DOI 10.

1515/sem-2012-0077    Semiotica 2012; 192: 1 – 14

Isabel Marcos
Urban morphogenesis
Abstract: This research on the morphogenesis of the city uses conjointly morpho-
dynamic semiotic theory and structural theory of the urban form to elaborate the
existence of a non-trivial topology, stemming from a process of stratification. The
basic thesis of this work is the following: On the one hand, the form of a city
emerges from the choice of its physical site; on the other hand, it modifies itself
through geo-historical actualization. The theory of urban form proposes a global
theory of the engendering of forms and their relationships to spatial positions.
Morphodynamic semiotics adopts a dynamic conception of the modal phenome-
non. These theoretical influences offer our study a morphogenetic conception of
meaning that is reconstituted through spatial stratification. This model thus pro-
posed enables us to reconstitute the form of the city in general.

Keywords: morphogenesis; semiogenesis; dynamic; emergence; interactions

Isabel Marcos: e-Geo, Faculdade de Ciências Sociais e Humanas – Universidade Nova de

Lisboa. E-mail: isamar@fcsh.unl.pt

1 Introduction
Morphogenesis is a process of geo-historic optimization and is linked to the con-
ditions of stability and of instability. Any form tends towards its condition of sta-
bility. As we can see in Figure 1, a historic period, is as we have demonstrated it
(Marcos 1996) a condition of stability, whereas the moments between two peri-
ods, being moments of instability, corresponding to conditions of actualization of
the morphological configuration of the town. According to this conception, the
morphology of a town is engendered above all by the dynamic internal topology
to the urban morphogenesis. It is not conceived and planned externally by a
­social actor, but it results from a global process of spatiotemporal stratification
(Marcos 1996: 81). Morphogenesis is, from certain angles, the collective memory
that passes through generations, Figure 1 being the image of this process of
­differentiation.
The general semiotic approach to the city and to its urban sense shows that
the geographic morphology of the city develops historically. The set of conceptual
2    Isabel Marcos

Fig. 1: The process of differentiation allows exchange. Originally, human groupings were closer
to territory and to fundamental anthropological values (morphogenesis), whereas present
groupings are closer to human action and to the sharing of functions (semiogenesis).

Fig. 2: Morphogenesis is a global process of spatiotemporal stratification.

 Urban morphogenesis    3

tools elaborated by our model allows us to account for the birth, development,
transformation, and evolution of the forms of a city and of its urban sense. In
other words, morphogenesis is a dynamic topology that becomes more precise as
the urban form and the sociocultural forces spread out.
Morphogenesis is a global process of spatiotemporal stratification (cf. Figure
2) comprising:
– Concrete forms – Stratum 3;
– Sociocultural forms – Stratum 2;
– Physico-symbolic forms – Stratum 1.

The three strata should be considered simultaneously. The integration of collec-

tive memory into urbanity takes time. In the following paragraphs we will exam-
ine the topological structures over the long term through the successive presenta-
tion of the three strata. The example chosen is the study of the morphogenesis of
Lisbon from its Paleolithic origins to the seventeenth century.

2 Stratum 1: Differentiation of the “physical-

symbolic” forms in the origin of Lisbon
Figure 3 illustrates the topological positions that characterize “the signifying uni-
verse” in focus. It consists of a cusp, which René Thom (1990) has also called the

Fig. 3: The cusp represents what could have been the composition path of the value objects.
4    Isabel Marcos

cusp ( fronce). The internal space of the cusp simultaneously offers the possibility
of a spatial-temporal diffusion of pregnancies and the emergence of the signifier/
signified opposition (the spatial-temporal axis of the “internal space”). From the
organizing center of the cusp unfolds the space of “dynamic control” of this diffu-
sion. It guarantees a spatial reference to the fundamental semantics and provides
information on how the “value objects” are constructed. With regard to “internal
space,” the organizing center acts as both an epistemological and a referential
position. In this sense, it is internal, but it also guarantees the circulation and
constitution of the modal objects, which in turn makes it “external.”
From this perspective (cf. Figure 3), the geophysical substratum, that is the
Global Earth (the continuous), appears as a fluid, highly pregnant bottom from
which the salient forms on the local earth detach themselves (the space differenti-
ated by qualitative discontinuities, “the soil of our experiences”). The whole of
these differentiated forms transforms the geophysical substratum into a “signify-
ing universe.” Jean Petitot (1992) has called such transformations the “physics of
meaning”; this conception revisits Aristotle’s physics and joins René Thom’s
“semiophysics” (1990). Let us examine the case of Lisbon: we have considered
that the geophysical substratum of the area around the banks of the Tagus river (in

Fig. 4: Topological categorization of the original site of “Lisbon.”

