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Effective moisture conservation practices for

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Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 91

Effective moisture conservation practices

for mitigating soil water stress under
changing climate
ANIL KUMAR1 AND BALKRISHNA S. BHOPLE2

ABSTRACT

Impact of climate change poses a serious threat to food security by affecting

various soil and plant processes. Soil water is a vital component that is
seriously affected due to changing climate. In this context, adoption of
suitable moisture conservation practices in crop production is proving to be
an effective means in mitigation water stress induced by climate change.
Use of improved agricultural technologies and recommended practices has
huge potential for conserving soil moisture. Adoption of soil conservation
practices such as conservation agriculture, organic residues, mulching, hi-
tech irrigation systems, rain water harvesting, Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)
fungi, improved soil health, etc. help in conserving soil moisture and in
turn mitigating stress. Conservation agriculture has potential to improve
the resilience of agricultural cropping systems by increasing organic matter
levels in soil thereby, improving water holding capacity. Further, Minimum
tillage has been found useful for conservation and carryover of residual
moisture for sowing of crops on time. Presoaking of seed in 1% salt solution
before sowing is another package that has proved to be a good alternative
for efficient utilization of soil moisture before depletion. Improved soil health
through incorporation of organic materials such as farm yard manure
(FYM), compost, green manures, plant residues improves soil water retention.
Moreover, mulching with crop residue is a win-win agricultural technology

1
Farm Science Centre, GAD Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Tarn Taran,
Punjab, India
2
Department of Agronomy, School of Agriculture, Lovely Professional University,
Jalandhar (Punjab)- India
* Corresponding author: E-mail: …
92 Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 12: Climate Change and Sustainable Tech.

to conserve soil moisture by reducing evaporation and catching water

running over the agricultural land. Rainwater harvesting helps in
recharging groundwater. Adoption of micro-irrigation systems viz. drip or
sprinkler in orchard and vegetable crops helped in enhancing water use
efficiency besides saving water to a greater extent. Another option to overcome
the shortage of water supplies is to recycle waste waters from sewage and
industrial effluents following proper treatments. The use of AM fungi along
with recommended package of practices also found an effective mean in
enhancing water use efficiency of various crops significantly.
Key words: Climate change, Conservation agriculture, Minimum tillage,
Rainwater harvesting

INTRODUCTION

Impact of climate change poses a serious threat to food security by affecting

various soil and plant processes. The potential impact of climate change on
soil health could be observed through changes in soil organic matter supply,
temperature regimes, hydrology and salinity. Soil water is a vital component
of agricultural production, essential to maximize both yield and quality is
also seriously affected due to changing climate. Soils are intricately linked
to the atmospheric/climate system through the carbon, nitrogen and
hydrologic cycles. Because of this, altered climate will have an effect on
soil processes and properties (Brevik, 2013). Further, dynamics of climate
change will also exacerbate other issues such as desertification,
deforestation, erosion, degradation of water quality and depletion of water
resources, com-plicating the challenge of food security (Delgado et al., 2011).
The earth’s average surface temperature has increased by 1.3oF over the
past century and is projected by the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) to increase by an additional 3.2 to 7.2oF over the 21st century
(IPCC, 2007). Climate change can increase potential ero-sion rates, which
can lower agricultural productivity by 10% to 20% or more in extreme cases.
Further, climate change could contribute to higher temperatures and evapo-
transpiration and lower precipitation across some regions, adding addi-
tional pressure to draw irrigation water from some already overexploited
aquifers having lower rate of water recharge than withdrawal rates. Above
water issues developed by climate change present a serious concern
(Delgado et al., 2011).

In this context, adoption of suitable moisture conservation practices in

crop production is proving to be an effective means in mitigation water
stress induced by climate change. Research has been proved that use of
improved agricultural technologies and recommended practices has huge
potential for conserving soil moisture. Improved soil moisture conservation
practices have been found to mitigate soil moisture stress in many water-
scarce areas of the world. Adoption of soil conservation practices such as
Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 93

conservation agriculture, organic residues, mulching, hi-tech irrigation

systems, rain water harvesting, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi,
improved soil health, etc. help in conserving soil moisture and in turn
mitigating water stress. Above soil moisture conservation practices have
very favorable effects on surface soil moisture conditions and consequently
on the crops especially those with shallow root system (Shaxon and Hall,
1968). Further, use of mulches for water conservation is essential especially
in areas with lesser rainfall. Most of soil moisture conservation practices
improved soil fertility in many instances under favorable circumstances
following application of farmyard manure, crop residues, etc. due to
improved microbial activities (Kotze and Joubert, 1992).

