ME1022 MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY

UNIT II

III YR /V SEM
ACADEMIC YEAR :2015-2016

By
Mr. S.SHAKTHIVEL
A.P(Sr.G)
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
SRM Univeristy
Kattankulathur

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UNIT II - FRACTURE BEHAVIOUR (9 hours)
Griffith's theory, stress intensity factor and fracture toughness - Ductile to
brittle transition - High temperature fracture, modes of fracture, creep –
Deformation mechanism maps - Fatigue, Low and high cycle fatigue test,
crack initiation and propagation mechanisms - Fracture of Non-metallic
materials. Failure analysis, Sources of failure, procedure of failure analysis

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FRACTURE is the separation of a solid body into two or more pieces under
the action of stress. Fracture can be classified into two broad categories:
Ductile fracture and Brittle fracture.
Ductile fractures are characterized by extensive plastic deformation prior to
and during crack propagation.
Brittle fractures occur with little or no gross plastic deformation and usually
occur suddenly, without warning.
The tendency for brittle fracture increases with decreasing temperature,
increasing strain rate, and under triaxial stress conditions, usually due to a
notch or other stress concentration.

Fracture Mechanics: concerned with the behaviour of materials containing

cracks or other small flaws. The term “flaw” refers to such features as small
pores (holes), inclusions, or microcracks.
The term “flaw” does not refer to atomic level defects such as vacancies or
dislocations.
Fracture toughness measures the ability of a material containing a flaw to
withstand an applied load.

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Fracture toughness test : performed by applying a tensile stress to a
specimen prepared with a flaw of known size and geometry.
The stress applied to the material is
intensified at the flaw, which acts as a
stress raiser.
The stress intensity factor K is
where f is a geometry factor for the
specimen and flaw, σ is the applied stress,
and a is the flaw size.
If the specimen is assumed to have an
“infinite” width, f=1.0. For a small single
-edge notch f = 1.12
By performing a test on a specimen with a known flaw size, the value of K is
determined that causes the flaw to grow and cause failure. This critical stress
intensity factor is defined as the fracture toughness Kc.
Kc = K required for a crack to propagate

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Fracture toughness depends on the thickness
of the sample: as thickness increases,
fracture toughness Kc decreases to a constant
value. This constant is called the plane strain
fracture toughness KIc. It is KIc is normally
reported as the property of a material.
Units: Mpa √𝑚𝑚 .

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Significance of Fracture Mechanics:
There are three variables to consider: the property of the material (Kc or KIc),
the stress s that the material must withstand, and the size of the flaw a.
Selection of a Material If the maximum size a of flaws in the material and
the magnitude of the applied stress is known, we can select a material that
has a fracture toughness Kc or KIc large enough to prevent the flaw from
growing.
Design of a Component If the maximum size of any flaw and the material
(and therefore its Kc or KIc has already been selected), we can calculate
the maximum stress that the component can withstand. Then we can size the
part appropriately to ensure that the maximum stress is not exceeded.
Design of a Manufacturing or Testing Method If the
material has been selected, the applied stress is known, and the size of the
component is fixed, we can calculate the maximum size of a flaw that can be
tolerated.
A non destructive testing technique that detects any flaw greater than this
critical size can help ensure that the part will function safely. In addition, we
find that, by selecting the correct manufacturing process, we can produce
flaws that are all smaller than this critical size.
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Modulus of Resilience
The work done on a unit volume of
material, as a simple tensile force is
gradually increased from zero to such a
value that the proportional limit of the
material is reached, is defined as the
modulus of resilience.
This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the
origin up to the proportional limit and
is represented as the shaded area
Modulus of Toughness Ur = Area underneath the stress–strain
The work done on a unit volume (σ–ε) curve = σ × ε
of material as a simple tensile Ur = Pa × %=(N·m−2·)·(m·m−1)
force is gradually increased from Ur = N·m·m−3
zero to the value causing rupture Ur = J·m−3
is defined as the modulus of
toughness.
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Hardness - "Hardness describes how much energy it takes to deform
(stretch, compress, bend, etc.) a material."

