INTRODUCTION

THE NOUN
The noun is a word expressing substance.
Morphological composition of nouns
Classification of nouns
INTRODUCTION
THE CATEGORY OF CASE
- the grammatical category which shows the relations of the noun to the other words in the sentence.
;"
Case
Nouns
Nominative
Answers the questions:
Nouns Genitive
It answers the questions:
who? and what? whose? which? what?
Proper Common
are names that canSimple
be applied to
Compound
They are individual names givenDerivative
to
any individual of a class of persons
separate persons or things. are nouns which have
are nouns built from are nouns which have orneither
things.prefixes nor
two or more stems. derivative elements suffixes.
THE CATEGORY OF GENDER
It is doubtful whether the grammatical category of gender exists in Modern English for it is hardly ever
expressed by means of grammatical forms. There is practically only one gender-forming suffix in Modern
English, the suffix -ess, expressing gender. It is not widely used.
heir - heir-ess poet - poet-ess
Gender
masculine feminine neuter common
using a word
using different
adding suffixes that indicates
words
sex
THE ARTICLE
Article
definite: indefinite:
the a, an
THE ADJECTIVE
The adjective is a word expressing a quality of a substance.
Adjective
Morphological Syntactical
characteristics characteristics
degrees of
attribute predicative
comparison
comparative
superlative
Morphological composition of the adjective
Adjectives
derivative
simple compound
They have derivative
They have neither They are built from two
elements, suffixes or
prefixes nor suffixes. or more stems
prefixes, or both
Classification of adjectives
Adjectives
relative
qualitative They denote qualities of a substance through their
relations to:
They denote qualities of a substance directly, not
through its relation to another substance, as size, materials
shape, colour, physical and mental qualities, place
qualities of general estimation time
some action
THE ADVERB
The adverb is a part of speech which expresses some circumstances that attend an action or state, or points
out some characteristic features of an action or quality.
The function in the sentence: adverbial modifier.
Adverbs
According to the structure According to the meaning
simple time
long, enough, then, etc. today, tomorrow, soon, etc
derivative frequency
slowly, likewise, forward, often, seldom, never,
etc. sometimes, etc.
compound place and direction

anyhow, sometimes, inside, outside, here, there
nowhere, etc. upstairs, etc.
composite cause and consequence

at once, at last, etc. therefore, consequently,
accordingly, etc.
manner
kindly, quickly, hard, etc.
degree, measure, quantity

very, enough, half, too,
nearly, almost, much, little
quite, etc.
THE PRONOUN
Types of pronouns Examples
1. Personal Subject: I, he, she, it, we, you, they

pronouns
Object: me, him, her, It, us, you, them
2. Possessive mine; his; hers; ours; yours; theirs

pronouns
3. Reflexive myself; himself; herself; itself; ourselves; yourselves; themselves
pronouns
4. Reciprocal each other; one another

pronouns
5. Demonstrative this – these; that – those; the former; the latter; the first; the last; the same;
pronouns such; such- and-such; suchlike; one –ones.
6. Indefinite all; both; much; many; more; most; little, few; a little; a few; another; the
pronouns other; others; the others; either; neither; each; everybody; everything;
everyone; some; any; no one/ none; somebody; something; someone;
anybody; anything; anyone; nobody; nothing; enough; several; one
7. Interrogative who; whom; whose; what; which

pronouns
8. Relative pronouns who; whom; whose; whoever; which; whichever; that; what
Types of Explanations Examples
pronouns
Personal Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in
Pronouns the third person singular) gender.
 two cases:
a) the nominative case: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
b) the objective case: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
NB. If the pronoun is used as part of the subject, use Eric and I are good friends.
a subject pronoun:
If it is part of the object, use an object pronoun: Ann met Eric and me at the museum.
 two numbers:
a) singular I, he, she, it,
b) plural we, they
NB. you is both singular and plural
 He, she, it distinguish gender
a) Male beings (man, uncle, boy, etc.) are referred to Her husband asked only a few
as he: questions. He was a silent man.
b) Female beings (woman, aunt, girl, etc.) are He turned and saw the girl. She was a
referred to as she: pale, ethereal creature…
c) Inanimate things (house, tree, cap, etc.) are Where’s your car? - It is in the
referred to as it: garage.
Functions: of subject, object, predicative.
Possessive Grammatical categories: of person, number and (in mine; his; her; ours; yours; theirs
pronouns the third person singular) gender.
 A possessive pronoun is used alone, Possessive pronouns Possessive adjectives

without a noun following it. I have mine. I have my pen.
You have yours. You have your pen.
 A possessive adjective is used only She has hers. She has her pen.
with a noun following it. He has his. He has his pen.
We have ours. We have our pens.
NB. The form its, although it may occur You have yours. You have your pens.
in some constructions, is no longer used They have theirs. They have their pens.
today being considered obsolete. I have a book. Its cover is
black.
Reflexive Grammatical categories: of person, I saw myself in the mirror.
pronouns number and (in the third person You saw (one person) yourself in the mirror.
singular) gender. She saw herself in the mirror.
 End in –self/ -selves. They are used He saw himself in the mirror.
when the subject (e.g., I) and the It saw itself.
object (e.g., myself) are the same We saw ourselves.
person. The action of the verb is You (plural) saw yourselves.
pointed back to the subject of the They saw themselves.
sentence.
Incorrect: I saw me in the mirror.
 By + a reflexive pronoun = alone. Greg lives by himself. (i.e. alone without family or
roommates.)
 Enjoy and a few other verbs and Believe in, blame, cut, enjoy, feel sorry for, help,
phrases are commonly followed by a hurt, give, introduce, kill, pinch, be proud of, take
reflexive pronoun. care of, talk to, teach, tell, work for.
Functions: of prepositional object,

predicative.
Those verbs which describe actions Jimmy usually shaves before breakfast.
that people do to themselves ( to
shave; to dress; to wash, etc.) do not
usually take reflexive pronouns:
With these verbs, reflexive pronouns
are only used for emphasis: I prefer shaving myself to going to the barber’s
Reciprocal The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another

pronouns indicate that two people do the same thing, feel the
same way, or have the same relationship, that is the
feeling or action is mutual.
He had never heard his father or his
 Each other generally implies only two people:
mother speak in an angry voice to
each other.
 One another generally implies more than two Seated in a row close to one another
were three ladies – Aunt Ann, Hester,
people:
and Julie.
There are some verbs in English that describe to argue, to hug, to compete, to kiss,
processes which involve two people or two groups of to consult, to marry, to embrace, to
people doing the same thing to each other, having, match, to engage, to meet, to fight, to
thus, a reciprocal meaning: touch.
We kissed.
If, however, we want to emphasize that both
participants are equally involved in the action, we use We kissed one another.
each other or one another after the verb:
Demonstra This is used to point at what is nearer in time or This is an interesting book.
-tive space: That was a serious problem.
pronouns That is used to point at what is farther in time or This is a French girl.
space:
This – these; that – those may be applied to both Ann and Janet are cousins: the
persons and things. former is a student, the latter is a
The former – the latter: these pronouns have the pupil.
meaning of the first and, respectively, the second of Ann si Janet sunt verişoare: prima e
two. They have the same form for singular and studentă, a doua e elevă.
plural:
The same is used as a:
 demonstrative adjective
George learns in the same school as
 demonstrative pronoun his friend.
I think the same about this.
The same may also replace a whole sentence:
I drank a glass of milk and my sister
Such can be both a demonstrative adjective: did the same.
a demonstrative pronoun: Have you ever read such stories?
Such is the present situation.
Suchlike: We have never listened to suchlike

songs. (adjective)
I don’t like books about love, romance
and suchlike. (pronoun)
Indefinite All is a generalizing pronoun; it takes a group of And Martin forgot all about it.
Pronouns things or people as a whole. It may be used as
subject, predicative, object, and attribute.
Both points out two persons, things or notions Both seemed to implore something to
mentioned before. It may be used as subject, object, shelter them from reality.
prepositional indirect object, and attribute.
Each and every refer to all the members of the group They began to deal swiftly with the
of persons, things, or notions mentioned before and cocoa tins, slipping a stick of
taken one by one. They require a verb in the singular. dynamite in each.(prepositional
Each may be used as subject, object, and attribute. indirect object)
Every is used only as an attribute. This is something more than genius. It
is true, every line of it.
Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the

group of persons mentioned before or taken one by You walked into the waiting-room,
one. They have two cases: into a great buzz of conversation, and
there was everybody; you knew almost
a) the common everybody.
b) the genitive He almost forgot the discomfort of
being set up as a target for
Functions of: subject, object, and attribute.
everybody’s gaze.
Everything may be applied to things, animals, and

abstract notions. It is used as subject, predicative, and No one will see us. Pull down that veil
object. and everything will be all right.
Either has two meanings: a) each of the two, b) one

or the other. It is usually used as attribute or part of
“Which book do you prefer?”
the subject. “Either”.
Other –others have two cases:

a) the common (other –others)
b) the genitive(other’s –others’)
The other means the “the last one in a specific There are two apples on the table.
group, the only one that remains from a given Paul is going to eat one of them. Sara
number of similar items”. It can be pronoun and is going to eat the other.(pronoun)
adjective. It used as subject, object, and attribute. Sara is going to eat the other apple.
(adjective)
Other(s) (without the) means “several more out of a There are many apples in Paul’s
group of similar items, several in addition to the one kitchen Paul is holding one apple.
(s) I have already talked about.” There are other apples (ones) in a
The adjective other (without an –s) can be used with bowl. (adjective)
a plural noun or with the word ones.
There are others on a chair.(pronoun)
Others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not used
with a noun.
The other(s) means “the last ones in a specific

group, the remains from a given number of similar
items”. There are four apples on the table.
Paul is going to take one of them.
The other (without an –s) can be used as an Sara is going to take the other apples.
adjective in front of a plural noun or the word ones. (ones) (adjective)
The others (with an –s) is a plural pronoun; it is not She is going to take the others.
used with a noun. (pronoun)
Another means “one more out of a group of similar There’s a large bowl of apples on the
items, one in addition to the one(s) I have already table. Paul is going to eat one apple.
talked about”. If he is still hungry after that, he can
eat another ( apple). There are many
It may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
apples to choose from.
There were two apples on the table.
Another can be used as an adjective in front of a Paul ate one apple. Then he ate
noun or in front of the word one. another one. (adjective)
Paul ate one apple. Then he ate
Another can also be used alone as a pronoun. another. (pronoun)
Some, any, somebody, anybody,

Somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, one have someone, anyone, something,
two cases: anything, one.
a) the common
b) the genitive I’m sure some will agree.
Some is chiefly used in affirmative sentences.
Any is used in negative and interrogative sentences Cats? I don’t have any.
Do you see any?
and in conditional clauses.
If you have any, show them to me
please.
Do you want some?
Some, not any, is used in special and general
questions expressing some request or proposal.
Any are allowed to do it..
Any may be used in affirmative sentences with the
meaning of ‘every”. There’s someone in front of our
Somebody, someone, something are chiefly used in house.
affirmative sentences. I would like to say something.
I don’t want anything.