Research has been suggested that without application of best soil and
water conservation practices, it will not be possible to achieve production
targets needed to feed additional bil-lions of people by 2050, as there is a
direct relation-ship between soil and water conservation practices and
maintaining and/or increas-ing productivity. A sound scientific approach
in the field of agronomy, soil sci-ence and conservation will be needed to
maintain sustainable and productive agri-cultural systems for stable food
security.

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON SOIL ENVIRONMENT

Impact of Temperature Rise

As per Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), an increase in average

temperature may lead to lengthening of the crop growing season in regions
with comparatively cool spring and fall seasons. Adversely affect crops in
areas where summer heat already limits production. Increase soil
evaporation rates. Increase the possibilities of severe drought (EPA, 2008).
Increase in soil temperature will increase N mineralization, but its
availability may decrease due to increased gaseous losses through processes
such as volatilization and denitrification. Actually, rising temperature
increases the rate of chemical and biochemical reactions. There is increase
in soil and root respiration, which can release more carbon dioxide and
methane (green house gases). However, forests that are actively
sequestering carbon serve as carbon sinks and can help offset some of these
emissions.

Further, rise in temperature increases decomposition of soil organic

matter and more carbon loss from soils to atmosphere, thus could reduce
the carbon availability for growing plants. Soil carbon helps soils retain
water and nutrients. Carbon also serves as an energy source for
decomposing organisms (Melillo et al., 2002; Davidson and Janssens, 2006;
Conant et al., 2008). Additionally, increased decomposition rates can lower
carbon stored as organic matter, which is an important source of carbon
94 Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 12: Climate Change and Sustainable Tech.

for biomass production. Moreover, increased temperature can increase

nitrogen availability through higher turnover of soil nitrogen. However, in
areas where excess nitrogen is a major concern, this priming effect could
increase N losses from ecosystems (Melillo et al., 1993). Above losses would
probably create some other ecological problems in these ecosystems such
as eutrophication or lower pH in soils (Saxe et al., 2001; Galloway et al.,
2003).

Impact of Elevated CO2

A gradual and continuing rise in atmospheric CO2 concentration increases

growth rates and water-use efficiency of crops, hence increases in organic
matter supplies to soils. Actually, elevated CO2 can increase plant biomass,
which also stimulates fine root growth and root secretions in soils (Pendall
et al., 2004). Increased root growth generates more carbon belowground,
which can help accelerate decomposition and nutrient cycling. Increased
microbial activity due to higher CO2 concentration and temperature
produces greater amounts of polysaccharides and other soil stabilizers.
Further, increased carbon belowground can increase root respiration rates
and soil microbes (Schlessinger and Andrews, 2000). Increases in crop
residue, root mass and organic matter content tend to stimulate activity of
soil macrofauna including earthworm. Increased soil microbial activity
produce favourable effect on soil physical properties through releasing
various hormones, vitamins, enzymes, organic acids, etc. and led to soil
aggregation and in turn improved infiltration rate. The greater stability
and faster infiltration increase the resilience of the soil against water erosion
and consequent loss of soil fertility.

Higher atmospheric concentrations of CO2 can alter the amount of

nitrogen in plant residue (leaf litter), which strongly influences
decomposition (Melillo et al., 1982). These alterations could also have
influences on soil microbial activities and nutrient availability for growing
plants. The greater microbial activity tends to increase the quantity of plant
nutrients cycling through soil organisms. The increased microbial and root
activity in the soil would entail higher CO2 partial pressure in soil air and
CO2 activity in soil water, hence increased rates of plant nutrient release
from weathering of soil minerals. Similarly, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM)
fungi activity would lead to better nutrient especially phosphorus and water
uptake.