Toughness - "Toughness describes how much total energy has to be used

before a material breaks"

Resilience - "Resilience is the ability of a material to absorb energy when

it is deformed elastically, and release that energy upon unloading.

Proof resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed

within the elastic limit, without creating a permanent distortion.“

Fracture toughness measures the ability of a material containing a flaw

to withstand an applied load

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Griffith theory of Brittle Fracture:
Any crack or imperfection limits the ability of a ceramic to withstand a tensile
stress. This is because a crack or Griffith flaw concentrates and magnifies the
applied stress. The Figure shows a crack of
length a at the surface of a brittle material.
The radius r of the crack is also shown.
When a tensile stress σ is applied, the actual
stress at the crack tip is

For very thin cracks (r) or long cracks (a),

the ratio σactual/ σ becomes large, or the
Stress is intensified. If the stress (σactual) exceeds
the yield strength, the crack grows and
eventually causes failure, even though the
nominal applied stress s is small.

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Griffith theory of Brittle Fracture:(different approach)
An applied stress causes an elastic strain, related to the modulus of elasticity
E of the material. When a crack propagates, this strain energy is released,
reducing the overall energy.
At the same time, however, two new surfaces are created by the extension of
the crack; this increases the energy associated with the surface.
By balancing the strain energy and the surface energy, we find that the
critical stress required to propagate the crack is given by the Griffith equation

---------1

where a is the length of a surface crack (or one-half the length of an internal
crack) and γ is the surface energy per unit area. Again, this equation shows
that even small flaws severely limit the strength of the ceramic.
By rearrange the stress intensity factor K equation as
-------2
This equation is similar to equation 1

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Two equations points out the dependence of the mechanical properties on the
size of flaws present in the ceramic.
Development of manufacturing processes to minimize the flaw size
becomes crucial in improving the strength of ceramics.
The flaws are most important when tensile stresses act on the material.
Compressive stresses close rather than open a crack; consequently, ceramics
often have very good compressive strengths.

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Comparison of brittle and ductile fracture modes:

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Ductile to Brittle Transition Temperature (DBTT) :
The ductile to brittle transition temperature is the temperature at which the
failure mode of a material changes from ductile to brittle fracture.
This temperature may be defined by the average energy between the ductile
and brittle regions, at some specific absorbed energy, or by some
characteristic fracture appearance.
A material subjected to an impact blow during service should have a
transition temperature below the temperature of the material’s surroundings.
Not all materials have a distinct transition temperature. BCC metals have
transition temperatures, but most FCC metals do not.
FCC metals have high absorbed energies, with the energy decreasing
gradually and, sometimes, even increasing as the temperature decreases.
The effect of this transition in steel may have contributed to the failure of the
Titanic.
In polymeric materials, the ductile to brittle transition temperature is related
closely to the glass-transition temperature and for practical purposes is treated
as the same.
As mentioned before, the transition temperature of the polymers used in
booster rocketO-rings and other factors led to the Challenger disaster.
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BRITLE FRACTURE MECHANISM
Brittle failures results in cleavage that
occurs by breaking of the atomic bonds.
Brittle failures are characterized by rapid
crack propagation, with less energy
expenditure than in ductile fractures.
Cleavage fractures are characterized by a
planar crack that changes planes by the
formation of discrete steps.
River patterns are formed at grain
boundaries where the cleavage plane
in one grain is not parallel to the plane in
the adjacent grain, the difference being
accommodated by a series of steps. The
river patterns eventually diminish as the
crack propagates and adopts the cleavage
plane of the new grain before
being reformed at the next grain boundary
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In most ductile metals, failure occurs by
microvoid nucleation and growth.
Microvoids form at stress
concentrations and are most
frequently initiated by second-phase
particles,followed by void formation and
growth around the particles, or byparticle
cracking.
The microvoids then coalesce and grow
to produce larger voids until the
remaining area becomes too small to
support the load, and final failure occurs.
The ligaments between the voids
fail in shear on the plane of highest shear
stress at 45° to the tensile axis. Shear
lips, due to slip mechanisms, often occur
at angles approaching 45° to the applied
tensile stress, to form the well known
cup-and-cone fracture appearance.