 Urban morphogenesis    5

particular the ­“salient” forms it comprehends [Thom 1990], that is, Cape Roca,
the mountain or Serra de Sintra, the mountain or Serra de Monsanto and São Jorge
hill), which combines two vacuums (cf. Figure 4).
The pregnant substratum, discretized by the salient forms, constitutes the
original site of Lisbon. There we were able to distinguish two domains: the do-
main of the categories (East/West) and the domain of the values (South/North).
These domains spread around those highly pregnant regions, thus overlapping
and creating a void, a “sacred vacuum.” Through the relationships between the
morphodynamic positions (the domains and the vacuums) it becomes possible to
understand the detachment of the value objects, the salient forms (cf. Figure 4).
The position relationships are invested in symbolic significations that combine
categories and values on the physical substratum.

3 Stratum 2: The constitution of the

“morphological abstract structure”
The constitution of the morphological abstract structure corresponds to the dis­
tribution of status and institutions, that is, of the different thematizations of
the  topological surface. These social motifs maintain among them force ratios
(attraction/repulsion) that engender qualitative discontinuities.
Based on an analysis from 700 BC until the seventeenth century, we were able
to pick out the components that are always invariable and that we have named
Urban Universals. We have shown how these components distinguish and de­
velop space in length (Marcos 1996). The first stratum illustrates how categories
and values were morphologically stabilized under the physical-symbolic substra-
tum to later form the socio-cultural substratum (second stratum). From the link
between the two strata, and in connection with the creation of the urban form,
three structural positions stand out: Laws (A), Names (B), and Values (C) – cf.
Figure 5.
Their combination prefigures the two dynamic axes of Authority and Produc-
tivity. The stabilization of A, B, and C, as dynamically-combined positional
­values, sets up Lisbon as a city. The study of the second stratum shows how mor-
phogenesis is a global process of time-space stratification, which represents the
internal phase of the metabolism of the form.
The cusp (cf. Figure 5) possesses two branches describing the behavior of
(A)  – Law and (B) – Names, which are like a spatiotemporal stratification.
­Analytically (A) and (B) are empty positions. Such a space of stratified control
­allows the introduction of new functions. These new functional phenomena
6    Isabel Marcos

Fig. 5: The urban universals: Laws, names, and values

r­ epresent pathways in the catastrophe. In the analysis, the paths between (A) and
(B) are described by the passage through the “figures.” If we introduce the path
going from the critical point towards C, the well is folded and is doubled up in
(A, B) and passes towards the external side of the cusp. (Brandt 1992: 72).
The “figures” emphasize these already thematized nets ( pathways in the
­catastrophe) of signification. From this perspective, one realizes that the three
activities structuring the “cohabiting together” are respectively: Legislate, Nomi-
nate, and Produce, each corresponding to a figurative path.
In the next paragraphs we will show:
– First condition – how throughout the period from 60 BC to the first century
of the medieval period the updating of symbolic values acting upon the
surface of the site was kept stable.
– Second condition – if the stabilization of symbolic values and the
morphological collocation of socio-cultural forms are in place, the abstract
morphological structure may henceforth unfold.

2.1 Roman Lisbon – Olisipo

Olisipo or Felicitas Julia existed between 60 BC and 409 AD. The establishment of
Olisipo during the Roman time was set up in terms of the opposition life/death
and the legislative rights at the core of the Roman Empire.
The city of Olisipo comprised three urban poles, which were reserved for
those who were invested in by the classes – sacerdotal, military, administrative,
 Urban morphogenesis    7

Fig. 6: Topological scheme of the main sites of Olisipo P – “Political”; R – “Religious”; Pe –

“People”

productive, and commercial – that we will identify within the space of this city
(cf. Figure 6). The classes in charge of the Political role (the military and adminis-
trative class) were located in the slope of São Francisco hill, on the West side of
the city center; the villae were built on that hill. The buildings corresponding to
the role of Religion (the sacerdotal and administrative class) were located in São
Jorge hill, on the East side. The Production (the productive and commercial class)
was located at the foot of São Jorge hill.
Since the first century AD one can find delimited the place where the forum,
the Visigoth basilica, the main mosque and, lastly, the Sé cathedral will be
­successively settled. At the Roman period, the three urban universals (A – Laws;
B – Names; C – Values) were not yet completely individualized. These three uni-
versals gathered the semantic conditions necessary to the emergence of urban
organizations within the topological surface.

