A Simulation Model
for Malt Enzyme Activities in Kilning
Jari J. Hämäläinen 1,3 and Pekka Reinikainen 2
ABSTRACT
J. Inst. Brew. 113(2), 159–167, 2007
The drying and survival of enzyme activities during the kilning
of malt were modelled. A set of experiments at the micro-
malting scale was carried out for model identification and vali-
dation. The dynamic models predict the effects of the kilning
programme, i.e. the temperature profile on grain moisture, ac-
tivities of ␤-glucanase, ␣-amylase and limit-dextrinase, and
diastatic power during kilning. The process behaviour was ana-
lysed by simulations. The predictions match the malting experi-
ence well. The models increase the general understanding of
enzyme inactivation and can be used in planning the kilning
programme.
Key words: ␣-amylase, ␤-glucanase, diastatic power, kilning of
malt, limit-dextrinase, mathematical model.
INTRODUCTION
In malting, barley seeds are germinated in a controlled
way to modify the kernels suitable for further processing
in breweries. Malting consists of three major phases:
steeping, germination and kilning. Germination is a cru-
cial process where most of the targeted changes, such as
malt modification and the synthesis of enzymes, take
place. When the germination of kernels has reached a de-
sired stage, germination is terminated by the controlled
drying of the seeds, or in other words, kilning the green
malt by blowing hot air through the grain bed. The kilning
of green malt, which has moisture of over 40% (wet basis)
is started at a temperature of ca. 50°C. It is raised gradu-
ally and finally the curing and the ‘kilned off’ temperature
of 80–85°C is reached for lager malt, normally used in
breweries. This results in relatively low grain moistures of
4–5%. Traditional ale malts may have a ‘kilned off’ tem-
perature of 100–110°C and, on the other hand, for malts
aiming at high enzyme activity, a curing temperature of
only 65°C can be used 15. During the first hours of kilning,
when there is still free water in the kernels and tempera-
ture is below the inactivation temperature of the malt en-
zymes, modification continues and seeds may even show
increased biological activity as described by Reinikainen
1 VTT,
Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FIN-
02044 VTT, Finland.
2 Viking Malt, LP Research Centre Ltd., P.O. Box 22, FIN-15141
Lahti, Finland.
3 Corresponding author. E-mail: jari.hamalainen@vtt.fi
Publication no. G-2007-0726-496
© 2007 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling
et al.17. In addition to dehydration, kilning results in the
formation of malt colour and flavour compounds, and the
inactivation of malt enzymes, the extent of which is de-
pendent on the temperatures used during kilning.
Mathematical models for drying in malt kilning have
been previously developed by Bala and Woods 2, Kuntze
and Saxén 9 and López et al.11 In addition, Coonce et al.3
and Hämäläinen et al.6 have reported initial trials of mod-
elling biochemical phenomena during barley malt kilning.
Coonce et al.3 used a simple zero order model with an
Arrhenius type temperature dependence for the formation
of colour. A first order kinetic model was selected for the
inactivation of ␤-glucanase in which the moisture was
assumed to affect both the activation energy and the fre-
quency factor. Only one figure of the results for the latter
model was shown and the authors concluded that the
model was not satisfactory. Hämäläinen et al.6 shortly
described a model for lipoxygenase activity.
The present article focuses on modelling and simula-
tion of the effect of the kilning programme on malt prop-
erties important for amylolysis and glucanolysis in the
mashing process. Dynamic models for the drying of ker-
nels and the survival of starch hydrolysing activities of ␣-
amylase, diastatic power and limit-dextrinase as well as
␤-glucan hydrolysing ␤-glucanase were developed. The
paper completes a series of authors’ previous articles fo-
cusing on modelling and simulation of the malting pro-
cess 4–6,10.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experiments and analytical methods
The malting barley Kustaa (crops 1992 and 1994) was
steeped and germinated under constant malting condi-
tions. Kilning trials with a total time of 22 h were carried
out at micro-malting scale using different programmes
according to an experimental plan. It consisted of drying
at constant temperatures of 40, 50, 55, 60 and 65°C,
and programmes having initial kilning temperatures of
between 40 and 55°C, and curing temperatures of be-
tween 78 and 90°C (Table I). Green malt and early kilning
samples were freeze-dried and stored at room tempera-
ture before analysing. Sample moisture, ␣-amylase and
diastatic power were determined as described in Ana-
lytica-EBC 1. Limit-dextrinase was analysed as described
in instruction13, and ␤-glucanase activity according to
McCleary and Shameer 12. Crop 1994 was used in experi-
ments 10–13; these were only used for drying model iden-
tification.