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CREEP
If stress is applied to a material at an elevated temperature, the material may
stretch and eventually fail, even though the applied stress is less than the yield
strength at that temperature.
This Time dependent permanent deformation under a constant load or constant
stress and at high temperatures is known as Creep.
Dislocation mobility increases, slip becomes easier, new slip systems become
available, and dislocation climb is aided by both increases in temperature
and the presence of a greater number of vacancies.
Deformation at grain boundaries also becomes a possibility.
When a material does creep and then ultimately breaks, the fracture is defined
as stress rupture.
Low-melting-point metals, such as lead and tin, may deform by creep at or
slightly above room temperature. In contrast, refractory and nickel-base
superalloys require temperatures exceeding 980 C (1800 F) to activate the
onset of creep deformation.
Creep is a critical consideration in a number of high temperature
applications, such as power and chemical plants, and turbine components..

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Engineering Creep Test
Engineering creep is measured by
applying a constant load on a tensile
specimen at a constant temperature and
measuring the strain, or extension,
of the specimen as a function of time.
Creep tests may be run for as short
as several months to as long as 10 years.
Creep tests are usually conducted at
constant load rather than constant stress,
and, as the specimen elongates, the
cross-sectional area decreases, so
the applied stress increases with time.
Constant load creep curves typically,
consist of three distinct stages,

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CREEP CURVE

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Primary Creep: During primary creep, the specimen undergoes an initial
elongation, εo, and then the creep rate ( ε᾿=dε/dt) rapidly decreases with time.
Primary creep, also known as transient creep, represents a stage of
adjustment in the metal during which rapid, thermally activated plastic strain
occurs. Primary creep occurs in the first few moments after initial strain and
decreases in rate as crystallographic imperfections within the metal undergo
realignment. This realignment leads to secondary creep.
Secondary Creep:The creep rate is nominally constant at a minimum rate,
known as the minimum creep rate, further, also known as steady-state creep,
occurs when there is a balance between the competing processes of strain
hardening and recovery.
It often occupies the major portion of the duration of the creep test, and the
strain rate in this region for many creep-resistant materials is sufficiently
constant to be considered as a steady-state creep rate.

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Tertiary creep is a region of drastically increasing strain rate with rapid
extension to fracture. Tertiary creep is dominated by a number of weakening
metallurgical instabilities, such as localized necking, corrosion,
intercrystalline fracture, microvoid formation, precipitation of brittle second-
phase particles, and dissolution of second phases that originally contributed to
strengthening of the alloy.
In addition, recrystallization of the strain-hardened grains can destroy the
balance between the material hardening and softening processes
Eventually, during third stage creep, necking begins, the stress increases, and
the specimen deforms at an accelerated rate until failure occurs. The time
required for failure to occur is the rupture time

Most engineering applications for high temperature components fall within

the range of 0.4 to 0.6 Tm. Since creep is a thermally activated process, it
obeys an Arrhenius-type rate equation.
The steady-state creep rate, εs, in this intermediate temperature range (0.4
Tm <T<0.6 Tm) can be expressed as a power law function:

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where Q is the activation energy for creep; A is the pre-exponential constant;
n is a constant, usually between 3 and 10; R is the universal gas constant; and
T is the absolute temperature.

The slope of the steady-state portion of the creep curve is the creep rate

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Creep Deformation Mechanisms
The major classes of creep mechanisms are those that are governed by
dislocation motion and those that are diffusion controlled.
The dominating mechanism is determined by both the stress and
temperature; however, several mechanisms may be active at the same time.
In general, the ones governed by dislocation motion are more prevalent at
lower temperatures and higher stresses, while those controlled by
diffusion occur at higher temperatures and lower stresses.

Dislocation creep is the result of dislocations, in combination with vacancies

and thermal activation, climbing over obstacles that would normally
impede their motion at lower temperatures.
The relevant dislocation mechanisms are dislocation glide and climb.
As the temperature is increased, slip systems
that were not available at room temperature
become active, promoting dislocation glide.
When dislocations encounter an obstacle,
they are blocked and tend
to pile up against the obstacle.
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At low stress levels, the applied stress is insufficient to enable the
dislocations to bow around or cut through the obstacle. However, at elevated
temperature, a dislocation may climb by diffusion to a parallel slip plane.