Anybody, anyone, anything are used in negative Is there anything you would like to
and interrogative sentences and in conditional tell me?
clauses. If anybody comes, tell me please.
Will someone help me?

Somebody, someone, something are used in special
and general questions if they express some request or
proposal. “You’ve no business to say such a
thing!” she exclaimed. : Why not?
Anybody, anyone, anything may be used in
Anybody can see it”.
affirmative sentences. Anybody, anyone are used
...she sank in spirit inwardly as she
with the meaning of “everyone”; anything is used
thought of asking for something to do
with the meaning of “everything’.
– something that she could do –
Some, any, somebody, anybody, someone, anyone, anything.
something, anything may be used as: subject,
object, attribute, predicative. I forgot to bring a pen. Can you lend
One is used to avoid the repetition of a/ an + noun. me one?
None of us can hold on forever!

None may be applied both to human beings and
things. It can be used as subject or object. It is
opposite to the pronouns some, something, someone,
all, everybody, every, each. Nobody seemed to know him well.
We have no one to help us.
Nobody, no one refer to human beings. They are
opposite to the pronouns somebody, someone, all,
everybody, every, and each.
They are mostly used as subjects and objects.
Nothing can satisfy me more.
Nothing refers to things. It is opposite to the
pronouns something and everything. It may be used
as subject, predicative or object.
Do you like any of these two cars? – I
Neither is opposite to the defining pronouns either, like neither.
both. It may be used as subject, object, and attribute.
Interro- Are used to form special questions: who; whom; whose; what; which
gative Who has the category of case:
pronouns a) the nominative: who
b) the objective: whom
NB. There’s a tendency in Modern English to use
who, instead of whom, as an object.
Who refers to human beings: Who has watered the flowers?
What usually refers to things but it may be applied to “What are you looking for, Tess?”
persons when one inquires about their occupation: “Hairpins”, she replied.
“What was he?” “A painter.”
Which has as elective meaning; it refers to an
“Which of us does he mean?” asked
individual of the group. It may refer to persons or
the boy.
things.
Which side of the bed do you like,
Functions: subject, predicative, object, and attribute. Mum?
Relative Refer to somebody or something that has already who; whom; whose; whoever; which;
pronouns been mentioned and, at the same time, join clauses whichever; that; what
together.
Who refers to persons. It is the subject of a relative The boy who is answering the
teacher’s question is my friend.
clause:
Whom is the object of a relative clause, although, This is the girl who(m) we met
yesterday.
nowadays, the form who is also accepted:
Whose refers to persons, animals, and things. It
shows who or what something belongs to or is The woman whose hat is red is our
connected with. It must always come in front of a neighbour.
noun.
Which always refers to things or animals and can be Here was her own style- a bed which
did not look like others.
the subject or the object of a relative clause:
That may refer to either people or things and has the The girl that you see is my sister.
same form as the subject or the object of a relative
On one side was a low wall that
clause, or of a preposition:
separated it from the street.
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of pronoun.
2. Name the types of pronouns.
B. Application
1. Give examples of personal, possessive, reflexive, reciprocal, relative, interrogative, indefinite,
demonstrative pronouns.
C. Integration
1. Compare the types of pronouns in English and your mother tongue.
THE NUMERAL
cardinal
adverbial ordinal
numera
l
multipli-
distribu-
cative adver-
tive bial
adverbial
Types of Examples
numeral
Cardinal Are used to refer to an exact number of things, 0 - zero; 1 – one; 2 – two; 3 – three; 4 –
etc. four, 5 – five; 6 –six; 7 – seven; 8 – eight; 9
Notes: – nine; 10 – ten; 11 – eleven, 12 – twelve;
 The figure 0 can be written and 13 – thirteen; 14 – fourteen; 15 – fifteen; 16
pronounced in the following ways: – sixteen; 17 – seventeen; 18 – eighteen; 19
Zero – usually used in American English, in – nineteen; 20 – twenty; 21 – twenty-one;
mathematics, for temperature; 22 – twenty-two, etc.; 30 –thirty; 40 –forty;
Nought – used in British English, in 50 – fifty; 60 –sixty; 70 – seventy; 80 –
mathematics; eighty; 90 ninety; 100 –one hundred; 205 –
Oh – used when reading out long numbers, two hundred and five; 1,000 – one
one figure at a time (e. g. telephone numbers, thousand; 1,325 - one thousand, three
account numbers, etc); hundred and twenty-five; 1,000,000 – one
Nil – used to express scores in team games; million; 5,000,000 – five million;
Love – used to express scores in tennis. 1,000,000,000 - one billion.
 Unlike most other languages, in English

the numbers over 999 that are written in 1,987 – 1 987
figures get a comma or a blanc dividing the 2,513,608 – 2 513 608
figures into groups of three:
 When the cardinal number contains a full
stop, the number or numbers that occur after 7.25 (seven point twenty-five)
the full stop indicate a fraction:
 When we write in words or say a number 102 = one hundred and two
over 100, we must put and before the number 1120 = one thousand, one hundred and
expressed by the last two figures: twenty
But and is often omitted in American English: 129 = one hundred twenty-nine.
 A is usually used before hundred, This watch costs a hundred dollars.

thousand, million when they stand alone or in There were not more than a thousand people
informal English: on the beach.
and one in formal English or when these One hundred and twenty-four.
words are followed by other numbers: One thousand and five.
 The words hundred, thousand, million, Two hundred years, five thousand books,
dozen (= 12), score (=20) and gross (= 144) ten million people, three dozen books,
are never used in the plural when preceded by ten score.
a definite number or by several, a few or a
couple of:
But the words hundred, thousand, million, Hundreds of girls, thousands of flowers,
billion, dozen, score and gross are used in the millions of people, scores of letters
plural when they express an indefinite number They sell in dozens and in grosses.
or are preceded by many: Many hundreds/ thousands/ etc.
Expressing Age
We can express a person’s age in the
following ways:
 with the help of the verb to be followed Tom is fifteen (years old).
by a number:
 with the preposition of after a noun, She was a girl of twelve.
followed by a number:
 with the word aged after the noun,
followed by a number: He had a daughter aged fifteen.
 with the help of a compound adjective,
A fifteen year-old boy
made up of a number followed by a
A two-month-old baby
singular noun referring to a period of
time, followed by the word old. These
words are hyphened:
 with the help of a compound noun
We were met by Kerry, a pretty twenty-year-
consisting of a number followed by year
old.
old:
All the seven-year-olds will go to school in
September.
If we want to refer to somebody’s age in an
When Rosemary was in her teens, ...
approximate way, we can do it in the
The two men were both in their mid-fifties.
following ways:
I think she is over fifty.
All those present were under twenty.
She is below the age of thirty.
I’m sure he sisters are above the age of
twenty.
The over-eighteens will be allowed to see
this film.
The under-fourteens will not be given
identity cards.
Telephone Numbers
Each digit of a telephone number is usually 142093 (one-four-two-oh-nine-three)
spoken separately except in the case of two 43338 (four-double three-three-eight)/
identical digits occurring together, which are (four-three-double three-eight)
said as “double three”, “double seven”, etc.
The digits are spoken in groups of two or NB. In American English, zero or nought is
three, with slight pauses between the groups. usually used instead of oh
Ordinal They are used to identify something by The first; the second; the third; the fourth;
indicating where it comes in a series of the fifth; the tenth; the eleventh; the twelfth;
sequence. They are formed with the help of the thirteenth; the twenty-first; the twenty-
the suffix –th added to the cardinal numbers or fourth; the thirtieth; the one hundredth; the
their equivalents, except the first three ten thousandth; the one millionth; the thirty-
numbers which have irregular forms, and the somethingth; etc.
compound numbers with which only the last
figure gets its ordinal form.
The 1st; the 2nd; the 3rd; the 4th; the 10th; the
They can also be written in abbreviated form:
21st; the 52nd; the 76th;
April 1, 1946 1 April 1946
 dates may be written in the following
April 1st, 1946 1st April 1946
ways:
1st of April 1946
But, when reading or speaking, the ordinal
numbers must be used in all these cases.
1969 - nineteen hundred and sixty-nine, or
 years: nineteen sixty-nine.
2006 – two thousand and six
Charles I, Richard II, Henry VIII

 titles of kings must be written in Roman Charles the First, Richard the Second, Henry
numbers, but they are read using ordinal the Eighth.
numbers:
Multipli- This numeral shows the proportion in Double/ twofold; threefold; fourfold; tenfold;
cative which a quantity is increased: hundredfold; etc.
adver-bial
Distributi- It shows the distribution or grouping of One by one; two by two/ by twos/ in twos;
ve objects: ten by ten/ by tens/ in tens; etc.
adverbial
Adverbial It shows how many times an action is Once; twice; three times; ten times; etc.
performed. We sang that song twice.
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of numeral.
2. Name the types of numeral.
3. Which type of numeral is used to write dates years, telephone numbers, and age.
B. Application
1. Give examples of cardinal, ordinal, multiplicative adverbial, distributive adverbial, and adverbial
numerals.
C. Integration
1. Compare the use of cardinal and ordinal numerals in English and Romanian.
THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE

Characteristics Examples
 denote the temporary state or condition of But Johnny and Paddy were as1eep, the rose-red
persons or things. glow had paled, bats were flying, and still the
bathers had not returned.
"I'm afraid, General, we have to rely on the appeal
of the leaflet."
 have the prefix a. ablaze, afire, aflame, afoot, afraid, awake.
 are mainly used in the function of a predicative. He is awake.
 may be used as objective predicative. She was saying that she intended to leave him
entirely alone again.
 may be sometimes used as attributes. But unlike The father and mother dolls, who sprawled very stiff
adjectives they cannot be placed before the as though they had fainted in the drawing-room,
words they modify. As attributes they may be and their two little children asleep upstairs were
only used in post-position: really too big for the doll's house.
 can be modified by adverbs of degree: Sally had been half asleep with her head on Eddie's
lap.
 may take prepositional indirect objects. I am ashamed of you.
THE VERB
The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action.
A) The grammatical categories:
Grammatical Characteristics Examples

categories
person In Modern English there are but few forms a) the third person singular
indicating person and number in the synthetic forms Present Indefinite Indicative: He
of the verb. These are: speaks.
number b) the Future Indefinite Tense: I
shall speak/ he will speak
tense It denotes the relation of the action either to the 16 tenses in English
moment of speaking or to some definite moment in
the past or future.
aspect It shows the way in which the action develops, Perfective – non-perfective
whether it is in progress or completed. Progressive – non-progressive
voice It indicates the relation of the predicate to the subject a) active
and the object. There are two voices: b) passive
mood It indicates the attitude of the speaker towards the a) the indicative mood
action expressed by the verb from the point of view b) the imperative mood
of its reality. c) the subjunctive mood
d) the conditional mood
B) Types of verbs:
Types of Characteristics Examples

verbs
transitive Require a direct object, i.e. they express an action I’ve known these people for a
which passes on to a person or thing directly. Here long time.
belong such verbs as to take, to give, to send, to make,
to see, to show, to bring, to love etc.
There are other verbs which can be used either with or I wrote (a letter) to him a month
without a direct object, such as to read, to write, to ago.
hear, to see. Usually, in this case the object is clear
from the context.
intransitive Cannot take a direct object. Here belong such verbs as She shrank slowly away from him,
to stand, to sleep, to laugh, to think, to lie, to swim. and stood quite still.
Note:
There are verbs whose primary meaning is transitive She sells books. (transitive)
and whose secondary meaning is intransitive. Here This book sells well.
belong such verbs as to sell, to read, to add, to act, etc.
There are verbs whose primary meaning is intransitive Yesterday I walked far.
and whose secondary meaning is transitive. Here (intransitive)
belong such verbs as to work, to starve, to walk, to He walked the horse to and fro.
run, etc. ( transitive)
finite forms Verbs may have finite forms - which can be used as the Hearing the noise, she opened the
predicate of a sentence. door.
non –finite Verbs may have non-finite forms - which cannot be Hearing the noise, she opened the
forms used as the predicate of a sentence. door.
According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:
simple Read, live, hide, speak

derived Have affixes. Magnify, fertilize, captivate, undo, decompose
compound Consist of two stems. Daydream, browbeat
composite Consist of a verb and a postposition of Sit down, come in, go out.
adverbial origin.
According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:
notional Are those which have a full meaning of their own and Ricky surrounded her with great care
can be used without any additional words as a simple and luxury.
predicate. Here belong such verbs as to write, to She knew what he was thinking.
read, to speak, to know, to ask.
auxiliary Are those which have only a grammatical function. I don’t recollect that he ever did
They are used in analytical forms. Here belong such anything, at least not in my time.
verbs as to do, to have, to be, shall, will, should,Their father ... had come from
would. Dorsetshire near the beginning of the
century.
link Are verbs which to a smaller or greater extent have The house was big.
lost their meaning and are used in the compound The old face looked worn and hollow
nominal predicate. again.
NB. In different contexts the same verb can be used ... She turned her head sullenly away
as a notional verb and an auxiliary verb or a link from me. (notional verb)
verb: She ... turned deadly pale. (link verb)
modal Are a special group of verbs which cannot be used You must come on time.
without additional words, though they have a You should listen to her more
meaning of their own, such as can, may, must, ought, attentively.
etc. I crouched against the wall of the
The same verb in different contexts can be modal and gallery so that I should not be seen.
auxiliary. (auxiliary verb)
I don’t honestly think Lady Crowan was
exaggerating when she said something
should be done in your honour. (modal
verb)
According to their lexical meaning verbs are divided into:
terminative Denote an action implying a certain limit beyond which He went to the kitchen and
it cannot go: to come, to bring, to build, to give, to take, brought him a cake and a plate of
to receive, to find, to fall, to kill, to die, to become, to biscuits.
stand up, to sit down, to come to.
durative Denote a certain action which does not imply any limit: He loved the Old Masters of
to live, to exist, to sleep, to love, to be, to have, to painting.
possess, to work, to speak, to respect, to smoke, etc.
verbs of In certain contexts have a terminative meaning, and in He sat very still a moment.
double others, a durative meaning: to stand, to kneel, to sit, to (durative)
lexical know, to remember, etc. I went and sat beside him.
character (terminative)
TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE
THE INDICATIVE
Table of tenses
Present Past Future Future in the Past

Indefinite I go to the theatre I went to the I shall go to the I said I should go
every week. theatre last week. theatre next week. to the theatre next
week.
Continuous Don’t speak to When I came, he Don’t come at 8. I He said he would
him. He is was working. shall be working. be working at 8
working. o’clock.
Perfect I have known him When I came, he By 2007 I shall I said I should
for two years. had already left. have known him have read all the
for twelve years. books by the first
of April.
Perfect My hands are dirty. I was very tired. I By the first of May I said that by the
Continuous I have been had been reading I shall have been first of May I
working in the a lot. reading the book should have been
garden. for a fortnight. reading the book
for a fortnight.
1. The Present Indefinite

1.1 Form
Affirmative and negative
Positive Negative
I live do not (don’t) live
We
You in Chisinau.
They
He/ She/ It lives does not (doesn’t) live
Interrogative and short answers
Interrogative Short answers
positive negative
Do I I I
we we we do not (don’t)
you you do. you
they live in Chisinau? Yes, they No, they
Does he he does. he
she she she does not (doesn’t)
it it it
1.2 Use
The Present Simple is used to express:
a repeated action, a habit. It is used with adverbs of We go to school by bus.
frequency (always, often, sometimes, usually, We sometimes sleep late.
never) to express how often something happens.
a fact which is always true. Ice melts in the sun.
My daughter has brown eyes.
a fact which stays the same for a long time. He works in a bank.
sometimes in giving the summary of a story. The prince decides to enter the cave. He enters the
cave and there sees a witch.
an officially planned action or an action belonging The championship starts next Saturday.
to a settled program.
a future action
a) in a conditional clause: If you come tomorrow, we’ll go to the cinema.
b) in a time clause: You will see your cousin when you come.
c) with verbs of motion such as to go, to come, to The train leaves at 10.00 tomorrow.
leave, etc.
1.3 Spelling of verb + -s

The normal rule is to add –s to the base form of the Wants, eats, drives, reads
verb.
Add –es to verbs that end in –ss, -sh, -ch, -x, z. Kisses, washes, watches, fixes, buzzes.
Verbs that end in a consonant + y change to –ies. Carry - carries, fly - flies, worry - worries, try -
NB. Verbs which end in a vowel + y only add –s. tries
Buys, says, plays, enjoys
A few verbs have irregular forms. Be – is, are do –does
Go –goes have- has
1.4 Pronunciation.
There are three different pronunciations for the final
-s of the third person singular: [s], [z], [iz].
[s] after the sounds: [p], [t], [k], [f]. Tops, gets, takes, laughs
[z] after the sounds [b], [d], [g], [v], [ ŋ], [m], Describes, sends, hugs, lives, bathes, seems,
[n], [ð], [l], and [r], and all vowel sounds. remains, sings, tells
[iz] after the sounds [s], [z], [∫], [t∫] [ ], [ ]. Relaxes, freezes, rushes, massages, watches, judges
Do and say have a change in vowel sound. Say [ ], says [ ]
Do [ ], does [ ]
2. The Present Continuous

2.1 Form
am/ is/ are + verb + -ing (present participle)
Positive Negative
I ‘ m (am) ‘ m not
We working.
You ‘re (are) aren’t (are not)
They

positive negative
Am I I am. I ‘m not.
he he he
Is she working? Yes, she is. No, she isn’t.
it it it
we we we
Are you you are. you aren’t.
they they they
2.2 Use
The present continuous is used to express:
an activity that is happening now. You can’t see Jane. She’s having a bath.
an activity or situation that is true now, but is not Don’t take that book. Jane is reading it.
necessarily happening at the moment of speaking. I’m doing a French evening course this year.
a temporary activity. I’m living with my friends until I find a place
of my own.
a planned future arrangement. I’m having lunch with Jane tomorrow.
a frequent repetition of an activity which has a distinct He is always borrowing money from his
meaning of annoyance, irritation, sarcasm. In this case friends but never gives it back.
the verbs are usually combined with such adverbs as:
always, constantly, continually, for ever.
with verbs to get or to grow to express a transition from It is getting dark
one state to another. Our parents are getting older and older.
2.3 Spelling of verb + -ing

Add –ing to the base form of the verb. going, wearing, visiting, eating
Verbs that end in one –e lose the –e. smoking, coming, hoping, writing
NB. Verbs that end in –ee don’t lose an –ee. agreeing, seeing
In verbs of one syllable, with one vowel and one stopping, getting, running, planning, jogging
consonant, the consonant is doubled.
NB. If the final consonant is –y or –w, it is not doubled playing, showing
Note: lie lying
2.4 Verbs not used in the Continuous
Verbs of thinking and opinion Believe, think, understand, suppose, expect, agree, doubt, know,
remember, forget, mean, imagine, realize, deserve, prefer, foresee,
guess, mind, regard, suppose, trust, recollect.
Verbs of emotions and feelings Like, love, hate, care, hope, wish, want, admit, abhor, adore, detest,
please, dislike, displease.
Verbs of possession Belong, have, hold, keep, owe, own, possess.
Verbs of senses Look, hear, taste, smell, feel, notice.
Verbs of state/ condition appear, be, consist, contain, differ, deserve, equal, exist, resemble,
seem, suit.
NB. When the subject is a person, Can you smell something burning?
we often use can:
Some of these verbs can be used in I think you are right. (opinion)
the Present Continuous, but with a I was just thinking what a long way it is. (mental activity)
change of meaning. In the He has a new car. (possession)
Continuous, the verb expresses an She’s having a bath. (activity)
activity, not a state. The tea tastes strongly of mint. (activity)
I’m tasting the soup to see if it needs salt. (activity)
3. The Past Simple

