Contents

Foreword xiii

Acknowledgements xv

1 Basics and general principles 1

1.1 Why do we have switchgear? 1
1.2 What is the difference between a circuit breaker and
a switch? 1
1.2.1 Disconnectors 2
1.2.2 Earth switches 2
1.2.3 Fuses 2
1.3 Components of switchgear 2

2 Interruption techniques 9
2.1 Arc interruption 9
2.2 Interruption mediums and techniques 9
2.3 Oil switchgear 10
2.4 Vacuum switchgear 14
2.5 SF6 switchgear 20
2.5.1 Gas pressure 22
2.5.2 Contact design 23
2.5.3 Gas dryness 23
2.5.4 Choice of materials 24
2.6 Interrupter types 24
2.6.1 Rotating arc SF6 interrupters 24
2.6.2 The SF6 puffer interrupter 27
2.6.3 The relative merits of vacuum and SF6 interrupters 29

3 Fault level calculations 31

3.1 Impedance resolution within complicated networks 36
3.2 Problems 41
viii Contents

4 Symmetrical and asymmetrical fault currents 43

4.1 The rate of decay of the d.c. component 46
4.2 Decrement factor 48
4.3 Problems 52

5 Electromagnetic forces and contact design 55

5.1 Contact loading 62
5.2 Electromagnetic forces in three-phase faults 64
5.3 Arcing contact tips 65
5.4 Contact entry profiles 66
5.5 Pre-arcing and contact burning 67
5.6 Contact misalignment and fault making capacity 67
5.7 Sliding frictional resistance of contacts 68
5.8 Problems 70

6 Switching transients 71
6.1 The influence of system earthing on the transient
recovery voltage 72
6.2 The interruption of load current 73
6.3 The interruption of inductive current 74
6.4 The interruption of small inductive currents 77
6.5 Capacitor switching 80
6.6 Back-to-back capacitor switching 82
6.7 Reignition surges 84

7 Insulation 87
7.1 Electrical stress 87
7.2 Electrical discharge 89
7.3 Discharges in oil and gases 89
7.4 Discharge in solid insulation 90
7.5 Discharge level design practice 90
7.6 Voids in moulded insulation 91
7.7 Flashover caused by indirect discharge 92
7.8 Breakdown voltage and gas pressure 94
7.9 Solid insulation 95
7.10 Composite insulation 98

8 Operating mechanisms 103

8.1 Materials 103
8.2 Operating features 104
8.3 Energy for operation 104
8.4 Spring operating mechanisms 105
8.5 Three-link kinematic chains 108
8.6 Magnetic actuators 111
 Contents ix

9 Primary switchgear 119

9.1 Changes in technology 121
9.2 Current and voltage transformers 123
9.3 The architecture of primary switchgear 124
9.3.1 Horizontal transfer earthing 124
9.3.2 Horizontal isolation with separate earthing switches 125
9.3.3 Horizontal isolation with internal earthing via vertical
transfer 126
9.3.4 Horizontal isolation with internal earthing via top
contact stem rotation 130
9.3.5 Gas-insulated primary switchgear 132

10 Cable connected secondary switchgear 135

10.1 T-off circuit protection 142
10.1.1 150 per cent transformer over-rating 144
10.1.2 The transformer inrush current 144
10.1.3 Discrimination with fuses on the low-voltage side 144
10.1.4 No tripping due to spillage current from the time-fuse
circuit 145
10.2 Time-fuse operating characteristics 145
10.3 The Falcon protection scheme 146
10.4 Protection where a low-voltage source is available 148
10.5 Secondary distribution switchboards 148

11 Overhead conductor connected secondary switchgear 153

11.1 Introduction 153
11.2 Standards 153
11.3 Historical background 153
11.4 Pole mounted autoreclosers 154
11.5 Technical terms 157
11.6 Discussion on autoreclosers with HV internal solenoid
mechanisms 158
11.7 Hydraulic control 159
11.8 The short-circuit fault level of overhead lines 159
11.9 Advances in interrupter technology 160
11.10 Sectionalisers 161
11.11 Protection 163
11.12 Magnetic actuators and their impact on
the design of autoreclosers 165
11.13 Remote monitoring and operation 166
11.14 Islands of intelligence 166
11.15 Autoreclosers with integral series disconnectors 170
11.16 A summary of the development of autoreclosers 171
11.17 Significant trends 172
x Contents

12 High-voltage fuse-links 175

12.1 Construction 175
12.2 Operation in service 177
12.3 Fuse characteristics 179
12.3.1 Time–current characteristics 179
12.3.2 Cut-off characteristics 179
12.3.3 The I 2 t fuse-link characteristic 180
12.4 Types of high-voltage HRC fuse-links 180
12.4.1 British Standard oil-tight fuse-links 180
12.4.2 British Standard air-insulated HV fuses 181
12.4.3 DIN Standard air-insulated HV fuses 181
12.4.4 Motor circuit fuses 182
12.4.5 Instrument voltage transformer fuses 182
12.5 Full range HV fuses 182
12.6 Fuse standards 182
12.7 Distribution applications 184
12.8 Future trends 185

13 Switchgear type tests 187

13.1 Reports and certificates 187
13.2 National and International Standards 189
13.3 Development tests 189
13.3.1 Mechanical operations 191
13.3.2 Temperature rise 191
13.3.3 High-voltage tests 197
13.3.4 Short-circuit tests 200
13.3.5 Environmental tests 208
13.3.6 Electromagnetic compatibility tests 209

14 Product conformity, quality control and service problem

resolution 211
14.1 Serial numbers 211
14.2 Routine test 211
14.2.1 Power frequency voltage withstand tests on
the main circuit 212
14.2.2 Voltage withstand tests on the control
and auxiliary circuits 212
14.2.3 Measurement of the resistance of the main circuit 212
14.2.4 Mechanical operating tests 212
14.3 Automatic routine test facilities 214
14.4 Design and visual checks 215
14.5 Quality control 216
14.6 Design review meetings 217
14.7 Service problem resolution 217
14.8 Minimising the problem 217
 Contents xi

15 Cost of ownership 221

16 The future 225

16.1 Technology 225
16.2 Specifications 226
16.3 Competition 227
16.4 Materials 227
16.5 Manufacturing 227
16.6 Size 228
16.7 Manufacturing base 228
16.8 The shape of things to come 228

17 Further reading 231

17.1 Books 231
17.2 Papers and published articles 231

18 National, International and customer Specifications 235

References 241

Index 243