Having climbed, the dislocation proceeds along the new slip plane
until it encounters another resistant obstacle, whereupon it climbs (or
descends) to another parallel plane and the process repeats. Since
dislocation motion depends on both dislocation glide and climb, the term
climb-glide creep is used to describe this form of creep.
. Climb-glide creep depends more strongly on stress than does
diffusion creep. At temperatures in excess of 0.5 Tm, dislocations can
escape from the obstacles by climbing out of the slip plane and thus can
continue to glide.

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Diffusion creep is often the dominating
mechanism at high temperatures and low
stresses. Two types of diffusion creep
occur:
Nabarro-Herring creep and Coble creep.
Under the driving force of an applied
stress,atoms diffuse from the sides of the
grains to the tops and bottoms in the
manner shown
Nabarro-Herring creep results from diffusion of vacancies in the grains from
grain boundaries that are undergoing tensile stress to areas that are in
compression.
At the same time, atoms flow in the opposite direction, resulting in
grain elongation in the direction of axial load. It is intrinsically a very slow
process but becomes significant at stresses too low for dislocation
motion to be activated and at relatively high temperatures, where the
diffusion is fast enough to produce a measurable creep rate.

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Coble creep is similar, except that it occurs at lower temperatures, and all of
the flow, vacancies and atoms occurs within the grain boundaries themselves.
Because diffusion is very sensitive to temperature, at lower temperatures
the main diffusion path is along the grain boundaries, since the activation
energy for grain-boundary diffusion is considerably less than that for bulk
diffusion.
Grain size plays a role in creep of metals. The finer the grain size, the more
rapid the mass transport, causing permanent deformation. Thus, under
conditions where creep is solely due to diffusion, the creep resistance is
improved by increasing the grain size.

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Deformation mechanism diagrams
The dominant creep mechanism at a specific stress-temperature combination
is found by calculating the creep rate for the several mechanisms and
determining the maximum rate.
Although the net creep rate is the sum of the several rates, the maximum one
is usually much greater than the others.
Deformation mechanism diagrams having axes of stress and temperature
can be used to display the results of such calculations.
Regions in the diagram essentially show stress-temperature combinations in
which a given creep mechanism dominates.
Ashby and his coworkers have developed deformation mechanism maps that
are useful in determining the dominant creep mechanism at different
combinations of stress and temperature.
Two deformation mechanism maps for the turbine blade alloy MAR-M 200 is
drawn. In these maps, the shear stress (τ) normalized by the shear modulus
(G) is plotted against the homologous temperature (T/Tm).
Also, it is seen that diffusion creep mechanisms operate at low stresses and
high temperatures, while at intermediate stresses, dislocation creep
or power law creep is dominant. By comparing
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Fig. (a) and (b), shows that increasing the grain size from 100 mm to 1 cm
(3.9 mils to 0.39 in.) expands the power law creep regime and appreciably
decreases the creep rate. These two maps for the same material
with different grain sizes illustrate the wide variation in creep rates at a given
combination of stress and temperature and help explain why large grain sizes
are favorable for many creep limited applications.
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FATIGUE

FATIGUE FAILURES OCCUR due to the application of fluctuating

stresses that are much lower than the stress required to cause failure
during a single application of stress.
Fatigue is the lowering of strength or failure of a material due to repetitive
stress which may be above or below the yield strength.
It is a common phenomenon in load-bearing components in cars and airplanes,
turbine blades, springs, crankshafts and other machinery, biomedical implants,
and consumer products, such as shoes, that are subjected constantly to
repetitive stresses in the form of tension, compression, bending, vibration,
thermal expansion and contraction, or other stresses.
These stresses are often below the yield strength of the material; however,
when the stress occurs a sufficient number of times, it causes failure by
fatigue!
Today, structural fatigue has assumed an even greater importance as a result of
the ever-increasing use of high-strength materials and the desire for
higher performance from these materials.
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Fatigue failures typically occur in three stages.
First, a tiny crack initiates or nucleates often at a time well after loading
begins. Normally, nucleation sites are located at or near the surface, where the
stress is at a maximum, and include surface defects such as scratches or pits,
sharp corners due to poor design or manufacture, inclusions, grain
boundaries, or dislocation concentrations.