Impact of Altered Moisture Availability

Due to climate change or global warming, change in rainfall volume and

frequency may alter the severity, frequency and extent of soil erosion, thus
there is increased risk of fertile soil and nutrient losses. Peak rainfall
intensities could increase in several regions. Further, heavier rainfall events
Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 95

can increase runoff and erosion due to the limited ability of soils to absorb
and retain water. Prolonged droughts may decrease plant cover, making it
harder to retain soils and organic materials during heavy rainfalls or
windstorms. Increased aridity can inhibit surface decomposition and
nutrient cycling, thus decreasing plant productivity. Increased erosion
during heavy rainfalls can also quickly deplete soil organic material
(Nearing et al., 2004).

IMPACT OF GLOBAL WARMING ON SOIL MOISTURE

The amount of water stored in the soil is fundamentally important to

agriculture and has deep influences on evaporation, groundwater recharge
and runoff generation. The water-holding capacity of soil affected possible
changes in soil moisture deficits; the lower the capacity, the greater the
sensitivity to climate change. Climate change also may affect soil
characteristics, perhaps through changes in waterlogging or cracking, which
in turn may affect soil moisture storage properties. Infiltration capacity
and water-holding capacity of many soils are influenced by the frequency
and intensity of freezing (IPCC report). Global warming impacts the water
cycle not only by changing regional precipitation levels and temporal
variability, but also by affecting water flows and soil moisture dynamics
(Holsten et al., 2009). Understanding, measuring and assessing how water
flows around the farm, and recognizing how farming practices affect flows,
will help farmers to manage water efficiently and reduce pollution risks
(Kumar et al., 2013).

One of the natural effects of a rise in temperature on soil moisture is

water evaporation. However, changes in temperature and precipitation can
have different effects on different types of soils. The amount of moisture in
soil depends on the type of soil, amount of rainfall in a particular area and
depth of water table. Sandy soils, common in arid regions, contain more
macropores, may be more sensitive to water loss through evaporation. On
other hand, clay soils have more micropores and may be more likely to
retain water. Moreover, if an area was to get hotter, it would likely become
drier (less rain). The water table would become low and the soil would dry
out (i.e. have less moisture). With the soil being so dry, minerals would
leach to the surface, effectively sealing the soil and preventing any rain
from infiltrating. In soils that support ample vegetation, increase in
atmospheric carbon dioxide associated with global warming may also
increase soil moisture. Elevated amounts of carbon dioxide have been shown
to stimulate growth in plants through photosynthesis. Vegetation also
shades and cools soil, contributes organic material to the soil and absorbs
carbon dioxide. Precipitation and temperature may affect this ground cover,
reflecting the complexity of factors that influence soil moisture. Global
warming is expected to intensify regional contrasts in precipitation that
already exist: dry areas are expected to get even drier, and wet areas even
96 Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 12: Climate Change and Sustainable Tech.

wetter. This is because warmer temperatures tend to increase evaporation

from oceans, lakes, plants, and soil, which, according to both theory and
observations, will boost the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere by
about 7% per 1°C (1.8°F) of warming.

Mitigating Water Stress through Soil Moisture Conservation

Practices

The advanced agricultural practices have a great potential to mitigate

moisture stress in crop land soils through the adoption of recommended
management practices. Several farming practices and technologies can
reduce water stress or conserve water and overcome adverse impact of
climate change. Improving water management in agriculture requires an
improvement in soil moisture conservation measures and a reduction in
wastage of irrigation water. Reduction in water wastage also brings about
additional benefits in terms of reducing losses of applied nutrients, water
erosion and pollution of surface and ground water. An accurate
measurement of soil moisture content and water removal by soil evaporation
and plant transpiration processes is therefore essential to establish the
optimal soil water balance for crop sowing, fertilizer application and irrigation
scheduling under different irrigation technologies, climatic conditions and
farm management systems that aim to minimize soil evaporation and increase
water accessibility for plant roots. The soil moisture neutron probe and stable
isotopic techniques can contribute such information. Storage of more water
in the soil profile increases greatly the water use efficiency (WUE) of crops
grown with conditions of limited water. The role of various management
practices/measures/parameters on soil moisture conservation vis-a-vis climate
change is briefly discussed hereunder:

