to diesel- powered vehicles provides
simultaneous reductions of NOx, PM, and HC emissions.

SCR offers a high level of NOx conversion with high durability. Open loop SCR systems can
reduce NOx emissions from 75 to 90 percent. Closed loop systems on stationary engines
have achieved NOx reductions of greater than 95 percent.

a Operating Characteristics and Control Capabilities

An SCR system uses a metallic or ceramic wash-coated catalyzed substrate, or a

homogeneously extruded catalyst, and a chemical reductant to convert nitrogen oxides to
molecular nitrogen and oxygen. In mobile source applications, an aqueous urea solution is
the preferred reductant.

SCR catalysts formulations based on vanadia-titania and base metal-containing zeolites

have been commercialized for both stationary and mobile source applications. The
maximum NOx conversion window for SCR catalysts is a function of exhaust gas
composition, in particular the NO2 to NO ratio. The three common NOx reduction reactions
are:

4 NH3 + 4 NO + O2 4 N2 + 6 H2O (1)

2 NH3 + NO + NO2 2 N2 + 3 H2O (2)
8 NH3 + 6 NO2 7 N2 + 12 H2O (3)

Figure . Durability of vanadia catalyst (V-SCR) compared to a base metal zeolite catalyst (B).

UREA-SCR technology
On-board urea level and quality sensors may be one approach used by vehicle
manufacturers to meet the EPA requirements and insure that vehicles are not operated with the
 NOx control disabled. These sensors can be designed to warn the driver when the urea level is
low and to disable vehicle operation if urea quality or concentration is not adequate for proper
SCR system operation. A variety of sensors like the one shown

The regeneration of the LNT forms ammonia which is then stored within the SCR catalyst.
An example of one of the designs being developed is illustrated in Figures .
This design shows LNT and SCR catalysts in series and utilizes valves to bypass the LNT during
regeneration. The reformate used to regenerate the LNT feeds ammonia rich gas to the SCR to
achieve NOx reduction of the bypassed exhaust gas during this step.

ology
ating oil
on Impact
ant to reduce fuel consumption
cance
scosity lubricants are important for fuel consumption/CO2 reductions but require other changes to ensure engine wear
do not increase. Limiting the content of catalyst poisons (e.g., sulfur, inorganic ash, phosphorus) is a key enabler for
ng durability and performance of catalytic exhaust emission control technologies.

ology
tive fuels
on Impact
y impact is life-cycle CO2 emissions
cance
criteria emission reduction potential from modern engines with full range of aftertreatment for NOx and PM. Some
on criteria pollutants (PM, NOx, SOx) is possible in applications without aftertreatment (e.g., marine). In some cases,
perating cost is a major consideration (e.g., natural gas).

ology
additives
sion Impact
us
ficance
direct emission effect with modern engines and high quality fuels. Important to maintain long term stable operation of
ion control technologies. For examples, cetane additives help ensure consistent and reliable ignition quality of modern
l fuels to ensure reliable and predictable performance.

Control, diagnostics & powertrain technologies

nology
nostics
ssion Impact
ensures long term emissions compliance.
ficance
ded to detect malfunctions that would cause emissions over the certification test to increase beyond a defined threshold.
nology
ols
sion Impact
tronic controls ensure accurate control of numerous emissions and powertrain control components can be maintained over the
the vehicle. Variations in ambient conditions, system integration and system aging effects can be accommodated
ficance
Diesel engine controls include: EGR control, intake boost pressure control, fuel injection timing control and combustion
ontrol.Aftertreatment system controls include: urea dosing, temperature management to ensure high emission reduction efficien
regeneration control to ensure accumulated materials such as soot, sulfur and urea deposits are regularly removed.
 Conclusi
ons

● Diesel emissions from mobile sources have raised health and welfare
concerns, but a number of technologies exist that can greatly reduce emissions
from diesel-powered vehicles.

● The widespread availability of ultra low sulfur diesel for on-road vehicles has
enabled the application of advanced emission control systems for diesel
engines and vehicles. The future expansion of low sulfur fuels for off-road
applications will allow the implementation of the same advanced control
technologies to the full range of diesel vehicles including locomotive and
marine engines.

● Diesel oxidation catalysts, diesel particulate filters, exhaust gas recirculation

and crankcase emission controls have been successfully rolled out on new
2007 onroad vehicles. These technologies offer opportunities to greatly
reduce emissions of particulate matter and other pollutants like toxic HCs.

● Advanced NOx control technologies are being developed to meet EPA’s 2010
on highway emission standards. Technologies such as lean NOx traps and
selective catalytic reduction have been demonstrated to be durable and
effective methods of achieving low tailpipe NOx levels from diesel and other
lean burn engines.

● Some of the technologies that reduce particulate matter and NOx are also
applicable to the diesel engines already on the road today, offering a cost-
effective way to reduce diesel emissions during their remaining life.

● Advanced sensors are being developed to monitor all components of the

exhaust control system. These sensors will allow diesel engines to meet the
same OBD and emissions requirements already in place for gasoline spark-
ignited engines and vehicles.