Next, the crack gradually propagates as the load continues to cycle.

Finally, a sudden fracture of the material occurs when the remaining

cross-section of the material is too small to support the applied load.
Thus, components fail by fatigue because even though the overall applied
stress may remain below the yield stress, at a local length scale, the stress
intensity exceeds the tensile strength.

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Identification of Fatigue failures :
The fracture surface—particularly
near the origin—is typically smooth.
The surface becomes rougher as the
original crack increases in size and
may be fibrous during final crack
propagation.
Microscopic and macroscopic
Figure -a
examinations reveal a fracture surface
including a beach mark pattern
and striations (Figure-a).
Beach or clamshell marks (Figure-b)
are normally formed when the load is
changed during service or when the
loading is intermittent, perhaps
permitting time for oxidation inside
the crack. Striations, which are on a
much finer scale, show the position of
the crack tip after each cycle. Figure -b
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Stress Cycles:
There are three basic factors necessary to cause fatigue:
(1) a maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value,
(2) a large enough variation or fluctuation in the applied stress, and
(3) a sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied stress.
There are many types of fluctuating stresses.

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The S-N curve is presented as the stress amplitude versus the number of
cycles to failure.
Stress amplitude (σa) is defined as half of the difference between the
maximum and minimum stresses.
Mean stress (σm) is defined as the average between the maximum and
minimum stresses:

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FATIGUE TESTING MACHINE

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High-Cycle Fatigue
High-cycle fatigue involves a large number of cycles (N>105 cycles) and an
elastically applied stress.
High-cycle fatigue tests are usually carried out for 107 cycles and sometimes
5x108 cycles for nonferrous metals.
Although the applied stress is low enough to be elastic, plastic deformation
can take place at the crack tip.
High-cycle fatigue data are usually presented as a plot of stress, S, versus the
number of cycles to failure, N.
A log scale is used for the number of cycles. The value of stress, S, can be
the maximum stress, σmax, the minimum stress,σmin, or the stress amplitude,
σa. The S-N relationship is usually determined for a specified value of the
mean stress, σm, or one of the two ratios, R or A.

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Endurance limit; defined a stress below which a material will not fail in a
fatigue test. Factors such as corrosion or occasional overloading can cause
materials to fail at stresses below the assumed endurance limit.
Fatigue life tells us how long a component survives at a particular stress.
For example, if the tool steel is cyclically subjected to an applied stress of
90,000 psi, the fatigue life will be 100,000 cycles.
Knowing the time associated with each cycle, we can calculate a fatigue life
value in years.
Fatigue strength is the maximum stress for which fatigue will not occur
within a particular number of cycles, such as 500,000,000. The fatigue
strength is necessary for designing with aluminum and polymers, which have
no endurance limit.
In some materials, including steels, the endurance limit is approximately half
the tensile strength.
The ratio between the endurance limit and the tensile strength is known
as the endurance ratio:

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Fatigue Crack Nucleation and Growth
Fatigue cracks almost always initiate at free surfaces, usually external
surfaces but also internal surfaces if the metal contains defects such as voids
and cracked second-phase particles.
Common external surface defects include geometric notches and surface
roughness.
Stage I. Crack initiation usually starts at a notch or other surface
discontinuity. Even in the absence of a surface defect, crack initiation
will eventually occur due to the formation of persistent slip bands (PSBs), so
called because traces of the bands persist even when the surface
damage is polished away.
Slip bands are a result of the systematic build up of fine slip movements
on the order of only 1 nm. The back-and-forth movement of the
slip bands leads to the formation of intrusions and extrusions at the surface,
eventually leading to the formation of a crack.
The initial crack propagates parallel to the slip bands. The crack propagation
rate during stage I is very low, on the order of 1 nm per cycle, and produces
a practically featureless fracture surface. The crack initially follows the slip
bands atapproximately 45 to the principal stress direction.
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When the crack length becomes sufficient for the stress field at the tip to
become dominant, the overall crack plane changes and becomes
perpendicular to the principal stress, and thecrack enters stage II.