Organic matter

The soil organic matter is of fundamental importance in maintaining soil

fertility and soil water regimes. Organic matter has ability to absorb and
hold up to 90 % of its weight in water. Mostly, water hold by the organic
matter is in plant available form and easily absorbed by the plants. In
contrast, clay holds great quantities of water, but much of it is unavailable
to plants. Moreover, organic matter causes aggregation, which improves
soil structure. Better soil structure improves permeability to air and water,
which in turn improve soil’s ability to take up and hold water. About 1%
increase in soil organic carbon increases field capacity by 2.2%, permanent
wilting point by 1% and available water capacity by 1.5% (Hudson, 2006;
Brady and Weil, 2002). So, incorporation of Farm yard manure (FYM),
compost, green manures, wastes plant residues improve soil organic matter
status and soil water retention (Kumar et al., 2013). Thus, improvement in
water retention capacity of soils through build up in soil carbon content
Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 97

holds the key to conserve moisture.

Conservation tillage

Tillage has deep influences on crop yields and water use efficiency. Actually,
tillage break the continuity of soil pores, thus has an impact on evaporation
and infiltration rate. Erratic rainfall behavior can be a serious limitation
to agricultural production especially in rain fed areas causing low yields
and sometime even crop failure. In other words, a significant cause of low
production and crop failure in rainfed agriculture is lack of water in the
soil. In most instances, a great deal can be done to improve the efficiency of
rainwater use. Soil moisture management is therefore a key factor to
enhance agricultural production. In this context, conservation Agriculture
is one way of improving soil moisture management (Benites and
Castellanos, 2013). The conservation agriculture maintain permanent soil
cover either with plant residue or growing crops, thus protects the soil
surface from the adverse effect of raindrop. On other hand, it reduces direct
water loss through evaporation from the upper layers of the soil. Similarly,
in case of reduced tillage soil is less disturbed, so the moisture loss and soil
compaction that follows tillage is avoided. This increases the infiltration
and percolation of water through the soil, leading to better root development
and crop growth. Minimum disturbance of soil in turn improves the living
conditions of beneficial organisms and enhance their activity significantly.

Microorganisms secrete various enzymes, hormones, vitamins and

organic acids that causes aggregation of soil particles, thus improve soil
structure. Further, following crop rotation and cover cropping preferably
with legumes helps to increase soil organic matter, reduce erosion and
enhance microbial activities in soil. Moreover, rotation with crops of
different root system say legumes develop a network in the soil, thus
enhances water penetration, water holding capacity and in turn water
availability to crops from deeper layers. Minimum tillage practice especially
in case of wheat has been found useful for conservation and carryover of
residual moisture for sowing of said crop on time (Sandal, 1992). Ngigi et
al. (2006) observed an improvement of about 25–30% in soil moisture
following conservation tillage in Ewaso Ng’iro river basin, Kenya. Similarly,
Kauffman et al. (2003) reported 60–72% runoff reduction in sub-Saharan
Africa with appropriate tillage methods. Presoaking of seed in 1% salt
solution before sowing is another package that has proved to be a good
alternative for efficient utilization of soil moisture before depletion.

Mulching

Mulching of soil surface with crop residue, plastic sheet or grass cover is
an efficient agricultural technology to conserve soil moisture by reducing
98 Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 12: Climate Change and Sustainable Tech.

evaporation and catching water running over the agricultural land (Kumar
et al., 2013). Applying the right type of mulch not only conserves soil
moisture, but can cool the soil as well. Further, mulches keep the soil
underneath moist longer than bare soil and prevent evaporation. Actually,
surface mulch prevents the soils against beating action of raindrops and
avoids clogging of soil pores, thus increasing infiltration rate. Plant residue
mulch controls soil erosion and conserves soil moisture. Mulch also help
keep weeds under control, thus reduce the competition for water. Good
mulch is one that is clean of weed seeds, insects and other pests, easily
applied, and economical. Plastic mulches are completely impermeable; they
therefore prevent direct soil evaporation and limit water losses and erosion
via the soil surface. Sabyasachi and Bhattacharya (2005) registered 1.6-
2.4 times higher water-use-efficiency and 20-28 % less water consumption
in green gram due to mulching.

