Modern Refrigeration an Air Conditioning by ANDREW D. ALTHOUSE, B.S., (M.E.), MA. Technical-Vocational Education Consultant Life Member, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers CARL H. TURNQUIST, B.S., (M.E.), MA. ‘Technical-Vocational Eclucation Consultant ‘Associate Member, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers Member, Refrigerating Engineers and Technicians Association ALFRED F. BRACCIANO, B.S., M.Ed., Ed. Sp- Technical-\ocational Education Consultant Member, Refrigeration Service Engineers Society ‘Associate Member, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers ‘Member, Air Conditioning Contractors of America Member, Association for Career and Technical Education Publisher THE GOODHEART-WILLCOX COMPANY, INC. Tinley Park, WlinoisCopyright 2008 by ‘The Goodheart-Willeox Company, Inc. Previous edtions copight 2000, 1996, 1982, 1968, 1982, 1979, 1975, 1968 ‘A gts reserve, No part of is work may be raprociced storee, or irenamited fn any torn oF by any elton of machasical means including Information storage anc revove systems, witout the prior writen permission of The Goodhoa't Wiloax Compary, ne. Manutstured in the Untied Sines of America. LUbrary of Congress Caisog Card Number 2009052040 TSeN-12 978-180070 290-2 1SBN-16:1-59070-200-8 8788 10-08-0807 The technoiogical changes inthe retigeration and alr corcitioning industry in recent years have been very extensive. The accurecy, relabilly, clay, and reading evel of tis ‘book have been achioved through the assistance ofthe fllowing individual: Associate Authors Daniel C. Bracciano, &.S.WE-: Senior HVAC Engineer, General Motors Corporation. Warren, Michigan; Associate Mamber, American Socely of Heating, Refrigerating and Ai-Condiioning Engineers; Member, Roirgoration Service Engineers Society. Gloria m. Braceiano, B.A., M.A, Ed Sp.; Principal Leke Orion Schools Lake Orion, Michigan; Associata. Member, American Society of Heating, Refigereting and Ai-Conditioning Engingers; Member, Refrigeration and Sorvico Engineore Secioty. Consultants Alert Butler, Autornative Service, General Netors Retallor, Lapeer, ‘Michigan Robert H. Edgsiton, BS.ME, M.SM.E, Ph.D. Engineering ober! Ottolni, ANE, M.S.IME.; Enginsering Manager, General Motors (Corporation, Fit. Michigan’ Jesse Fi. Ricjes, B.S, Assoc, Climats Control Tach; Instructor, Oaklan ‘Communty Colege, Oeliend Technical Center, Michigan Conia Habermehi, Administrative Assistant, Associated Technical ‘Authors, Port Huron, Michigan thors and pullishar grataluly acknowledge the folowing companies for use ct ‘materlas or he cover TIF Instruments, inc: Carrer Corporation, Fesitertial Products: Climatedtaster, Inc. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publestion Data ‘Attrouse.Andiow Das Movie tetigeration are ar condionng by ‘Angten D. Athouse, Carl H,Tumguls Aled F Bracco, pon Indu index IBN 0070-250-0 ssa |. Patigeration and rece ating 2 Airconditioning. |. Targus, Cail Harold, 1910- I Biaccano,Alfed FM Te. ‘Tpaspass 2008 O21 56-set oncoszesaINTRODUCTION ‘Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning provides a thorough and authoritative course on the basic and advanced principles of refrigoration and air conditioning. {As the technology in the fleld has advanced, so has the leading text in the educational field, Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning, It contains all the most recent information end advances that are necessary to prepare the technician for today’s world It incorporates the latest technical changes and EPA rulings, covers the newer refrigerants, and provides current informa- ion on the recovery, reclaiming, and recycling of refrigerants. It contains basic information om ‘numerous certification exams, Modem Refrigeration and Air Conditioning presents all these principles in a very easily understood format. To make this book more “user friendly,” the type face has been enlarged, and the readability improved. Sentences and paragraphs have all been reviewed so that compre- hension is maximized. This edition retains the sequence of topics that has proven successful. Some af the material has been correlated into modules to help you obtain a better understanding of the subject, ‘Al drawings have been coded 10 a standard color scheme (0 aid in recognition of items. ‘The safety sections are highlighted in red asin the past; the service features are itentified with blue. Current cylinder color coding is given for each refrigerant. ‘An expanded table of conients is one of many featires designed to enhance the leaming process. Each chapter has an identification of key words you will encounter in that chapter. Learn- ing objectives also are provided! for each chapter. Test Your Knowledge questions appear at the end of each chapter. Modem Refrigeration and Air Conditioning is written using both U.S, Conventional and SI Metric units, The metric equivalent appears alongside the conventional unit throughout the textbook. This allows you to use the system with which you are most familiar. ‘Modem Refrigeration and Air Conditioning is intended for