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Stage II crack growth occurs when the stage I crack changes direction and
propagates in a direction normal to the applied stress.
Crack growth proceeds by a continual process of crack sharpening followed
by blunting.
Crack propagation during crack
growth often produces a pattern of
fatigue striations with each striation
representing one cycle of fatigue.
Although striations are indicative of
fatigue, fatigue failures can occur
without the formation of striations.
Striations are microstructural details
that are best examined with a scanning
electron microscope and are not visible
to the naked eye.
Frequently, visible examination of a
fatigued surface will reveal a series of
concentric markings on the surface,
referred to as beach marks
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These are present as a result of stress changes during fatigue, for example,
the starting and stopping of a rotating shaft. Each of the beach marks can
contain thousands or even tens of thousands of fatigue cycles.

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Stage III. Ultimate failure occurs when the fatigue crack becomes long
enough that the remaining cross section can no longer support
Fatigue Crack Propagation:

Linear elastic fracture mechanics assumes

that all structures contain flaws. Cracks grow
from an initial size, ao, to a critical size, ac,
corresponding to failure as a function of the
number of load cycles.
The crack growth rate, da/dn, can be determined
from the slope of the curve. Initially, the crack
growth rate is slow but increases with increasing
crack length.
Of course, the crack growth rate is also higher
for higher applied stresses..

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THANK YOU

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Fatigue Crack Propagation

MSE 527

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Principles of Failure Analysis

General Procedures

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 Definition of Failure

When a part or device can no

longer perform its intended
function, the part has failed.

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Definition of Failure Analysis

A systematic, science-based method

employed for investigation of
failures occurring during tests or in
service.

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Fundamental Sources of Failure
* Deficiencies in design.
* Deficiencies in selection of materials.
* Imperfections in materials.
* Deficiencies in processing.
* Errors in assembly.
* Improper service conditions.

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Impact of Failure Analysis on
Society
* Cost of failure.
* Cost of failure analysis.
* Improvement of products.

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 14 Stages of Failure Analysis
1. Background data. 8. Metallography
2. Preliminary exam. 9. Failure mode.
3. Nondestructive tests. 10. Chemical analysis.
4. Mechanical tests. 11. Fracture mechanics
5. Sample selection. 12. Simulated tests.
6. Macroscopic exam. 13. Analysis & report.
7. Microscopic exam. 14. Recommendations.

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1. Collection of background data
and samples.

* Manufacturing history. * Inventory of parts.

* Service history. * Abnormal conditions.
* Photographic records. * Sequence of fractures.
* Wreckage analysis. * Sample selection.

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Fracture A preceded fracture B.

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Fracture A preceded fractures B and C.

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2. Preliminary Examinations.

* Most important part of failure analysis.

* Visual inspection of all parts.
* Detailed photography of all parts.
* Study of the fractures.

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3. Nondestructive Inspections.

* Magnetic particle inspection.

* Liquid penetrant inspection.
* Electromagnetic inspection.
* Ultrasonic inspection.
* Radiography.
* Residual stress analysis.

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4. Mechanical Testing.

* Hardness testing.
* Tensile testing.
* Shear testing.
* Impact testing.
* Fatigue testing.
* Fracture mechanics testing.

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5. Selection and Preservation of
Fracture Surfaces.

* How? Very Carefully!!!

* Prevent chemical damage to samples.
* Prevent mechanical damage to samples.
* Prevent thermal damage to samples.
* Careful cleaning:
Least destructive technique first.

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 6. Macroscopic Examinations

* Use low power stereo-microscopes.

* Determine Origin of failure.
* Determine direction of crack growth:
Chevron patterns, River marks, beach marks etc...
* Determine ductile or brittle fracture.
* Locate other cracks.

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7. Microscopic Examinations
* Light microscopes:
shallow depth of field.
* Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEM):
sample preparation problems.
* Scanning Electron Microscopes ( SEM):
conductivity problems.
coating and replication techniques.