2.2 The martyrs’ cult – the Barbarian domination

During the Barbarian domain (Visigoths, Alani, and Suevi), Olisipo became Kutya
(409–714). The martyrs’ cult will turn upside down the urban organization of
­Olisipo with regard to the place of the dead and the living. The martyrs of this
8    Isabel Marcos

Fig. 7: The hunt for slaves makes the city’s inhabitants progressively move towards the
countryside, thus causing the feudalization of the territory.

city  were integrated into the founding legend of São Vicente. It tells the story
of  two boats that landed on the shore of the Tagus river. Its occupants, Chris-
tians running away from the Barbarians, brought along to the city of Olisipo two
relics of São Vicente. These were dropped at Santos, on the West, and at Chelas,
on the East, which became two high places of Christian faith in Olisipo (cf. Fig-
ure 7).
The theory of urban form as developed by Desmarais and Ritchot (2000)
­allows us to describe four major population movements during the Barbarian
­invasions. i) There was a concentration of populations, a focusing exo-regulated
type of concentration, towards the city in search of protection or in an attempt
to negotiate coexistence with the Barbarians. ii) Instability entailed population
dispersion, a diffusing exo-regulated type of dispersion, in the surroundings of
Kutya, which consequently became empty. iii) This dispersion engendered an exo-
regulated concentration of inhabitants, both isolated and without any support,
in search of protection from the great feudal lords, iv) and a movement of endo-
regulated gathering around a martyr saint. Seeking protection from those who
were able to preserve spiritual richness at a time of confusion and insecurity, and
proposed security as regards the life beyond.

2.3 The Arabic period

Aschbouna or Olissibona (714–1147) is a period of defensive reorganization of the

city. The Arabic establishment, following the example of Olisipo, organized itself
around the same life/death opposition. The urbanization introduced by the Ro-
 Urban morphogenesis    9

Fig. 8: Aschbouna or Olissibona. During the Arabic occupation, the territory underwent recovery
that was allocated to the “main pole of the living.” P – “Political”; R – “Religious”; Pe –
“People”

mans was afterwards reinforced by the Muslims. The latter favored the potentiali-
ties of the site through the construction of a fortified city according to the canons
of Islamic organization. Therefore, the Arabs undertook the recovery of the pre-
ceding cultures by updating the urban values.
The former Olisipo thus underwent important urban transformations at the
time. The Roman forum (which would become a Visigoth basilica) was from then
on the main mosque, the place of expression of the “sacerdotal” class par excel-
lence. The ancient fortified Oppidum, located on the forum’s north side, became
the governor’s palace (Alcaçova, that is, the castle and the place of warfare), site
of expression of the “military” and “administrative” class par excellence (cf.
­Figure 8).
In Figure 8, one can notice the transfer of the buildings linked to the Political
realm, formerly located in the southern slope of São Francisco hill (the pole previ-
ously occupied by the “military” and “administrative” classes) and from then on
located on the summit of São Jorge hill within the ancient Roman city. The aban-
doned pole at São Francisco became a small craftsmen’s suburb expanded by a
port. Moreover, the ancient Roman port, at the foot of São Jorge hill, became the
main port of Aschbouna, the place of expression of the “merchants” and “produc-
ers” classes par excellence. Indeed Aschbouna regained its status as an important
political and commercial center.
10    Isabel Marcos

Fig. 9: Reorganization of the symbolic values concerning Lisbon after the Reconquest. The cult
of the Martyr Saints allowed for the reconciliation of the formerly scattered populations. P –
“Political”; R – “Religious”; Pe – “People”

2.4 The Reconquest of Lisbon – 1147

After the Reconquest, the central urban pole was kept on the same place, and the
Portuguese realms replaced those of the Arabic period (cf. Figure 9). The central
urban pole had always been subdivided into two parts: the Political domain,
which corresponded to the space of the military and now becomes the domain of
royalty (thus answering to the symbolic authority (A) of Laws), is placed at the
summit of São Jorge hill. The Religious domain, the space of the sacerdotal class
(that corresponds to the symbolic authority (B) of Names), is placed on the slope
of São Jorge hill, where the Christian Sé Cathedral replaced the main mosque.
Within the intra-city walls, a mosque was turned into a cathedral.
The suburban ports, placed at the foot of São Jorge and São Francisco hills,
are part of the Production domain (that corresponds to the symbolic authority (C)
of Values). They did not change locations.
Based on historical events, the elementary axiological system “Life versus
Death” can be summed up as follows:
i) The Roman period marks the transition from “repulsion” to “attractiveness”
towards extra urbem cemeteries;
ii) The Barbarian period marks, first, the diffused abandonment of the central
urban pole towards extra urbem cemeteries and feudal domains. Second,
under the Visigoth kingdom, there is an abandonment of the urban pole
located in São Francisco hill and a gathering towards the urban pole at São
Jorge hill;
   11
Urban morphogenesis 

iii) The Arabic period is marked by the conversion to Islam of the inhabitants of
the central urban pole. Christians found cemeterial chapels in the domains
of death (the hills around Aschbouna);
iv) The period after the Reconquest is particularly marked by the expansion of
cemeterial chapels turned into churches and by the creation of parishes
surrounding them. Through the Christianization of the space allotted to the
former domain of death, pilgrims, now settled and concentrated, are
promptly kept within the parish domains.