3.1 Form
verb + -ed
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It arrived
We went did not (didn’t) arrive/ go yesterday.
You
They

positive negative
I I I
he/ she/ it he/ she/ it he/ she/ it
Did we arrive? Yes, we did. No, we didn’t.
you you you
they they they
To be
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It was was not (wasn’t)
yesterday.
We
You were were not (weren’t)
They

positive negative
I I I
Was he/ she/ it he/ she/ it was. he/ she/ it wasn’t.
there? Yes, No,
Were we we were. we
you you you weren’t.
they they they
Verbs
regular irregular
3.2 Spelling of regular verbs
1. add -ed to the infinitive of the verb: worked, started
2. if the verb ends in –e, add –d: lived, loved
3. if the verb has only one syllable and ends in a vowel-consonant stopped, planned
combination, the final consonant doubles.
NB. cooked, seated, , moaned, because there are two vowels.
The consonant is not doubled if it is y, x, or w. played, mixed, showed
4. In most two-syllable verbs, the end consonant is doubled if the stress is pre`ferred, ad`mitted
on the second syllable.
NB. Exception is the final consonant –l. traveled
5. verbs that end in a consonant + -y change to –ied: studied, carried
NB. We write enjoyed , because it ends in a vowel + y.
3.3 Pronunciation
-ed is pronounced in the following way:
[d] after [b, g, n, l, m, v, z, w, r, ŋ, ð] opened [oupnd], answered [ans d]

and the vocalic sounds:
[t] after [,f, k, p, s, ∫, t∫ ]: worked [w kt], hopped [ ], published
[id] after [d, t ]: lasted [ la:stid ], intend [ in tendid]
3.4 Use
The past Indefinite expresses:
a past action that is now finished. John left two minutes ago.
a succession of past actions. He threw down his spade and entered the house.
repeated actions in the past. He made an entry in his diary every night.
in conditional clause If I were you, I would accept the proposal.
in time clauses He promised me that he would tell me the truth
when he knew it.
3.5 The translation of the Past Simple into Romanian

Perfect cmpus When he opened the door, he saw the dog.
Perfect simplu Cînd a deschis uşa, văzu cîinele.
Imperfect The little boy was very tired.
Băieţelul era foarte oboist.
Conjunctive perfect Helen said that she felt lonely before she met him.
Elena a spus că se simţea singură înainte să-l fi întîlnit.
Condiţional prezernt I would read that letter if he gave it to me.
Aş citi scrisoarea aceea dacă el mi-ar da-o.
Prezent I didn’t know she loved music.
Nu ştiam că-i place muzica.
Viitor He girl said that she would come here when she was free.
Fata a spus că va veni aici cînd va fi liberă.
4. The Past Continuous

4.1 Form
was/ were + verb + -ing (present participle)
positive negative
I was wasn’t (was not)
He/ she/ it
We working.
You were weren’t (were not)
They

positive negative
Was I I I
he he was. he wasn’t
she she she
it working? Yes, it No, it
we we we
Were you you were. you weren’t.
they they they
4.2 Use
The Past Continuous is used:
to express an activity in progress before, and At 7.00 I was having breakfast.
probably after, a particular time in the past.
to describe a situation or activity during a period in Jane looked lovely. She was wearing a green cotton
the past. dress. Her eyes were shining in the light of the
candles that were burning nearby.
to show that two or more actions were going on at While mother was cooking, father was reading and
the same time in the past. grandmother was knitting.
to express an interrupted past activity. When I returned, she was sweeping the floor.
to express an incomplete activity in the past in order
I was reading a book during the flight. (I didn’t
to contrast with the Past Simple which expresses a finish it.)
completed activity. But: I wrote a letter during the flight. ( the whole
letter)
with always to express repeated action in the past These children were always laughing during my
which annoys the speaker. classes.
in conditional clauses. What would you say if the boys were sleeping now?
5. The Present Perfect

5.1 Form
have/ has + verb + -ed (regular verbs) have/ has + past participle (irregular verbs)
positive negative
I have not (haven’t)
We ‘ve (have)
You worked/ begun.
They
He ‘s (has) has not (hasn’t)
She
It

positive negative
I I I
Have we we have. we haven’t.
you you you
they worked/ begun? Yes, they No, they
he he he
Has she/ it she/ it has. she/ it hasn’t.
5.2 Use
The Present Perfect is used:
to look back from the present into the past, and I’ve met a lot of famous people. (before now)
express what has happened before now. The action She has won awards. (in her life)
happened at an indefinite time in the past.
The action can continue to the present, and probably Many pupils have learnt in this school. (many still
into the future. learn here)
to express an experience as part of someone’s life. I’ve traveled a lot in Europe.
Ever and never are common with this use. Have you ever been in a car crash?
My mother has never flown in a plane.
to express an action or state which began in the past How long have you worked as a teacher?
and continues to the present.
For and since are common with this use. We use We’ve lived here for two years. (a period of time)
for with a period of time, and since with a point in I’ve had a beard since I left the army. (a point in
time. time)
to expresses a past action with results in the present. I’ve lost my wallet. (I don’t have it now).
when we are no longer interested in the time when I have visited an interesting museum. (I still
the past action took place, but in its result into the remember the things seen there).
present.
to express completed activities in the immediate The train has just left. (I left a little time ago)
past. In this case, the verb is generally accompanied
by: just, lately, of late, lately, till now, up to now, so
far, up to the present, during the last week the last
too days, these twenty minutes, etc.
with words denoting an incomplete period of time: Last week we wrote three letters, but this week we
today, this week, this month, this year, this night, have written only one.
this morning etc.
to express a future action, in a time clause I shall ring you up as soon as/ after mother has
come back.
6. The Present Perfect Continuous

6.1 Form
have/ has + been + verb + -ing
positive negative
I have (‘ve) have not (haven’t)
We
You been running.
They
He has (‘s) has not (hasn’t)
She
It

positive negative
I I I
Have we we have. we haven’t.
you you you
they been running? Yes, they No, they
he he he
Has she she has. she hasn’t.
it it it
6.1 Use
The Present Perfect Continuous is used to express the same kind of meaning as the Present Perfect,
though the action is very often still happening. This tense emphasizes the length of time the action has
taken place. There is no clear division between the use of the Present Perfect and the Present Perfect
Continuous. Time indications: how long?, since when, since, for
I have been writing since I came here.
The Present Perfect Continuous is used:

to express an activity which began in the past and Mary has been watering the flowers for half
continues to the present, emphasizing its duration in the an hour. (she is still doing the job)
present.
Mother has watered the flowers. (Her job
NB. Present Perfect implies that the attention is focused on has just been done.)
the repetition or on the completion of an action.
to refer to an activity with a result in the present. My hands are dirty because I have been
working in the garden.
since the Present Perfect Continuous describes an action I have been drinking tea since 5’oclock.
which is apparently uninterrupted, it will not be employed But I have drunk three cups of tea since
when we mention the number of times a thing has been 5’oclock.
done or the number of things that have been done.
7. The Past Perfect

7.1 Form
had + verb + -ed (regular verbs); had + past participle (irregular verbs)
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It
We had arrived/ gone had not (hadn’t) arrived/ gone before 10.00.
You
They

positive negative
I I I
he/ she/ it arrived/ he/ she/ it he/ she/ it
Had we gone Yes, we had. No, we hadn’t.
you you you
they they they
7.2 Use
to express an action in the past which happened When I got home, John had cooked a meal.
before another action in the past. When I got home – action 1
John had cooked a meal – action 2
to express duration up to a certain moment in the By the time the rain started, we had cleaned the
past: whole house.
often with just, already, hardly/ barely/ scarcely I had hardly/ scarcely/ entered the room, when
and no sooner, to show that the past action was somebody rang the bell.
finished a little time before another past action.
to express a Past Conditional in a conditional I would have helped her if I had known.
clause:
8. The Past Perfect Continuous

8.1 Form
had + been + verb + -ing
positive negative
I
He/ She/ It
We had had not (hadn’t) been running.
You
They

positive negative
I I I
he/ she/ it he/ she/ it he/ she/ it
Had we been Yes, we had. No, we hadn’t.
you running? you you
they they they
8.2 Use
to underline the continuity of a past action to a past The pupils had been reading the lesson for five
moment or just before it. minutes when the school master entered the
classroom.
The streets were wet. It had been raining.
9. The Future Indefinite

9.1 Form
shall/ will + short infinitive

positive negative
I shall/ will (‘ll) live shall not (shan’t)/
We will not (won’t) live
He/ She/ It will (‘ll) live will not (won’t) live in Chisinau.
You
They

positive negative
Shall/ I I I
will we we shall/ we shan’t/ won’t
will.
Will he live in Chisinau? Yes, he No, he
she she she
it it will. it won’t
you you you
they they they
9.2 Use
to express a future event, a prediction about the I will go on an interesting trip next week.
future. Don’t worry Tom, you’ll pass the exam.
When we decide to do something at the moment Oh, I’ve left the door open. I’ll go and shut it.
of speaking.
in the following situations:
a) offering to do something. That bag looks heavy. I’ll help you with it.
b) agreeing or refusing to do something. A. You know that book I lent you? Can I have it back?
B. Of course, I’ll bring it back this afternoon.
c) promising to do something. Thank you for the money. I’ll pay you back on Friday.
d) asking someone to do something. Will you shut the door, please?
with these words and expressions:
a) probably I’ll probably be a bit late this evening.
b) sure You must meet Ann. I’m sure you’ll like her.
c) expect I expect Carol will get the job.
d) think I think I’ll stay at home this evening.
Going to – construction
Form
am/ is/ are + going + to + infinitive
I ‘ m (am)
‘ m not
He
She ‘s (is) going to work.
It isn’t (is not)
We
You ‘re (are)
They aren’t (are not)

positive negative
Am I I am. I ‘m not.
he he he
Is she going to work? Yes, she is. No, she isn’t.
it it it
we we we
Are you you are. you aren’t.
they they they
NB. INCORRECT: I am going to go. I am going to come.