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Dimples typical of a ductile overload fracture by
micro-void coalescence mechanism

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Striations typical of fatigue failures

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Cleavage fracture typical of brittle overload fracture

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Rock candy structure typical of intergranular fracture

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8. Metallographic Examination
* Class of Material:
Cast or Wrought
* General Microstructure.
* Crack Path:
Transgranular and/or Intergranular
* Heat Treatment Problems:
Decarburization, Alpha-Case, etc….

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Lap defect in forging

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Interganular crack in copper tube

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Crack branching in martensitic steel

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 9. Failure Modes
* Ductile:
Plastic Deformation
Equiaxed or Shear Dimples
Dull, Gray and usually Transgranular.
* Brittle:
No Macroscopic Plastic Deformation
Cleavage, Intergranular or Striations
Difficult to diagnose.

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Modes of Fracture

* Monotonic Overload
Brittle
Ductile
* Sub-Critical Crack Growth
Static Loads
Dynamic Loads

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 Mechanisms of Fracture
* Overload - Fracture with application of load.
Ductile or Brittle
* Crack Growth - Under Load Over Time.
Fatigue
Stress Corrosion Cracking
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Creep

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Sub-Critical Crack Growth under
Dynamic Loads

* Fatigue
* Corrosion Fatigue
* Thermal Fatigue

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Sub-Critical Crack Growth under
Static Loads

* Stress Corrosion Cracking

* Hydrogen Embrittlement
* Liquid Metal Embrittlement
* Creep Rupture

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Some Common Fractographic
Features
Brittle Overload Cleavage
Ductile Overload Dimples
Stress Corrosion Cracking Intergranular
Hydrogen Embrittlement Intergranular
Creep Rupture Intergranular
Fatigue Striations

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 10. Chemical Analysis
* Optical Emission Spectroscopy
* Wet Chemical Analysis
* X-ray, Electron & Neutron Diffraction
* X-ray Fluorescence
* Infrared & Ultraviolet Spectroscopy
* Energy and Wavelength Dispersive X-ray
Analysis.
* Surface Analysis Techniques

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11. Fracture Mechanics

* Fracture Toughness Testing.

* Strain Rate Sensitivity.
* Notch Sensitivity.
* Triaxiality

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12. Simulated-Service Testing

* Of Limited Value.
* Simulated Corrosion Tests.
* Deciding between several possible
mechanisms.
* Errors by Changing Severity of Conditions.

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 13. Conclusions and Report

* Be Clear & Concise.

* Do not Express Opinions Without Facts.
* Consider the Client.
* Site the Sources of External Data.
* Check list is a good idea.

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 14. Recommendations

* Should lead to prevention of future failures.

* Should lead to product improvements.
* Do not rush to change material or process
specifications without complete analysis of
possible interaction with other parts of the
system.

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 Analyze
Opportunity Part 1

Failure Modes Effect Analysis

(FMEA)

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 Learning Objectives
 To understand the use of Failure Modes Effect Analysis
(FMEA)
 To learn the steps to developing FMEAs
 To summarize the different types of FMEAs
 To learn how to link the FMEA to other Process tools

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 Benefits
 Allows us to identify areas of our process that most impact
our customers
 Helps us identify how our process is most likely to fail

 Points to process failures that are most difficult to detect

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 Application Examples
 Manufacturing: A manager is responsible for moving a
manufacturing operation to a new facility. He/she wants to be
sure the move goes as smoothly as possible and that there are no
surprises.
 Design: A design engineer wants to think of all the possible ways a
product being designed could fail so that robustness can be built
into the product.
 Software: A software engineer wants to think of possible problems
a software product could fail when scaled up to large databases.
This is a core issue for the Internet.

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 What Can Go
Wrong?

What Is A Failure Mode?