In the first century of the medieval period, the updating of the symbolic val-
ues acting upon the surface of the site was already stabilized, and the conditions
for the morphological collocation of the abstract forms were in place: an emerg-
ing structure could from then on spread out.

3 Stratum 3: Architectural configurations:

the transition from the medieval period to
the Renaissance
In order to understand the transition from the medieval period to the Renais-
sance, with regard to the edification of concrete forms, one must take into
account the thematic values and their underdeployment. Let us now focus on the

Fig. 10: Topological scheme of sixteenth-century Lisbon: surface dynamics.

12    Isabel Marcos

topological configuration of the framework developed (cf. Figure 10). On the one
hand, facing the river, one can notice the development of monumental buildings
(palaces, squares, commercial houses, noble houses, etc.) and, on the other, the
South/North development of more commercial and more popular areas (both
types of areas are intertwined). According to the route covered, the city would
stand for the exchange and stabilization of the thematic values: “the Authority”
emerging from the linguistic exchange and “the Productivity” emerging from the
exchange of objects (cf. Figure 11). These two types of exchanges may be consid-
ered as underdeployments of the organizing center, that is, of the thematic value
governing this period: the collective destiny. In the case of Lisbon, this suppos-
edly “emerging” structure was set up in the sixteenth century.
We propose the following definitions of Authority and Productivity:
– The Authority – There is a dynamic axis around which Authority organizes
itself. The “Political and Religious” figures represent the position of “(A)
Law and (B) Names.” The most important function of this axis is to structure
and update the topological relations of the human group overall. The
“Authority circulates” (as socio-cultural forms, social motifs) within the
pregnant surface of this region. Such surface is spatially structured by
saliencies that generally produce the monuments (concrete forms,
expressive architectural relief; cf. Figure 11).

Fig. 11: The transition from the Middle Ages to the Renaissance: profound dynamics.
 Urban morphogenesis    13

– The Productivity – There is also a dynamic axis around which Productivity

organizes itself. It corresponds to the regions occupied by the “People,” this
being a “figure” that represents the position of “(C) Values.” Its function is
basically productive: agriculture, breeding, fishing, etc. The “Productivity
circulates” (as socio-cultural forms, social motifs) within the pregnant
surface of this region. It is spatially structured by saliencies that generally
produce the Bairros, that is, areas where objects are produced in great
quantities (concrete forms, expressive architectural relief).

Parallel to the development of the “Authority axis,” the “Productivity axis” is

also developed in terms of the “concentration” of the “People” towards the North.
The crossing of the two axes configures an emerging morphological structure.
This structure is engendered by the dynamic topology internal to the urban mor­
phogenesis. It is not conceived of or planned from the outside by a social actor,
but is instead the result of a global process of space-time stratification. The valo­
rization and edification were the major morphogenetic processes during these
periods. The abstract morphological structure was set up after the end of the
­sixteenth century. Subsequently, the edification of concrete forms was under­
taken in accordance with the positional values invested into the abstract forms
(cf. Figure 12).

Fig. 12: Morphological structure emerging throughout the centuries. Concrete forms and
socio-cultural forms overlap.
14    Isabel Marcos

References
Brandt, Per Aage. 1992. La charpente modale du sens. Pour une semio-linguistique
morphogénétique et dynamique. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
Desmarais, Gaëtan & Gilles Ritchot. 2000. La géographie structurale. Paris: L’Harmattan.
Marcos, Isabel. 1996. Le sens urbain: La morphogenèse et la sémiogenèse de Lisbonne – une
analyse catastrophiste urbaine. Aarhus: Université Aarhus dissertation.
Petitot, Jean. 1992. Physique du sens. Paris: Éditions du CNRS.
Thom, René. 1990. Apologie du logos. Paris: Hachette.

Bionote
Isabel Marcos (1964) is a senior research fellow at the Universidade Nova de
­Lisboa 〈isamar@fcsh.unl.pt〉. Her research interests include dynamic semiotics of
urban systems, visual semiotics as a strategy for decision processes, semiotics
applied to technological innovations, and transdisciplinary research. Her publi-
cations include Dynamiques de la ville. Essais de sémiotique de l’espace (ed.,
2007); and As marcas da cultura mundializada na forma de Lisboa (2009).