CORRECT: I am going. I am coming.
Use
Going to is used:
To express a future decision, intention, or plan made I’m going to travel to Scotland on Monday.
before the moment of speaking.
When we can see or feel now that something is Look at these clouds! It is going to rain.
certain to happen in the future.
10. The Future Continuous

10.1 Form
shall/ will + be + verb + -ing (present participle)
positive negative
I shall/ will shan’t (shall not)/ won’t (will not)
We
be working.
He/ she/ it won’t (will not)
You will
They

positive negative
Shall/ I I shall/ I shan’t (shall not)/
Will we we will. we won’t (will not).
he be working? Yes, he No, he

Will she she will. she
it it it won’t (will not).
you you you
they they they
10.2 Use
To express a future activity or state that will be in This time tomorrow we shall be watching TV.
progress at a specific time in the future.
To indicate that an activity or state will extend over a John will be reading newspapers all day long.
whole future period.
11. The Future Perfect Simple

11.1Form
shall/ will + have+ verb + -ed (past participle)

positive negative
I shall /will shall not/ will not
We have read the book by 10.00.
He/ She/ It will will not
You
They

positive negative
Shall/ I I shall/ I shall/
Will we We will we will
have read? Yes, No,
Will he/ she/ it he/ she/ it will he/ she/ it will
you you you
they they they
11.2 Use
The Future Perfect Simple is used to indicate:
an action which will be finished before a certain It is 10 o’clock. I will have finished my homework
moment or another action in the future. In this case by 12 o’clock.
it is usually associated with the preposition by.
the duration up to a certain time in the future. Next year Tom and Amy will have been married for
25 years.
possibility or assumption. If Jack has taken a taxi he will have arrived at the
concert in time.
12. The Future Perfect Continuous
12.1 Form
shall/ will + have+ been + verb + -ing

positive negative
I shall /will shall not/ will not
have been for two hours.
We
reading
He/ She/ It will will not
You
They

positive negative
Shall/ I I shall/ I shall/
Will we We will we will
have been Yes, No,
Will he/ she/ it reading? he/ she/ it will he/ she/ it will
you you you
they they they
12.2 Use
The Future Perfect Continuous is used:
to express the duration of an action up to a certain At 6 o’clock your sister will have been sleeping for
moment in the future. two hours.
13. The Future – In – The – Past Simple

13.1 Form
should/ would + short infinitive

positive negative
I should/ would should not (shouldn’t)/ would not
We (wouldn’t)
live in Chisinau.
He/ She/ It would would not (wouldn’t)
You
They

positive negative
Should/ I I should/ I shouldn’t/
Would we we would. we wouldn’t.
he live in Chisinau? Yes, he No, he

she she she
Would it it would. it wouldn’t.
you you you
they they they
13.2 Use
to express a future action or state seen from a She told me that she would go there soon.
viewpoint in the past.
14. The Future – In – The – Past Continuous

14.1 Form
should/ would + be + verb + ing

positive negative
I should/ would should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t)
We
He/ She/ It would would not (wouldn’t) be sleeping.
You
They

positive negative
he be sleeping? Yes, he No, he

she she she
you you you
they they they
14.2 Use
To express a Future Continuous seen from a past The woman assured us that, in less than half an
viewpoint. hour, her boy would be sleeping.
15. The Future Perfect– In – The – Past

15.1 Form
should/ would + have + past participle
positive negative
I should/ would (‘d) should not (shouldn’t)/
We would not (wouldn’t)
He/ She/ It have worked/ gone.
You would (‘d) would not (wouldn’t)
They
positive negative
he have worked/ Yes, he No, he

she gone. she she
you you you
they they they
15.2 Use
it is used to denote an action completed before a I wondered whether they would have reached
definite moment which was future from the point of the place by noon.
view of the past.
16. The Future Perfect Continuous – In – The – Past

16.1 Form
should/ would + have been + verb + ing
positive negative
I should/ would (‘d) should not (shouldn’t)/
We would not (wouldn’t)
He/ She/ It would (‘d) would not (wouldn’t) have been working.
You
They

positive negative
he have been Yes, he No, he

she working? she she
you you you
they they they
16.2 Use
It is used to denote an action lasting during a certain I wondered how long they would have been
period of time before a definite moment which was packing by the time I returned.
future from the point of view of the past.
TENSES IN THE PASSIVE VOICE
THE INDICATIVE
Form
to be (different tenses) + past participle
Table of tenses
Present Past Future Future in the Past
Indefinite I am invited to the I was invited to the I shall be invited to I should be invited
theatre. theatre. the theatre. (voi fi to the theatre. (voi
(eram/fusei/fui/am invitat) fi invitat)
fost invitat)
Continuous I am being invited to I was being invited
the theatre. to the theatre.
Perfect I have been invited I had been invited I shall have been I should have been
to the theatre. to the theatre. invited to the theatre. invited to the
(fusesem invitat) (voi fi fost invitat) theatre. (voi fi fost
invitat)
Notice the passive infinitive: We’d love to be given this flat.

These books should be read by the end of this week.
Use
Passive sentences move the focus from the subject to the object of Millions of people buy it.
active sentences. The object of an active sentence becomes the It is bought by millions of people.
subject of the passive sentence.
Passive is not another way of expressing the same sentence in the Columbus discovered America.
active. We choose the active or the passive depending on what we America was discovered by Columbus.
are more interested in. In the first sentence we are more interested
in the person performing the action; in the second we want to show
that we are more interested in the receiver of the action. (i.e.
America)
Very often by and the doer are omitted. In this case: My car was stolen last night.
 the doer is unknown. In silence the work was done.
 the doer is unimportant. Tom was sent off early, however, to a
 we understand who the doer is. school in London.
The passive is associated with an impersonal, formal style. It is It has been noticed that reference
often used in notices and announcements. books have been removed from the
library.
In informal language, we often use you, we, and they to refer to We travel by train in this country.
people in general or to no person in particular. In this way we can
avoid using the passive.
The same meaning is expressed in formal language using one. One should dress to suit the occasion.
NB! Many past participles are used more like adjectives. We are very worried about you.
I’m exhausted! I’ve been working all
day.
Only transitive and prepositional verbs are used in the passive. The article is referred to.
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of verb.
2. Name the grammatical categories of the verb.
3. According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:
B. Application
1. Explain the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs.
2. Explain the common features of simple and continuous tenses.
3. Explain the common features of perfect and perfect-continuous tenses.
C. Integration
1. Compare the Active and Passive Voice.
MODAL VERBS
Form
Can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, need, ought to, dare, had better (to be able
to, to have to) – modal verbs.
They are helping verbs that express a wide range of meanings: ability, permission, possibility, necessity,
etc. Most of the modals have more than one meaning.
Characteristics
There is no –s in the third person. He can speak English.

Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, He needs a new car.
dare.
There is no auxiliary verb in the question. May I ask a question?
Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, He didn’t dare to meet his uncle.
dare.
There is no auxiliary verb in the negative. I cannot speak English.
Exception: to have (got) to, and sometimes need, You don’t have to go there at 8 o’clock.
dare.
They are followed by an infinitive without to. It might rain.
Exception: ought to, to be able to, to have (got) to, and Kate ought to study harder.
sometimes need, dare.
They don’t really have past forms or infinitives or –ing I had to work hard when I was young. (trebuia)
forms. Other verbs are used instead.
They can be used with perfect infinitives to refer to the She must have been crazy to marry him.
past.
Ability  Can Bob can play the piano.

Can  The past is expressed by could. Bob could play the piano when he was
Could three.
Be able to  Other forms are provided by be able to. I love being able to drive.
 Was able to or managed to (not could) is The fire spread through the building very
used to express a fulfilled ability on one quickly but everyone was able/ managed
particular occasion in the past. to escape.
 Could + the perfect infinitive is used to We could have gone to the cinema last
express an unrealized past ability. Someone night, but we decided to stay at home.
was able to do something in the past, but
didn’t try to.
 Could can be used to criticize people for not You could tell me if you are going to be
doing things. We feel that they are not doing late!
their duty. You could have done something to help
me instead of just sitting there!
Possibility/  Will and won’t are used to express what we Leave the meat in the oven. It won’t be
probability/ believe or guess to be true about the present. cooked yet.
assumption They indicate an assumption based on our You’ve got a letter. – It’ll be from my
knowledge of people and things their aunt.
Will routines, character, and qualities.
Must
Have to  Must/ have to is used when you are almost You must be joking. I don’t believe you.
Should 100 percent certain that something is She can’t have a ten-year-old daughter.
May possible. The negative of this use is can’t. She’s only twenty-five herself.
Might
Could  May and might is used when you are less
Couldn’t certain. They express possibility in the We may come very early. We don’t know
present or future. There’s no important exactly.
difference between them.
 Might is more tentative and slightly less It might rain. Take your umbrella!
certain than may.
 Could has a similar meaning to might. It There could be another rise in the price
expresses present and future possibility. The of petrol soon.
negative of could in this use is might not. Jack might not be in his office.
 Can’t/ couldn’t is used when you are almost

100 percent certain that something is She couldn’t have a ten-year-old
impossible. Couldn’t is only slightly weaker daughter. She’s only twenty-five herself.
than can’t.
He should be home at the usual time. (if
 Should expresses what may reasonably be
there’s no traffic jam)
expected to happen. Expectation means
believing that things are or will be as we
want them to be. This use of should has the
idea of if everything has gone according to
plan.
 Use could in questions. We rarely use might
Could he be at home?
and we never use may in questions about
possibility.
I met a tall girl at your party. Very
NB. All the modal auxiliary verbs above can be
attractive. – That will have been my
used with the perfect infinitive. They express the
sister, Nancy.
same varying degrees of certainty.
He may have got lost.
Will have done is the most certain.
She didn’t answer. She might have been
Might/ could/ have done is the least certain.
in the bath.
Permission May, can, and could are used to ask for May I use your phone?
May permission. Can/ could I go home?
Can
Could May, can can’t – to give permission. You can go.
 May sounds very formal. You can’t smoke in here. It’s forbidden.
 Can and can’t are more common.
 Can, could, or be allowed to are used to talk Children can/ are allowed to do what
about permission generally, or permission in they want these days.
the past. I couldn’t/ was allowed to have a cookie.
Request  Can, could, will, would express a request. Can/ could/ will/ would you please open
Can Could  Could and would are more polite. the door?
Will Would NB. Do not use could and would to answer Yes. Of course./ I’d be happy to.
polite requests.
Advice/ mild  Should, ought to, and had better have The children shouldn’t be playing. They
obligation basically the same meaning. They mean this should be at school.
Should, is a good idea/ this is good advice.
Ought to  Ought to is not usually used in the negative. You ought to study tonight.
Had better
 Had better often carries a warning of bad You had better not be late! If you are
consequences. It never refers to the past. late, you will get into a lot of trouble.
 Should/ ought to/ could/ might + the perfect Hello, Ann. The party last night was
infinitive is used to refer to a past action that great. You should have come. Why
didn’t happen. The action would have been a didn’t you.
god idea. The good advice is too late! I ought to have taken that job.
(I didn’t take the job. That was a
mistake)
She could have gone to a better school.
(She didn’t go to a good school. Now she
regrets.)
You might have told me.
(You didn’t tell me. That was wrong.)
 Should not have/ ought not to have are the
only forms used in negative statements. He shouldn’t have missed the exam.
 Use only should in questions.