 A Failure Mode is:
 The way in which the component, subassembly, product, input,
or process could fail to perform its intended function
 Failure modes may be the result of upstream operations or
may cause downstream operations to fail
 Things that could go wrong

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 FMEA
 Why
 Methodology that facilitates process improvement
 Identifies and eliminates concerns early in the development of
a process or design
 Improve internal and external customer satisfaction
 Focuses on prevention
 FMEA may be a customer requirement (likely contractual)
 FMEA may be required by an applicable
Quality Management System Standard (possibly ISO)

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 FMEA
 A structured approach to:
 Identifying the ways in which a product or process can fail
 Estimating risk associated with specific causes
 Prioritizing the actions that should be taken to reduce risk
 Evaluating design validation plan (design FMEA) or current
control plan (process FMEA)

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 When to Conduct an FMEA
 Early in the process improvement investigation
 When new systems, products, and processes are being
designed
 When existing designs or processes are being changed
 When carry-over designs are used in new applications
 After system, product, or process functions are defined,
but before specific hardware is selected or released to
manufacturing

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 Examples

History of FMEA
 First used in the 1960’s in the Aerospace industry during
the Apollo missions
 In 1974, the Navy developed MIL-STD-1629 regarding
the use of FMEA
 In the late 1970’s, the automotive industry was driven by
liability costs to use FMEA
 Later, the automotive industry saw the advantages of
using this tool to reduce risks related to poor quality

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 A Closer Look

The FMEA Form

Identify failure modes Identify causes of the Prioritize Determine and

and their effects failure modes assess actions
10 and controls

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 Specialized
Uses

Types of FMEAs
 Design
 Analyzes product design before release to production,
with a focus on product function
 Analyzes systems and subsystems in early concept and
design stages
 Process
 Used to analyze manufacturing and assembly processes
after they are implemented

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 Team Input
Required

FMEA: A Team Tool

 A team approach is necessary.
 Team should be led by the Process Owner who is the
responsible manufacturing engineer or technical person, or
other similar individual familiar with FMEA.
 The following should be considered for team members:
– Design Engineers – Operators
– Process Engineers – Reliability
– Materials Suppliers – Suppliers
– Customers

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 Process Steps

FMEA Procedure
1. For each process input (start with high value inputs), determine
the ways in which the input can go wrong (failure mode)
2. For each failure mode, determine effects
 Select a severity level for each effect

3. Identify potential causes of each failure mode

 Select an occurrence level for each cause

4. List current controls for each cause

 Select a detection level for each cause

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 Process Steps

FMEA Procedure (Cont.)

5. Calculate the Risk Priority Number (RPN)
6. Develop recommended actions, assign responsible persons, and
take actions
 Give priority to high RPNs
 MUST look at severities rated a 10

7. Assign the predicted severity, occurrence, and detection levels

and compare RPNs

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 Information
Flow

FMEA Inputs and Outputs

Inputs Outputs
C&E Matrix List of actions to
Process Map prevent causes or
Process History detect failure
Procedures FMEA modes
Knowledge
Experience History of actions
taken

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 Analyzing
Severity, Occurrence, Failure &
Effects

and Detection
 Severity
 Importance of the effect on customer requirements

 Occurrence
 Frequency with which a given cause occurs and
creates failure modes (obtain from past data if possible)

 Detection
 The ability of the current control scheme to detect
(then prevent) a given cause (may be difficult to estimate early
in process operations).

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 Assigning
Rating
Weights

Rating Scales
 There are a wide variety of scoring “anchors”, both
quantitative or qualitative
 Two types of scales are 1-5 or 1-10
 The 1-5 scale makes it easier for the teams to decide on
scores
 The 1-10 scale may allow for better precision in
estimates and a wide variation in scores (most common)

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 Assigning
Rating
Weights

Rating Scales
 Severity
 1 = Not Severe, 10 = Very Severe
 Occurrence
 1 = Not Likely, 10 = Very Likely
 Detection
 1 = Easy to Detect, 10 = Not easy to Detect

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 Calculating a
Composite
Score

Risk Priority Number (RPN)

 RPN is the product of the severity, occurrence, and

detection scores.

Severity X Occurrence X Detection = RPN

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 Key Points

Summary
 An FMEA:
 Identifies the ways in which a product or process can fail
 Estimates the risk associated with specific causes
 Prioritizes the actions that should be taken to reduce risk
 FMEA is a team tool
 There are two different types of FMEAs:
 Design
 Process
 Inputs to the FMEA include several other Process tools such as
C&E Matrix and Process Map.

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