Hi-tech irrigation system (micro-irrigation)

Adoption of micro-irrigation systems viz., drip or sprinkler in orchard and

vegetable crops helps in enhancing water use efficiency besides saving water
to a greater extent. In recent years, keeping in view the limited water
availability, micro- irrigation systems comprising drip and sprinkler are
being promoted in many part of the globe (Kapoor et al., 2014). Micro-
irrigation ensures higher water-use-efficiency and in turn water economy.
It is eco-friendly irrigation system, saving more than 60 % water and
increase crop yield to the extent of 30-40 % over conventional methods
(Magar and Nandgude, 2005; Sezen et al., 2006; Kumar et al., 2007).

To avoid moisture stress in shallow soil depth, irrigation through drip

system is quite feasible as it is applied very frequently and remained in
shallow depth (Rajput and Patel, 2006; Yuan et al., 2006). Further, drip
irrigation through the trickle supply of water drops continuously keeping
the soil moist in the rhizosphere. On other hand, sprinkler irrigation method
is unique in contrast to surface methods in that it is independent of soil
uniformity and topography in its adaptability. It is also compatible to even
a small steady stream of water when surface irrigation performs better
with large flow.

Drip irrigation along with fertilizer (fertigation) reduces the wastage of

water and chemical fertilizers and subsequently, optimizes the nutrient
and water use by applying them at critical stages at proper place and time,
which finally increases the water and nutrient use efficiency. Efficient use
of fertilizers and water is highly critical to sustained agricultural production,
more particularly in the context of declining per capita land and water
availability and increasing cost of fertilizers (Soumya et al., 2009). Kumar
(2012) have registered higher tomato yield and water use efficiency with
gravity fed drip irrigation system, besides saving irrigation water up to
Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 99

40% in comparison with full irrigation method. Kapoor et al. (2014) in an

experiment under North Western Himalayas conditions (acid Alfisol)
reported that application of water to cauliflower through drip irrigation
resulted in higher soil water content, water use efficiency (44.9 to 54.3 %)
and saving in irrigation water (35.8-50.0 %) in comparison with conventional
method of irrigation.

Drip irrigation used significantly less water (less than half of hand
watering), with about three times higher efficiency in water use in drip-
irrigated plots and fertilizer deep placement plots (Palada et al., 2007).
Similarly, in a field experiment, Spehia et al. (2007) reported that the water
use efficiency in capsicum increased to a greater extent following drip
irrigation. Drip irrigation along with plastic mulch further enhanced the
water use effciency. In another, study, Chandrasekharan and Pandian
(2009) registered significant water saving to the tune of 40 and 70 % with
drip irrigation in comparison with surface method of irrigation.

Rainwater harvesting

Since, the productivity of irrigated agriculture is more than twice of rain

fed agriculture, it is very essential to bring the maximum area under
irrigation with judicious and economic use of harvested rain and ground
water for increasing the water productivity. In this context, water
harvesting has been assigned high priority in the rainfed areas through
integrated water management programmes to promote intensified and
diversified agriculture and also to safeguard against risks of frequent
droughts, encountered in the arid and semiarid regions. Rainwater
harvesting is the process of collecting, concentrating and improving the
productive use of rainwater and reducing unproductive depletion. In other
words, it involves collection, storage and recycling of rainwater for
agricultural, domestic or industrial purposes. Rainwater harvesting helps
in recharging groundwater. The harvested water should not be used for
irrigation through wild flooding; instead high-tech irrigation systems, such
as micro-sprinklers or drip irrigation, should be practiced (Kumar et al.,
2013; Kapoor et al., 2014). The water may also be used through pitcher
irrigation technology. In all these systems, irrigation efficiency is as high
as 90-95%. The harvested water could be used as life saving irrigation.