Should I apply for this job?
Obligation/  Must expresses strong/ important obligation. You must try harder! I must be at the
necessity hospital at 2. It’s most important.
Must  Other verb forms are provided by have to. You mustn’t hit your baby brother.
Have to You will have to do this exercise again.
Need
 Must expresses an obligation imposed by the I must get my hair cut. (I’m telling
speaker. It expresses the opinion of the myself)
speaker, his feelings.
 Must is associated with a more formal, Candidates must answer three questions.
written style. (on an exam paper) Books must be
returned by the end of the week.
(Instructions in a library)
 Have to expresses a habitual, repeated I have to be at the hospital at 7 o’clock

obligation. every morning. I begin work at 7.00.
 Have to expresses an obligation imposed I can’t meet you on Friday. I have to
from the outside. It gives facts, not feelings. work.
You mustn’t steal. It’s very naughty.

 Mustn’t expresses negative obligation.
 Don’t have to expresses the absence of You don’t have to go to England if you
obligation. want to learn English.
 Have got to is common in British English. It I’ve got to go now. Cheerio!
is more informal than have to. Don’t have a late night. We’ve got to get
up early tomorrow.
NB. Sometimes there’s no difference between
must and have to. I have to / must go now.
 Need – which has two forms: regular verb

and modal verb. As a regular verb, it has the He needs to hurry.
meaning to require, to be in the need of
and it forms the negative and the
interrogative with the help of do/ did.
 As a modal verb it means to have to.
Need she get up early? – Yes, she must.
 Didn’t need to shows that the action was not
necessary and it was not performed. I didn’t need to go at 8, so I didn’t.
 Needn’t have + Past Participle expresses an

unnecessary action, which was, nevertheless, I needn’t have bought any eggs, because
performed. I had plenty. (but I bought)
Willingness/  Will I will not answer it.
refusal  Shall is used in questions. Shall I shut the door?
Will Shall  Wouldn’t is used in the past. Ann said she wouldn’t help him.
Wouldn’t
Indignation,  Might/ how dare express indignation, You might listen to me when I am talking
reproach reproach. to you.
Might/ How dare you interrupt me?
How dare
Supposition  I daresay – I suppose. I daresay you are my neighbour’s
Daresay brother.
Should  Should If he is eight years old, he should be
taller than your daughter.
They should have finished their work by
now.
Tasks:
A. Knowledge
1. Give the definition of modal verbs.
2. What do the modal verbs express?
B. Application
1. Explain the common features of modal verbs.
C. Integration
1. Suggest another way of classifying the English modal verbs.
2. Compare the modal verbs that express ability, possibility, advice, and necessity.
MOODS
Moods
Indicative Imperative Subjunctive Conditional

THE IMPERATIVE
The imperative expresses a command, an order, an invitation, etc.
Form
Singular Affirmative Negative
The 1st person Let + me + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let + me + Short
Let me repeat! Infinitive
Do not let me repeat!
The 2nd person Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Short Infinitive
Repeat! Don’t repeat!
The 3rd person Let + Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Noun/ Pronoun +
Let Tom repeat! Short Infinitive
Let the cat eat! Don’t let Tom repeat!
Don’t let the cat go!
Plural Affirmative Negative
The 1st person Let + us (Let’s) + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let + us + Short
Let us/ let’s repeat! Infinitive
Do not let us repeat!
The 2nd person Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Short Infinitive
Repeat! Don’t repeat!
The 3rd person Let + Noun/ Pronoun + Short Infinitive Do not/ Don’t let+ Noun/ Pronoun +
Let the children repeat! Short Infinitive
Don’t let them repeat!
THE CONDITIONAL
The Present Conditional

Form
should/ would + short infinitive
I should/ would
We should not (shouldn’t)/ would not
(wouldn’t)
He/ She/ It would live in Chisinau
You would not (wouldn’t)
They

positive negative
he live in Chisinau? Yes, he No, he

she she she
you you you
they they they
The Past Conditional

Form
should/ would + have + Past Participle
I should/ would
We should not (shouldn’t)/ would not (wouldn’t)
He/ She/ It would have lived in Chisinau

You would not (wouldn’t)
They

positive negative
he have lived in Yes, he No, he

she Chisinau? she she
you you you
they they they
Use
MAIN/ REGENT CLAUSE “IF” CLAUSE
Type I Future Present

(open/ probable condition)
Such sentences express a condition that may John will help you if he has time.
or may not be fulfilled. John te va ajuta dacă va avea timp.
Type II Present Conditional Past Tense
( rejected/ improbable/ hypothetical/ unreal (be – were)
condition)
The past tense in the conditional clause is not John would help you if he had time.
a real Past a tense, but a Subjunctive, John te-ar ajuta dacă ar avea timp.
indicating improbability or unreality.
Type III Past Conditional Past Perfect
( impossible condition)
The conditional clause expresses something John would have helped you if he had had time.
completely hypothetical, and represents what John te-ar fi ajutat dacă ar fi avut timp.
is contrary to past fact. The Past Perfect
indicates past unreality.
Other Possible Variants of Tenses Rules Used in Conditional Sentences
“IF” CLAUSE MAIN/ REGENT CLAUSE

Present Tense Present Tense
If you boil water, it turns to vapour.
Dacă fierbi apa, ea se transformă în vapori.
Past Tense Past Tense

If he did that, he was courageous.
Dacă el a făcut aceasta, el a fost curajos.
Past Tense Future Tense

If Jane didn’t manage to call yesterday, she will do it tomorrow.
Dacă Jane n-a reuşit să sune ieri, ea va suna mîine.
Present Perfect Present Tense

If John hasn’t finished his homework, why is he playing?
Dacă John nu şi-a făcut temele, de ce se joacă ?
Present Perfect Imperative

If you haven’t understood the instructions, read them again.
Dacă n-ai înţeles instrucţiunile, citeşte-le din nou.
Past tense Imperative

If she didn’t read it yesterday, tell her to read it today.
Dacă n-a citit ieri cartea, spune-i să o citească astăzi.
Should + Infinitive Imperative

If you should meet them, remind them of our appointment.
Dacă se întîmplă sa-i intîlneşti, aminteşte-le de întîlnirea noastră.
Present Tense (real condition) Present Conditional (unreal action)

If you have a few hours to spare, I would invite you to the cinema.
Dacă ai cîteva ore libere, te-aş invita la cinema.
Past Tense (condition contrary to present fact) Past Conditional (unfulfilled action in the past)
If she were a better singer, she would have participated in the festival
Dacă ar fi o cîntăreaţă mai bună, ar fi participat la festival.
Past Perfect (unreal condition in the past) Present Conditional (the result of the condition in
the present)
If he hadn’t had an accident, he wouldn’t be in hospital now.
Dacă n-ar fi avut un accident, n-ar fi în spital acum.
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD

- is used to express either a possible action, or unreality, improbability, that is something contrary to fact.
Subjunctive
Synthetical Analytical
Present Past Past Perfect
Use/ Form
The Synthetical Subjunctive
The Present Subjunctive is identical to the short infinitive. It occurs in formal, informal, and American
English. It is used:
 to express wishes or set expressions. Long live peace! – Traiasca pacea!
God forbid! – Fereasca Dumnezeu!
 in subordinate that-clauses when the main
clause expresses a desire, a demand, a
requirement, an obligation, a necessity, etc.
a) in direct object clauses, after such verbs as: to They suggested that steps be taken to consolidate
suggest, to order, to demand, to urge, to peace and security in Europe. – S-a propus luarea
recommend, to require, to propose, to arrange de măsuri pentru consolidarea păcii si securitaţii .
to: It is necessary that your friend inform us of the
b) in subject clauses after such impersonal decision.
constructions as: it is necessary/ advisable/
possible/ impossible, etc. There was a proposal that he be elected captain.
c) in appositive attributive clauses. If this rumour be true, we cannot stay here.
 In conditional clauses.
The Past Subjunctive is identical to the Past Tense of the verb. It is used:
 in conditional clauses, to express a Present If I saw her, I would be glad.