VOL. 113, NO. 2, 2007 159
On the development of the dynamic models
A model for grain drying was based on physical princi-
ples and the results of the earlier published models. The
goal was a model with the simplest structure that still de-
scribes the effects of the kilning programme on the aver-
age grain moisture in the bed with sufficient accuracy.
The structures of the models for the activities of ␤-glu-
canase, ␣-amylase, diastatic power and limit-dextrinase
were based on biochemical knowledge and the data ob-
tained from the experiments. The models can be classified
as so-called grey box models with certain predetermined
structures, but several free parameters that were estimated
by fitting the models to experimental data. The final
model structures are presented with the explanation of the
assumptions made in the identification phase. The goal of
each model was to describe the effect of the kilning pro-
gramme on enzyme inactivation in order to make it pos-
sible to analyse the thermostabilities of the enzymes by
simulation.
A model for drying
In order to describe the effect of grain moisture on the
enzyme activities, drying needs to be modelled. In this
section, a model is formulated that describes the effect of
drying temperature on grain moisture during kilning.
The grain bed is divided into N layers in a vertical di-
rection with equal dry masses. Layers are indexed by j
(j = 1, ... ,N) such that j = 1 denotes the bottom layer. The
drying temperature refers to the temperature T1 (t ) of the
drying air incoming to the bottom layer.
The equations
x&1, j (t ) = −d ( x1, j (t ) − x 2, j (t ))
(1)
x& 2, j (t ) = dm12 ( x1, j (t ) − x 2, j (t ))
− sΦ( x 2, j (t ), x eq, j (t ))( x 2, j (t ) − x eq, j (t ))
describe the drying of single seeds in the jth layer at time
t. In (1) x1, j (t) denotes the moisture content (dry basis, g
H2O /g dry grain) in the inner and x2, j (t) in the outer part
of the seed, respectively. xeq, j (t) denotes the equilibrium
moisture content corresponding to the temperature Tj (t)
(in K) and the relative humidity of the drying air rhj (t) (in
decimal) in layer j.
Table I. The kilning experiments.
Experiment Kilning programme (hours, °C)
1 4 h 48°C + 14 h 60°C + 4 h 84°C
2 3 h 40°C + 3 h 47°C + 3 h 54°C + 3 h 61°C + 3 h 68°C
+ 3 h 75°C + 3 h 82 + 1 h 90°C
3 22 h 40°C
4 4 h 55°C + 14 h 62°C + 4 h 90°C
5 4 h 40°C + 1 h 44°C + 1 h 48°C + 1 h 52°C + 1 h 55°C
+ 10 h 58°C + 4 h 81°C
6 4 h 55°C + 11 h 58°C + 1 h 63°C + 1 h 68°C + 1 h 73°C
+ 1 h 78°C + 1 h 84°C + 2 h 90°C
7 6 h 55°C + 10 h 60°C + 6 h 84°C
8 4 h 52°C + 14 h 60°C + 4 h 78°C
9 4 h 43°C + 14 h 60 + 4 h 90°C
10 22 h 50°C
11 22 h 55°C
12 22 h 60°C
13 22 h 65°C
160 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING
The moisture transfer rate from the inner to the outer
seed part is assumed to be proportional to the moisture
difference with parameter d and the proportion of the seed
inner dry mass to the outer dry mass described by m12 (see
also Holmberg et al.4 ). The moisture transfer rate from the
outer part to the drying air flowing through layer j is cor-
respondingly assumed to be proportional to the difference
between x2, j and xeq, j with parameter s and the so-called
humidity-potential coefficient ⌽ defined by Keey 8. Since
drying takes place in transient conditions and not in a
steady state, ⌽(x2, j (t), xeq, j (t)) is actually a function that is
close to the value of 1 in very mild drying conditions
when the vapour flux is proportional to the humidity po-
tential. Since the air inside the bed can be assumed to be
very humid at least at the beginning of kilning, the so-
called zero-flux limit approximation is made, i.e.,
D
Φ( x 2, j (t ), x eq, j (t )) = (2)
D + x 2 , j (t )
where D denotes the molar mass ratio of water and dry
gas (D = 0.62197; for details of the approximation, see
Keey 8 ).
xeq, j (t) is assumed to depend on Tj (t) and rhj (t) by the
relationship
x eq , j (t ) = a1 − a 2 ln T j (t ) − a3 ln(1 − rh j (t )) (3)
developed by Nellist 14 and also analysed by Bala and
Woods 2. The parameters a1 , a2 , and a3 are estimated by
fitting the model to experimental data.