The surface runoff into paddy fields in hill regions of Himalayas act as
rain water harvesting structures besides imparting intangible benefits like
eco-restoration and downstream flood mitigation etc. These micro-
watersheds have ample benefits of water resource conservation, mitigating
the effect of floods and droughts and ground water augmentation
(Choudhary et al., 2013). In a study involving ‘raised sunken bed and inter-
terrace rainwater harvesting in western Himalayan region, Sharma et al.
(2010) reported that raising bund height of rice fields from 10 to 30 cm
100Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 12: Climate Change and Sustainable Tech.

increased rice grain yield by 16 % over farmers’ practice (10 cm bund height).
Further, above technique exhibited significant increase of 42 % in rice yield
over farmers’ practice when water from upper terrace under maize was
also diverted to rice field.

Recycling of Organic Residues

As discussed earlier, incorporation of organic residues such as farm yard

manure (FYM), compost, green manures, wastes plant residues improve
soil organic matter status in soil, which in turn enhance soil water retention
(Kumar et al., 2013). Further, organic residues such as paddy straw or
grasses acts as ‘surface mulch’, which have ability to conserve soil moisture
by reducing evaporation and catching water running over the agricultural
land. Sharma et al. (2010) reported higher water use efficiency in wheat
following crop residue (Lantana camara) mulching. Waste plants such as
‘farm weeds’, not suitable for fodder purposes could also be effectively
utilized for conserving soil moisture.

Use of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi

The use of Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi along with recommended

package of practices enhanced the water use efficiency of crops significantly
(Kumar et al., 2014, 2015). The AM fungi has ability to expand surface
area of plant root system by 10 to 1000 folds into the soil through their
ramifying hyphae, thereby, increasing their exploratory area for harnessing
water from deeper layers, thereby establishing its vital role in water
management. The AM fungi symbiosis often results in altered rates of water
movement into, through and out of host plants, with consequent effects on
tissue hydration and leaf physiology (Harrier and Watson, 2003). Further,
mycorrhizal hyphae penetrate soil pores inaccessible to root hairs thereby
absorbing water which is not available to non-mycorrhizal plants (Koide,
1993; Farahani et al., 2008). Farahani et al. (2008) further attributed higher
WUE to a greater absorption of water and P by plants thereby, boosting
biological yield. Actually, each factor which promotes biological yield would
naturally enhance WUE also.

The AM fungi inoculation resulted in improvement in soil structure by

way of binding of soil aggregates, involving their hyphal network and in
turn, enhancing soil moisture retention capacity (Tisdall, 1991; Staddon et
al., 2003; Hamblin, 1985; Rilling, 2004). Further, glomalin produced by
fungal hyphae bind soil particles leading to aggregate formation and in
turn, improve soil structure/ soil moisture retention capacity (Wright and
Upadhyaya, 1998; Wright et al., 1998). Thus, inoculation of crop seed with
AM fungi biofertilizer before sowing could be an alternative in rain fed
reasons to enhance water use efficiency or mitigating water stress in crops.
Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 101

In a field study involving medium P acid Alfisol under wet temperate

climate, Kumar et al. (2013) have reported 11-24 % higher water use
efficiency in AM fungi inoculated okra and pea plants.

Land leveling

The lack of proper leveling of fields resulted in uneven distribution of applied

irrigation water, which leads to water logging conditions in low-lying areas
and soil water deficit at higher spots. Earlier, leveling of field was done by
bullock drawn wooden leveler or tractor drawn levelers, which resulted in
uneven soil surface (not properly leveled). Uneven soil surface has a major
impact on the germination, crop stand and yield due to inhomogeneous
water distribution and soil moisture. Therefore, land levelling is a precursor
to good agronomic, soil and crop management practices. The laser land
leveler is modern equipment, which leveled the field within certain degree
of desired slope using a guided laser beam throughout the field. It involves
the use of (laser) transmitter, that emits a rapidly rotating beam parallel
to the required field plane, which is picked up by a sensor (receiving unit)
fitted to a tractor towards scraper unit. The signal received is converted
into cut and fill adjustments and the corresponding changes in scraper
level are carried out automatically by a hydraulic control system.