Conditional.
 after wish, it’s (high) time, as if/ though, even He wishes he were in France now.
if/ though, would rather/ sooner, suppose He is singing as though he were a great artist.
(that).
 after it’s (high) time we can also use for +
object + long infinitive.
It’s (high) time + for + object + long infinitive - it It’s (high) time for him to start learning a foreign
is the exact time for the action. language. ( it is the proper time)
It’s (high) time + Subjunctive – it is already a little It is high time he started learning a foreign
late. language. ( E de mult timpul)
The Past Perfect Subjunctive is identical to the Past Perfect of the verb. It is used:
 in conditional clauses to express a Past If she had read the book, she would have answered
Conditional. my questions better.
 after wish (to express a regretted action in the I wish(ed) I had been there too.
past), as if/ though and even if/ though. He talked as if he had seen her.
The Analytical Subjunctive
Shall/ should/ would/ may/ might/ could + Present/ Perfect Infinitive.
It is much more often used than the Synthetic Subjunctive.
Shall + Infinitive is used:
 in main clauses. Shall I help you with your homework?

 in subordinate clauses. They have decided that you shall go there. (is not
generally used in spoken English)
Should + Infinitive is used:
 in main clauses. Why should they behave in this way? ( De ce-ar

trebui ...)
 in subordinate clauses:
a) in direct object clauses, after such verbs as: to They demanded that the meeting should be held
suggest, to insist, to demand, to propose, to without delay. (Au cerut ca ...)
command, etc.
b) in subject clauses after such impersonal It is necessary that they should come so early. (Este
constructions as: it is/was necessary/ impossible/ necesar ca ei ...)
essential/ important, vital/ right/ advisable/
natural/ surprising, etc.
c) in appositive attributive clauses. There’s no reason why he should be late.
d) in conditional clauses. If he should come, tell him to wait. (Dacă vine
cumva/ se intimpla să vina ...)
e) subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by He hurried for fear he should be late. ( ... de frică
lest, for fear (that), in case. să nu ...)
f) concessive clauses introduced by though, Whatever he should say, I don’t believe him. (ce n-
although, whatever: ar zice ...)
May/ Might + Infinitive is used:
 in main clauses to express a wish. May you live long! ( Să traiesti mulţi ani!)
 in subordinate clauses:
a) subject clauses after such impersonal It is possible that she may know the answer. (E
constructions as: it is/was possible/ probable/ posibil ce ea să ştie ...)
likely, etc.
e) subordinate clauses of purpose introduced by She spoke clearly so that everyone might
that, in order that, so that. understand. (... aşa ca toţi să înţeleagă)
f) concessive clauses introduced by though, However tired he might be, he must come down and
although, however, whatever, no matter: talk to us. ( Oricît de oboist n-ar fi ..)
Would + Infinitive is used:
 in direct object clauses after wish. (to express a They wish we would pay them a visit soon.
wish for a future action which doesn’t have
chances to be completed)
 in subordinate clauses of purpose. She learnt a lot so that she would be able to pass
the exam.
Could + Infinitive
This construction is used to express purpose as an alternative to may/ might.
May/ Might + Infinitive is more formal.
Could + Infinitive has a higher degree of certainty.
VERBALS
THE INFINITIVE
Form
Active Passive
Indefinite To write (a scrie) To be written ( a fi scris)
Continuous To be writing (a scrie)
Perfect To have written (a fi scris) To have been written (a fi fost scris)
Perfect Continuous To have been writing (a fi scris)
A) The infinitive has verb characteristics:

1. Tense: Present and perfect: to go; to have gone
The Present Infinitive may refer to:
 the Present: I want to go on a trip.
 the Past: I was glad to see your sister.
 the Future: I’ll tell her to read that book.
The Perfect Infinitive shows either that the
action expressed by it precedes
 a past action/ moment: She left too early to have met them. (ca să-i fi întîlnit)
 or a future action/ moment: He will want to have read this before he goes to bed.
 or that it has a hypothetical meaning I expected him to have understood us.
2. Voice: Active
Passive We hope to come tomorrow.
3. Aspect: Common and continuous It is glorious to be loved.
B) The infinitive has noun characteristics. It

has the function of: subject, direct object, To doubt is almost to insult. (subject)
predicative, attribute. At boarding school she learned to dance. (direct
object)
C) The use of the infinitive without to:

 after modal verbs: One cannot have what one loves.
Exception: ought You ought to go earlier.
 after verbs denoting perception: I never saw you look so well before.
 after to make and to let: What makes you think so?
 after had/would rather, had better, would
sooner, better than, rather than, sooner I had better go now.
than, more than, can (not) but, nothing but:
D) Constructions with the Infinitive

1. The Accusative with the Infinitive is used:
 After verbs that express perception: to hear, to
feel, to notice, to perceive, to see, to watch and I heard the baby cry.
after to let, to make, to have (to experience, to
cause), to have known.
 After verbs expressing volition: to want, to I want you to come and dine with me.
desire, to forbid, to intend, to demand, to wish:
 After verbs expressing mental activities: to
believe, to consider, to expect, to imagine, to Everybody expected her to marry Pete.
know, to suppose, to think, to trust, to
understand, etc.:
 After verbs expressing permission or a
He ordered his carriage to be ready early in the
command: to allow, to command, to compel, to morning.
force, to oblige, to order, to permit, to urge, to
warn:
 After verbs like: to advise, to appoint, to assist,
to choose, to challenge, to convince, to enable, She advised me not to gossip.
to persuade, to send, etc.:
2. The nominative with the Infinitive is used:

 With the following verbs in the Passive Voice:
to believe, to expect, to feel, to find (out), to He was supposed to be a gifted doctor.
hear, to imagine, to know, to notice, to perceive,
to report, to say, to see, to suppose, etc.:
 With the following verbs in the Active Voice:
to appear, to chance, to happen, to prove, to He happens to know English. Din întâmplare ştie
seem, to turn out, etc.: Engleza.
 With such constructions as: to be
lucky/fortunate/unlucky/unfortunate, to be He is sure to be late as usual.(Sigur că are să
certain/positive/sure, to be likely: întîrzie. )
THE GERUND
Active Passive
Indefinite writing Being written
Perfect Having written Having been written
Use
A) The Gerund has noun characteristics:
 It can have a plural form. I can’t understand his comings and goings.
 It can have a Genitive form. I didn’t like the idea of staying there
 It can be preceded by a genitive or possessive They disliked Jane’s smoking so much.
adjective. Her being late was noticed.
 It can perform the function of: subject, Reading is her best relaxation. (subject)
object, predicative, attribute, adverbial Have you given up smoking?(object)
modifier. I don’t understand his way of behaving. (attribute)
B) The Gerund has verb characteristics:
 It may have tense: Present I don’t mind her seeing me. (că m-a văzut ori m-a vedea)
Perfect I don’t mind her having seen me. (că m-a văzut)
 Voice: Active He loves writing poems.
Passive I don’t mind being seen by her.
 It may have an object. Singing folk songs is her greatest talent.
 It may have an adverbial modifier. This is worth doing well.
C) Use
 To express prohibition No Parking!

 After such verbs and phrasal verbs as: to admit, to
advise, to anticipate, to avoid, to begin, to consider, to He avoided looking at Ann.
continue, to delay, to deny, to detest, to dread, to Forgive my speaking rudely!
dislike, to enjoy, to escape, to excuse, to fancy, to Give up smoking, please!
finish, to forget, to forgive, to hate, to imagine, to
intend, to involve, to go on, to give up, to keep (on), to
like, to love, to mind, to miss, to omit, to postpone, to
practice, to put off, to recollect, to remember, to
regret, to resist, to risk, to save, to start, to stop, to
suggest, to try, to understand, etc.:
 After the following verbs with the prepositions: to They accuse me of having dealt with the
accuse of, to aim at, to agree with, to approve of, to Germans.
consist in, to count on, to dissuade from, to rely on, to I insist on being treated with a certain
result in, to succeed in, to think of, etc.: consideration.
 After be/get + adjective/Past Participle + preposition:
to be afraid of, to be agreeable to, to be annoyed at, to She was not pleased at my coming.
be capable of, to be intent on, to be interested in, to be She was surprised at seeing me there.
responsible for, to be suitable for, to be surprised at,
to be tired of, to be/get used to, to be/ get accustomed
to, etc:
 After such nouns with prepositions: apology for, art
of, change of, disappointment at, experience in, habit The art of letter writing is disappearing.
of, necessity of objection to, opportunity of, pleasure He is well known for his art in marketing.
of, necessity of objection to, opportunity of, pleasure
of, possibility of, reason for, skill in, surprise at, etc.:
 After there is, there was, it is no good, (it is) no use, it There was singing and dancing everywhere.
is useless, etc.: No use buying it, it isn’t new.
 There are some verbs or nouns that can be followed

either by the Gerund or by the Infinitive: to begin, to I began reading/to read an interesting book.
cease, to continue, to start.
THE PARTICIPLE
The
Participle
The Present The Past

Participle Participle
THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE
Active Passive
Indefinite writing being written
Perfect having written having been written.
Use
A) It has verb characteristics:
 It has tense and voice. writing, being written, having written, having been
 It can be modified by an adverb. written.
 It can have a direct or indirect object. We are reading now.
 It is used with to be They are building a house.
a) to show simultaneous actions:
b) to show simultaneous actions A boy passed by me carrying a box.
Frankly speaking, he is a smart man. (if we speak ...)
B) The participle has adjective characteristics:
 Sometimes it has degrees of comparison. She is more amusing than I thought.
 It can have the functions of attribute and This is no laughing matter.
predicative: The effect of her words was terrifying....
C) The participle has adverb characteristics:
 It modifies an adjective: It is raining cold.
 It has the function of adverbial modifier: When going to school, he met his friend.
D) Participial Constructions
1. The Accusative with the Participle is used:

 after verbs of perception: to feel, to hear, to I can smell something burning.
listen, to see, to observe, to notice, to smell, etc.
 after to catch, to find, to imagine, to keep, to I found her reading a book.
leave, to start, etc.
2. The Nominative with the Participle is used:
She was heard speaking English.
 with verbs of perception in the passive:
3. The Absolute Nominative
In this construction the Present Participle is used
independently from the predicate of the sentence and The door being open, we looked in.
its subject is different from the subject of the
sentence:
4. The Absolute Participle
The Present Participle that occurs in this Frankly speaking, he is right.
construction has no subject:
THE PAST PARTICIPLE

Form: translated, broken, read.
Use
 as an adjective a locked door, a written letter
 as part of the perfect forms of the verb I have already made a mistake.
 as part of the Passive Voice It is said that you are a liar.
 its functions in the sentence: attribute, adverbial They were into a large room lit up with Chinese
modifier, predicative, part of a complex object. lamps. (attribute)
In spite of himself, Val was impressed. (predicative)
THE MODAL WORDS
The modal words express the attitude of the speaker to the reality, possibility or probability the action he
speaks about.
Characteristics Examples
According to their meaning modal words express:

a) certainty: Certainly, surely, of course, no doubt, apparently,
b) supposition: etc.
c) whether the speaker considers the action he Perhaps, maybe, possibly, probably, etc.
speaks about desirable or undesirable: Happily – unhappily, luckily – unluckily,
fortunately – unfortunately.
In the sentence they are used as parentheses: Certainly you’ll admit we could finish all this in a
month.
Most of them have developed from adverbs, so very Certainly, surely, happily (which are homonymous
often there exists a formal identity between modal with the adverbs certainly, surely, happily)
words and adverbs:
THE INTERJECTION
The interjection is the part of speech which expresses various emotions without naming them.
Interjections
According to
primary
their meaning:
emotional imperative secondary