The humidity of the drying air increases and its tem-
perature decreases as water is transferred from grains into
the air. The change in air humidity is obtained from the
mass balance for H2O and described by
Y j +1 (t ) = Y j (t ) − m f x& j (t ) (4)
where Yj (t) is the humidity of the air incoming to layer j
(g H2O /g dry air) and mf denotes the proportion of the dry
mass of grain (kg) in one layer to the dry air flow (kg/s).
The average grain moisture in layer j is
m12 x1, j (t ) + x2, j (t )
x j (t ) = (5)
1 + m12
The heat balance is approximated by assuming that the
heat loss of the drying air between layers j and j + 1
equals the heat required for evaporation. Thus, the change
in air temperature between layers j and j + 1 is obtained
from
c a + c v Y j (t ) ΔH j (t )
T j +1 (t ) = T j (t ) − m f x& j (t ) (6)
c a + c vY j +1 (t ) c a + c v Y j +1 ( t )
where the first and second terms on the right hand side are
due to heat flow incoming to layer j and heat of evapora-
tion, respectively. ⌬Hj (t) (in kJ /kg) is the specific vapour-
isation enthalpy of hygroscopic malt given by Tuerlinckx
and Goedseels 19 and also used by Kuntze and Saxén 9 in
the simulation of deep-bed kilning of malt
−17.4 x j ( t )
ΔH j (t ) = (2501 − 2.42(T j (t ) − 273.1))(1 + 0.572e )
(7)
The coefficients ca (= 1.00 kJ /K · kg dry air) and cv (= 1.91 depends on the temperature according to an Arrhenius
kJ /K · kg H2O) refer to the heat capacities of dry air and type relationship.
vapour, respectively.
The dependence of the saturation partial pressure of A model for diastatic power
the moisture vapour p̂j (t) (in kPa) on the temperature was The diastatic power during kilning was described by
described by the equation given by Kuntze and Saxén 9 the model
11.78 (T j ( t ) − 273.1− 99.64 )
δ& (t ) = s δ (δ(t ), T1 (t ), xT (t )) − k δ (T1 (t ))δ(t ) (13)
T j ( t ) − 273.1+ 230.0
pˆ j (t ) = 100 e (8)
where
that accurately enough matched the data given by Keey 8 ⎛ δ(t ) ⎞
at 100 kPa atmospheric pressure (Appendix A8 ). The rela- s δ (δ(t ), T1 (t ), xT (t )) = rδT1 (t )( xT (t ) − x δ )⎜⎜1 − ⎟
tive humidity at 100 kPa is then ⎝ K δ ⎟⎠

100 Y j (t ) when xT (t) ≥ x␦ (⬅ 0 otherwise) and

rh j (t ) = (9) − Eδ
pˆ j (t )( D + Y j (t ))
k δ (T1 (t )) = k0 e RT1 ( t )
δ

The average moisture in the bed at time t is

␦(t) is the diastatic power at time t, k0␦ is the frequency
1 N factor for inactivation (1/min), and E␦ is the activation
xT ( t ) = ∑ x j ( t ) (10) energy (J /mol). In (13) the diastatic power is assumed to
N j =1
increase at the beginning of kilning when the moisture is
It should be noted that in (6) it was assumed that the over x␦ and ␦(t) is less than K␦ . The rate of increase is as-
effects of the heating of the grains due to convection and sumed to be proportional to the drying temperature and
radiation from the dryer structures and also the heat gen- grain moisture and it slows down when ␦(t) approaches
erated in the grain are negligible when compared to heat K␦ . The inactivation due to the second term in (13) is
of evaporation and heat transfer with moist air. assumed to mainly take place due to the inactivation of
␤-amylase.
A model for ␤-glucanase activity
A model for limit-dextrinase activity
The ␤-glucanase activity during kilning was described
by the model The limit-dextrinase activity during kilning was de-
scribed by the model
β& (t ) = − k β(T1 (t )) xT (t )β(t ) (11)
λ& (t ) = s λ (λ(t ), xT (t )) − k λ (T1 (t ))λ(t ) (14)
where
where
− Eβ

k β(T1 (t )) = k0β e RT1 ( t ) ⎛ λ( t ) ⎞

␤(t) is the ␤-glucanase activity at time t, T1(t) is the tem-
perature of the drying air in the bottom layer of the bed
(in K), xT (t) is the average grain moisture in the bed (dry
basis, g H2O /g dry grain) predicted by the drying model,
k0␤ is the frequency factor for inactivation (1/min), E␤ is
the activation energy (J /mol), and R is the gas constant
(= 8.3143 J /mol · K). The inactivation rate is thus assumed
to be proportional to grain moisture, instantaneous ␤-glu-
canase activity and depends on the temperature according
to an Arrhenius type relationship.