The major benefit of this technology is reduction in water for irrigation.

Further, water is distributed uniformly on the field. There is saving of
about 35 % in irrigation water and productivity levels are increased by
50%. Overall, uniform leveling of field saves irrigation water, distribute
water evenly and enhance water use efficiency of crops.

Direct seeded rice

Direct seeded rice (DSR) is an attractive alternative to avoid over

exploitation of underground water resource through cultivation. Actually,
increasing water crisis, water-intensive nature of rice cultivation and
escalating labour costs drive the search for alternative management
methods to increase water productivity in rice cultivation. The direct seeded
rice is a low input demanding system, which involves sowing pre-germinated
seed into a puddled soil surface (wet seeding), standing water (water
seeding) or dry seeding into a prepared seedbed (dry seeding) (Farooq et
al., 2010). Following DSR, there is saving of 60% water as nursery raising,
puddling, seepage and percolation are eliminated. Beside, labour could be
saved to the extent of 40%. Fertilizer use efficiency is increased because of
placement/ application of fertilizers in the root zone (Patahk et al. 2011).
Kumar and Ladha (2011) in a review indicated that DSR lower irrigation
water use by 12-33% (139–474 mm) as compared to flooded puddle rice
method. The reduction in irrigation water use however, varied with the
102Environmental Sci. & Eng. Vol. 12: Climate Change and Sustainable Tech.

type of DSR method, ranging from 139 mm (12%) following wet seeding on
puddled soil to 304– 385 mm (21–25%) with dry seeding after tillage or
zero tillage and 474 mm (33%) in dry seeding on raised beds.

Other mitigating options

Another option to overcome the shortage of water supplies is to recycle

waste waters from sewage and industrial effluents following proper
treatments. Presoaking of seed in 1% salt solution before sowing is another
package that has proved to be a good alternative for efficient utilization of
soil moisture before depletion. System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is one
of the important methods for increasing productivity of rice without using
much external inputs and this method is best suited for small and marginal
farmers. It reduces the water requirement by 25 to 50 % per season (Kumar
et al., 2013). Checking percolation losses of water in rice fields is another
strategy for managing or saving water. Soils with inherent high
permeability rates should be avoided for rice cultivation. Intermittent
wetting or cyclic submergence will further cut the water requirement of
rice crops.

CONCULSIONS

Proper soil management is a key to conserving soil water. It is the soil that
absorbs, transmits and holds the water for crops to use. Conservation
agriculture has potential to improve the resilience of agricultural cropping
systems by increasing organic matter levels in soil thereby, improving water
holding capacity. Further, improvement in soil organic matter status
through incorporation of organic residues viz., FYM, compost, green
manures and plant residues improves soil water retention. Similarly,
mulching of soil surface with crop residue or plastic mulch is efficient soil
moisture conserving technique. Rainwater harvesting helps in recharging
groundwater. Adoption of micro-irrigation systems viz. drip or sprinkler in
orchard and vegetable crops helped in enhancing water use efficiency
besides saving water to a greater extent. Other alternatives to overcome
the shortage of water supplies is to recycle waste waters, laser land leveling
technology, direct seeding rice and use of certain biofertilizers (AM fungi).
Thus, above soil moisture conservation practices has huge potential to
overcome water shortage and meet out water requirements of crop
efficiently besides, enhancing water use efficiency and yield of the crops
under both irrigated and rainfed conditions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are thankful to the researcher whose information directly or

indirectly is utilized to compile this article. As such, the authors very
Effective moisture conservation practices for mitigating soil water stress … 103

heartily and sincerely acknowledge their contributions without which this

article would not have become a reality. Special thanks to Dr VK Suri
(Former Vice Chancellor, CSAUAT, Kanpur) and Dr Anil K. Choudhary,
Senior Scientist (Agronomy), IARI, New Delhi for their kind help and
assistance.

REFERENCES

Benites, J. and Castellanos, A. (2003). Improving soil moisture with conservation

agriculture. LEISA Magazine, 19(2): 6–7.
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2002). The Nature and Properties of Soils. Prentice-Hall.
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