Types of Characteristics Examples
interjections
emotional Express the feelings of the speaker. Ah, oh, eh, bravo, alas, etc.
Alas! The white house was empty and there was
a bill in the window “To let” (sorrow).
Psha! There’s no possibility of being witty
without a little ill nature. (contempt)
imperative Show the will of the speaker or his Here, hush, sh-sh, well, come, now, etc.
order or appeal to the hearer. Here! I’ve had enough of this. I’m going.
(protest)
primary Are not derived from other parts of Ah, oh, eh, pooh, hum, fie, etc.
speech. Most of them are simple words.
Only a few primary interjections are Heigh – ho, hey – ho, holla – ho, gee – ho.
composite.
secondary Rederived from other parts of speech. Well, now, here, there, come, why, dear me,
They are homonymous with the words hang it, etc.
they are derived from.
THE PREPOSITION
The preposition is a part of speech which denotes the relations between objects and phenomena. It shows the
relations between a noun or a pronoun and other words.
Prepositions
According to According to
their form their meaning
place and
simple
direction
derivative time
abstract
compound
relations
composite
simple derivative compound composite place and time abstract

direction relations
In, on , at, Behind, Inside, outside, Because of, In, on , After, at, By, with,
for, with, below, within, in front of, in below, under, before, etc. because of,
etc. across, along, without, etc. accordance etc. with a view
etc. with, etc. to, etc.
Prepositions in time expressions

at in on no preposition
at six o’clock in the morning/ on Saturday today
at noon/ midnight/ night afternoon/ evening on Monday morning yesterday
at Christmas in December on Christmas Day tomorrow
at the weekend in summer on January 18 the day after tomorrow
in 1995 on holliday the day before yesterday
in two weeks’ time last night
last week
two weeks ago
next month
yesterday evening
tomorrow evening
this evening
tonight
Prepositional Constructions that Present Difficulties
On time – in time
On time At exactly the right time. Our English class always starts on time.
In time Early, soon enough for something. We got to the station in time. (before the
train left)
At the end - in the end
At the end At the point when something stops. We are going on a trip at the end of this
week.
In the end Finally, at last. At thirst, we didn’t understand that
exercise, but in the end we could do it.
As – like
As Refers to a job, role or a function of someone She works as a teacher. (She really is a
or something. teacher.)
Like When we make comparisons. She is talking like a teacher. (She is not a
teacher)
NB. Either as or like can be used before a We are spending this weekend as/like we
clause that means “in the same way”: usually do.
Before - in front of
Before It is used with dynamic and static verbs He was sitting before us.
meaning before one reaches.
In front of Refers to position and often presupposes a The tree in front of my house is a
surface. chestnut – tree.
Between – among
Between Is usually used for two objects, clearly She was sitting between the table and the
distinct from the others. chair.
Among Refers to a mass, a crowd, or a group, a We saw a house hidden among the trees.
collection of things which do not see
separately. She shared her property between her
The verbs to divide and to share are brother, her son and her daughter.
followed by between when used with several
singular nouns.
Of – from – with + made
Of When the materials can be recognized Made of iron/ plastic/wood

clearly.
From When the ingredients are not obvious. The ice-cream is made from cream,
sugar and lemon.
With When we try to identify one or more of the This chocolate is made with milk.
ingredients.
Arrive in – arrive at
Arrive in A country or town. They arrived in England/ Paris last

week.
Not: arrived to England.
Arrive at Other places. Arrive at the station, at work, at the
hotel.
NB. arrive home
In the corner – on the corner – at the corner
In the corner When the corner is inside something. In the corner of a room, triangle,
square.
On the corner When there’s no enclosure. There’s a lamp on the corner of our
road.
At the corner Can be used for either.
In a photograph/ picture – on a photograph/ picture
In a For the persons/ things portrayed in the Are you in this photograph?
photograph/ picture or photograph.
picture
On a For something which is not part of it, but There’s some dust on this photograph.
photograph/ only on its surface.
picture
To –in denoting direction
To Denotes position in relation to a country or Hungary is to the west of Romania.

city. Iasi is to the north-east of Bucuresti.
In Denotes position within that country or city. Iasi is in the north –east of Romania.
Transylvania is in the north of
Romania.
At – in
At Is preferred with names of buildings and I was educated in Cluj-Napoca at Babes

institutions, with villages and small towns. –Bolyai University.
In Is used with names of countries, provinces, He lives in Italy.
cities.
The Difference between English and Romanian Prepositions
English Romanian English Romanian
In the playground Pe terenul de joc In the sky Pe cer

In the sun La soare In the open air La aer curat
On the way to În drum spre On the first floor La etajul I
Round the corner După colţ At present În prezent
At the same time În acelaşi timp At this moment În acest moment
In a year’s time Peste un an In my opinion După parerea mea
In English Pe englezeşte Word for word Cuvînt cu cuvînt
By my watch După ceasul meu By mistake Din greseală
To look out of the A privi pe fereastră To get in through the A intra pe fereastră
window window
On fire În flăcări In the reign of Sub domnia lui
Wild with happiness Nebun de fericire Drenched to the skin Udat pîna la piele
A lesson in English O lecţie de Engleză A professor in the Profesor la Universitate.
University
THE CONJUNCTION
The conjunction is a word that connects sentences, clauses or words with the same syntactical function.
Conjunctions
According to According to
their form their function
simple coordinating
compound subordinate
correlative
conjunctional
phrases
Type Characteristics Examples
Simple and, but, if, that.

Compound however, notwithstanding, otherwise, unless.
Correlative as... as; both... and; either... or; neither... nor; not
only... but also; whether... or.
Conjuncti- as well as...; as if/though...; for that reason...; for
onal phrases instance...; in order that/to...; that is why...; so long as.
Coordinate  copulative conjunctions - and; and... as well; as well as; besides; both...and;
imply that something or further; furthermore; no less than; neither... nor; not...
somebody is added to either; not... but also; not only... but... too;
something or somebody else. She opened the door and went inside.
If you go, I'll go as well.
 adversative conjunctions – but; whereas; while.
express a contrast. He's tall whereas I am short.
 disjunctive conjunctions - or; else; or else; otherwise; either... or.
express an alternative. Take this taxi; else you will miss the train.
She must either go now or stay.
 causative-consecutive so; for; accordingly; consequently; on that account;
conjunctions – denote hence; so; then; that is why; therefore.
consequence, result, or reason. My sister has a headache. So, she can't come with us.
The teacher didn't explain that problem clearly;
consequently we didn't understand it.
Subordinate  connect subordinate clauses that; what; who; which; whoever; whatever;
with their corresponding regent whichever; when; how; why; where; whosoever; if;
sentences or clauses. Some of whether.
such conjunctions introduce
only certain clauses Who will be captain of the team has not yet been
(although/though - concessive decided. (subj. clause)
clauses; as if/though - The woman whose hair is grey is our grandmother.
comparison clauses; etc.), (attributive clause)
others can introduce several Before you go, you must finish your job. (adverbial
types of clauses (that – clause of time)
object/subject/predicative/at-
tributive clauses; if -
conditional/direct object
clauses etc.). They can also be
introduced by relative adverbs
or relative pronouns which
play the part of a conjunction.
THE PARTICLE
The particle is a part of speech giving modal or emotional emphasis to other words or groups of words or
clauses.
Particles
according to
their meaning:
limiting intensifying connecting negative
Types of Examples
particles:
limiting Only, just, but, alone, I only wanted to make you speak.
solely, merely, barely, etc. Just one question, Mrs. Dartie. Are you still fond of your
husband?
intensifyin Simply, still, just, yet, all, He just did dislike him.
g but, only, quite, even, etc. They did not even know that he was married.
connecting Too, also. He was silent. Soames, too, was silent.

Higgins takes off the hat and overcoat. Pickering comes in.
He also takes off his hat and overcoat.
negative Not, never. No, he was not afraid of that.
I never spoke to him except to ask him to buy a flower off me.

INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION

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THE NOUN

The noun is a word expressing substance.

Morphological composition of nouns

THE CATEGORY OF CASE

masculine feminine neuter common

According to the structure According to the meaning

compound place and direction

composite cause and consequence

degree, measure, quantity

Types of pronouns Examples

1. Personal Subject: I, he, she, it, we, you, they

2. Possessive mine; his; hers; ours; yours; theirs

4. Reciprocal each other; one another

7. Interrogative who; whom; whose; what; which

 A possessive pronoun is used alone, Possessive pronouns Possessive adjectives

Functions: of prepositional object,

Reciprocal The reciprocal pronouns each other and one another

Suchlike: We have never listened to suchlike

Everybody, everyone refer to all the members of the

Everything may be applied to things, animals, and

Either has two meanings: a) each of the two, b) one

Other –others have two cases:

The other(s) means “the last ones in a specific

Some, any, somebody, anybody,

I don’t want anything.

Will someone help me?

None of us can hold on forever!

 Unlike most other languages, in English

 A is usually used before hundred, This watch costs a hundred dollars.

Charles I, Richard II, Henry VIII

THE WORDS OF THE CATEGORY OF STATE

A) The grammatical categories:

Grammatical Characteristics Examples

Types of Characteristics Examples

According to their morphological structure verbs are divided into:

simple Read, live, hide, speak

According to their syntactic function verbs are divided into:

According to their lexical meaning verbs are divided into:

TENSES IN THE ACTIVE VOICE

Present Past Future Future in the Past

1. The Present Indefinite

1.3 Spelling of verb + -s

2. The Present Continuous

Interrogative and short answers

2.3 Spelling of verb + -ing

2.4 Verbs not used in the Continuous

Verbs of senses Look, hear, taste, smell, feel, notice.

3. The Past Simple

Interrogative and short answers

Interrogative and short answers

[d] after [b, g, n, l, m, v, z, w, r, ŋ, ð] opened [oupnd], answered [ans d]

3.5 The translation of the Past Simple into Romanian

4. The Past Continuous

Interrogative and short answers

5. The Present Perfect

Interrogative and short answers

6. The Present Perfect Continuous

Interrogative and short answers