A model for ␣-amylase activity
The ␣-amylase activity during kilning was described
by the model
α
α& (t ) = −k (T1 (t ))α(t )
where
− Eα
s λ (λ(t ), xT (t )) = rλ ⎜⎜1 − ⎟
⎝ K λ ⎟⎠
when xT (t) ≥ x␭ (⬅ 0 otherwise) and
− Eλ
k λ (T1 (t )) = k 0λ e RT1 ( t )
␭(t) is the limit-dextrinase activity at time t, k0␭ is the fre-
quency factor for inactivation (1/min), and E␭ is the acti-
vation energy (J /mol). In (14) ␭(t) is assumed to increase
at the beginning of kilning when the moisture is over x␭
and ␭(t) is less than K␭ . The rate of increase is assumed to
slow down when ␭(t) approaches K␭ .
Parameter estimation
For the drying model, the set consisting of experiments
1–6, 9, 10, 12, and 13 was initially used for model identi-
(12) fication (see Table I). The values of the parameters p were
estimated such that the Residual Mean Square Error
(RMSE)

k α (T1 (t )) = k 0α e RT1 ( t ) 1
RMSE = ∑i =1i ( xT (t i ) − xˆ T (t i ; p))2
M
(15)
Mi
␣(t) is the ␣-amylase activity at time t, k is the frequency ␣
0
factor for inactivation (1/min), and E␣ is the activation over the set was minimised. In (15) x̂T refers to the mea-
energy (J /mol). The inactivation rate is thus assumed to sured average grain moisture, i to the ith measurement,
be proportional to instantaneous ␣-amylase activity and and Mi to the number of measurements in an experiment.

VOL. 113, NO. 2, 2007 161

The models were validated using the independent data set
consisting of experiments 7, 8, and 11. After discovering
the model structure, the parameters were estimated again
using data from all experiments 1–13.
In the model structure identification phase, three layers
(i.e., N = 3) were chosen in order to keep the model as
simple as possible. The compartments in the seed were
also assumed to be of equal size (i.e., m12 = 1). The aver-
age temperature of the drying air before heating was 24°C
and the relative humidity was 41%. Thus moisture content
was Y1(t) ⬅ 0.0077 (kg/kg dry air) and was assumed to
remain constant in all of the experiments. The drying tem-
perature T1 (t ) given as the input was set according to
Table 1. The values for the following parameters were
Fig. 1. Simulated and measured malt moisture and drying tem-
perature T1(t) for experiments 1 (A), 5 (B), and 9 (C).
162 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING
then estimated by the least squares method: d, s, a1 , a2 , a3 ,
and mf . mf was also estimated since the dry air flow could
not be measured reliably in the experimental conditions.
In the ␤-glucanase model structure identification phase,
the data from experiments 1–4 and 8–9 were used for pa-
rameter estimation and experiments 5–7 were left inde-
pendent for validation. The method was analogous to the
one described above and RMSE describing the deviation
between the predicted and measured ␤-glucanase activi-
ties was minimised. After the model structure shown in
(11) was found to be adequate, the data from all experi-
ments 1–9 were used to estimate the best values for the
parameters (k␤ and E␤). Measured grain moisture was
used for model identification.
Fig. 2. Simulated and measured ␤-glucanase activity for experi-
ments 1 (A), 5 (B), and 9 (C).
 The structures of the models for ␣-amylase activity,
diastatic power, and limit-dextrinase activity were identi-
fied in an analogous way as above. After the model struc-
tures were found to be adequate, the data from all experi-
ments 1–9 were used to estimate the best values for the
parameters.
RESULTS
Drying model identification
The following parameter values were obtained when
all experiments (1–13) were included in the estimation
set: d = 2.0 1/s, s = 0.8886 1/s, a1 = 2.172, a2 = 0.4725, a3
= 1.219, and mf = 0.06382 s.
Fig. 3. Simulated and measured ␣-amylase activity for experi-
ments 1 (A), 5 (B), and 9 (C).
Fig. 1 shows the measured and predicted moisture for
experiments 1, 5 and 9. Malt drying is predicted quite
accurately, RMSE for experiments 1–9 being 1.85 (% wet
basis).
␤-Glucanase model identification
According to the experimental and model identification
results, the inactivation rate of ␤-glucanase depends on
both the temperature and the moisture. The following pa-
rameter values were obtained when experiments 1–9 were
included in the estimation set: k0␤ = 3.089 · 108 1/min and E␤
= 7.248 · 104 J/mol.
The inactivation of ␤-glucanase already starts at the be-
ginning of kilning at a relatively low temperature and high
moisture (Fig. 2). The predicted ␤-glucanase activity level
Fig. 4. Simulated and measured diastatic power for experiments
1 (A), 5 (B), and 9 (C).
VOL. 113, NO. 2, 2007 163
depends on the initial value that is based on a single mea-
surement. The prediction for experiment 1 would be even
better if the initial value was slightly decreased (Fig. 2a).
When the moisture was predicted by the drying model,
RMSE for ␤-glucanase predictions (experiments 1–9) was
29.8 (BGU /100 g dm).
␣-Amylase model identification
The following parameter values were obtained (experi-
ments 1–9): k0␣ = 5.7654 · 109 1/min and E␣ = 7.8913 · 104
J /mol. RMSE was 3.1 (DU /g dm).
In the kilning experiments, ␣-amylase was more
thermostable than ␤-glucanase, a fact that is also well
described in brewing literature (Fig. 3).
Fig. 5. Simulated and measured limit-dextrinase activity for ex-
periments 1 (A), 5 (B), and 9 (C).
164 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING
Diastatic power model identification
According to the measurements and the model identifi-
cation results, diastatic power slightly increased during
the first hours of kilning and then decreased due to an
increase in temperature (Fig. 4). The following parameter
values were obtained (experiments 1–9): k0␦ = 4.8037 ·
1012 1/min, E␦ = 9.5056 · 104 J /mol, r␦ = 5.0361 · 10–2 (in
decimal), K␦ = 470.0 WK /100 g dm, and x␦ = 40.0 (% dry
basis). RMSE was 19.6 (WK/100 g dm).
Limit-dextrinase model identification
As with the diastatic power, limit-dextrinase activity
also slightly increased during the first hours of kilning and
then decreased due to an increase in temperature (Fig. 5).
A similar increase in activity during the early phases of
kilning has been reported earlier 16. The following parame-
ter values were obtained (experiments 1–9): k0␭ = 1.6554 ·
1020 1/min, E␭ = 1.4516 · 105 J /mol, r␭ = 6.4693 (in deci-
mal), K␭ = 93.963 RPU /100 g dm, and x␭ = 40.0 (% dry
basis). RMSE was 5.6 (RPU /100g dm).
Simulations
The model identification results above show that the
prediction errors for the analysed variables are in the or-
der of 5–10% during kilning. By taking the variability
into account during the process and in the analysis meth-
ods, the predictions should be accurate enough to simulate
the effects of changes in the kilning programme on the
enzyme activities.
The thermostabilities of the enzymes were analysed by
varying the curing temperature during the last four hours
of kilning (Fig. 6). In the case of an 80°C curing tempera-
ture, the ␤-glucanase activity of green malt was reduced
by 43%, ␣-amylase activity by 4%, diastatic power by
15%, and limit-dextrinase activity by 25%. The results
match well with the earlier reported findings. According
to Sissons et al.18 almost similar curing conditions in malt
kilning reduced the ␤-glucanase activity of green malt by
44% and limit-dextrinase activity by 24%. According to
the simulation, increasing the curing temperature from
80°C to 90°C still causes a 10% reduction in the final
␤-glucanase activity, 5% reduction in ␣-amylase activity,
21% reduction in diastatic power, and 47% reduction in
limit-dextrinase activity (Fig. 6).
The effects of drying temperature T1(t) on the relative
enzyme inactivation rates k␤(T1(t))xT (t), k␣(T1(t)), k␦(T1(t)),
and k␭(T1(t)) are shown in Fig. 7 (see (11)–(14)). For ␤-
glucanase, the effect of grain moisture xT (t) was also ana-
lysed (moisture on a wet basis in Fig. 7b).
For temperatures higher than 75°C, the relative inacti-
vation rates of starch hydrolysing enzymes are in decreas-
ing order: limit-dextrinase, diastatic power, and ␣-amy-
lase (Fig. 7a). Such a high temperature is normally only
applied during the last hours of kilning when the grain
moisture is already under 10%. Then the relative inactiva-
tion rate of ␤-glucanase is between that of ␣-amylase and
limit-dextrinase (Fig. 7b). However, at higher moistures
␤-glucanase is inactivated faster than the starch hydrolys-
ing enzymes, a fact that is well known, for instance under
mashing conditions (for example see Hämäläinen et al.7 ).
 Fig. 6. Simulated ␤-glucanase activity, ␣-amylase activity, diastatic power, and limit-dextrinase activity for three
drying temperatures T1 (t ) (A). Note the time scales in (B)–(E).
DISCUSSION
The models describing the drying of kernels and the
activities of ␣-amylase, diastatic power, limit-dextrinase,
and ␤-glucanase increase the general understanding of the
inactivation of the enzymes and may help in planning the
kilning programme. Although each model was identified
for a single barley variety, the same model structures with
different parameter values should work, or are at least
good candidates, for other varieties as well. On a qualita-
tive level, the predictions for the effects of changes in the
kilning temperature correspond well to the malting experi-
ence and the literature. From the models, different factors
can be analysed separately and thus these simulations
deepen our knowledge of process behaviour.
According to the results, only the inactivation of ␤-glu-
canase substantially depends on moisture in the kilning
conditions generally practiced in maltings. The relative
inactivation rate of limit-dextrinase is higher than that of
diastatic power and ␣-amylase. ␣-Amylase is the most
thermostable. During the last hours of kilning, when the
moisture is below 10% (wet basis), ␤-glucanase is less
thermostable than ␣-amylase but seems to be slightly
more thermostable than diastatic power. By taking into
account the analysis method of diastatic power, it seems
that ␤-glucanase is more thermostable than ␤-amylase
during the last hours of kilning. However, with higher
moistures at the beginning and middle of kilning, ␤-gluca-
nase is inactivated faster than the starch hydrolysing en-
zymes.
The drying process in malting is important for energy
economy and has been considered in many papers 2,3,9,11,19.
In the present work, drying was described by a model that
predicts the effect of kilning temperature on grain mois-
ture with sufficient accuracy at the micro-malting scale,
but, on the other hand, was as simple as possible. A three-
layer-bed-model with separate treatment of the inner and
outer parts of the kernels was found to be suitable. An-
other simplification was that the average bed moisture
was used in describing the effect of moisture in the en-
VOL. 113, NO. 2, 2007 165
zyme activity models. Thus it was possible to identify the
enzyme activity models separately by using the measured
average grain moisture. The previous papers referred to
above suggest that in full scale malt house conditions,
more layers should be included in the model (that is a
straightforward generalisation). When the moisture differ-
ences in the bed are big, the moisture and the temperature
in the enzyme activity models should also be different in
different layers. In order to make the separate identifica-
tion of the models possible, the same temperature, i.e., the
temperature of the incoming air, in the enzyme activity
models was also used. For a more detailed estimation of
the parameters of the enzyme activity models, one should
thus either measure the moisture and the temperature in
several layers or predict them with a detailed drying model.
In model identification, it was observed that the in-
crease of diastatic power and limit-dextrinase activity
took place only at the beginning of kilning at grain mois-
ture over 40.0% (wet basis). This matches the moisture
level below which there was no free water in the kernels,
as discussed in the previous study on germination 10.
The models for the enzyme activities during kilning
are based on a set of controlled experiments that were
designed to cover the normal steeping, germination and
kilning conditions with the measurement of essential vari-
ables at each malting stage. Thus several models could be
Fig. 7. The effect of drying temperature T1(t) on the relative in-
activation rates of ␣-amylase, diastatic power, and limit-dextrin-
ase (A) and ␤-glucanase at different moistures (wet basis) (B).
166 JOURNAL OF THE INSTITUTE OF BREWING
developed and many of them have already been pub-
lished 4–6,10. The biochemical analyses are laborious and
thus only a limited number of repeated analyses were pos-
sible in practice. Based on the modelling results, it can be
concluded that repeated analyses would be important to
increase the reliability of the initial states of the models,
i.e., the measurements at the beginning of each malting
stage should be sufficiently repeated. Moreover, the gen-
erality of the suggested model structures would require
experiments and model validation with other malting bar-
ley varieties and crops.
Simulation can be defined as an experiment using a
model. When a mathematical model describing the se-
lected relationships has been constructed, the simulations
give the answers immediately without laborious and ex-
pensive experiments. On the other hand, the modelling
process itself reveals the limits of our knowledge of the
system and often suggests additional experiments.
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(Manuscript accepted for publication May 2007)
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