use in refrigeration and air conditioning cases in high school echnical shooly and community cllege® 1 may aio be \used in adult education classes and apprenticeship programs, It provides the foundation on which a solid, thorough knowledge of refrigeration and air conditioning may be based. It also provides ‘an excellent basis of information for you in the areas of servicing and troubleshooting. ‘anc apprentices will find in Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning an ex- cellent aid for starting and pursuing a pleasant and profitable career. Experienced service tech- rican will find ita valuable guide and reference. ‘Congratulations on selacting the best selling, most popular book on refrigeration and air conditioning’ Modem Refrigeration and Air Conditioning will guide you to a successful career and provide you with a valuable reference in the profession.HOW TO USE THE COLOR KEY Colors are used throughout Modern Refrigeration and Air Conditioning to help show dif ferent states and conditions of gases and liquids. Other colors indicate olectrcal, mechenical, ane special components. The following key shows what each color represents System Schematic for Refrigeration and Heating Operating Medium High Pressure Liquid J [Dark Red} High-Pressure Vapor [JJ] Light Rea) Low-Pressure Liquid J (Dark sive! Low-Pressure Vapor [FT]. ight Blue} Low-Pressure Water [J [0ark Green] Low-Pressure Steam [J highs Green} Absorption Systems Tigh rere Water nd Ammonia (Weak otuton—Hon) ff ttrown-Ret Low-Pressure Water and Ammonia Strong Solution—Cold) [J Turquoise] ireulating Medium WarkRea} EE) ZA Es i Miscellaneous {Dak Brows tres Blow) ZA) git erent C1 “onal “Ligh Bowel “rant Electrical Controls Hightight System J tvicten: cific Components [Lime Green} Spe ipo Mechanical Highiight System [I] 81ue-cray} Specie Components] tight ange Special Components Highlight Syst Specie Components [J {Derk Orangel (yellow!CONTENTS Chapter 1 FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION HISTORY AND FUNDAMENTALS OF REFRIGERATION MODULE 25 Development of Refrigeration 25 1 1.2 How a Mechanical Refrigerator Operates 26 1.3 Color Coding System in This Text 26 14 Heat 27 13 Cold 28 TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE, AND MEASUREMENTS MODULE 28 Temperature and Temperature Measurement Basic Arthmetic 30 Temperature Conversion 32 Temperature Difference Calculations 33 Dimensions 33 Prescure 37 The Three Physical States 39 Density. 4 Fore 41 Work 42 Energy 42 Power 42 Unit of Heat 43 Effect of Pressure on Evaporating Temperatures 46 Effect of Pressure an Freezing Temperature of Water 47 Refrigerating Effect of ice 47 Ambient Tempereture 49 Heat of Compression 49 Energy Units 50 2 123 4 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS AND TERMS MODULE 50 Refrigerant 50 Heat Transfer 50 Brine and Sweet Water 51 Diy ice 51 Critical Temperature 1 1 1 1 1 25 tical Pressure Enthalpy 52 Cryogenics 52 Perfect Gas Equation 53 Dalton’s Law 54 Evaporator 54 Vapor—Gas 54 Humidity—Relative Humidity 34 Hlementary Refrigeraior 34 Mechanical Refrigerating System 56 Review of Ablrreviations and Symbals 52 57 Review of Saiety 57 Test Your Knowledge 56 ONEChapter 2 REFRIGERATION TOOLS AND MATERIALS 61 TUBING AND FITTINGS MODULE 61 21 Tubing 61 2.2 Cutting and Bending Tools 64 Connecting Tubing 66 Soldered or Brazed Tubing Fittings 69 Tube Couplings 75 Swaging Copper Tubing 73 Tube Ceonstvicior 76 Pipe Fittings and Sizes 76 REFRIGERATION TOOLS MODULE 77 29° Hand Tools 77 INSTRUMENTS AND GAUGES MODULE 88 240° Instruments and Gauges 88 211 Measuring Tools 92 SUPPLIES AND USE MODULE 9a 242 Fastening Devices 94 2.13 Refrigeration Supplies 96 214 Service Valves. 98 215. Purging 99 216 Evacuating 99 27 Review af Safety 99 2.18 Test Your Knowledge 100 asi orm aay Chapter 3 BASIC REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS 103 341 lee Refrigeration 103 3.12 Cascade Refrigerating Systems 113 3.2 Evaporative Refrigeration (Desen Bag) 104 3.13 Medulating Refrigeration Cycle 114 3.3 Evaporative Reffigeration (Snow Making) 104 314 lee Maker 115 3.4 Compression Sysiem Using Low-Side Float 3.1 Drinking Water Cooler 116 Refrigerant Control 105 3.16 Expendable Refrigerant Rerigeration System 117 3.5 Extemnal-Drive (Open) Refrigerating Sysiem 106 3.17. Thermoelectric Refrigeration | 118 3.6 Compression System Using High-Side Float Dry lee Refrigeration 118 Refrigerant Control 107 3.7 Compression System Using Automatic Expansion Valve (AEV) Refrigerant Control 108 3.8 Compression System Using Thermostatically Controlled Expansion Valve (TEV) 108 39 Compression System Using Capillary Tube Refrigerant Contra! 109 Multiple Evaporator System 110 Compound Refrigerating Systems 11) Intermittent Absorption System 120 Continuous-Cycle Absorption Systam 122 Solid Absorbent Refrigeration 124 Sophisticated Commercial Systems 125 Hot-Gas Defrost 125, Electric Deftost 128 Test Your Knowledge 129Chapter 4 COMPRESSION SYSTEMS AND COMPRESSORS, COMPRESSION SYSTEMS MODULE. 131 Lans of Reirigeration 1 31 ‘Compression Cycle 131 Evaporator 134 Accumulator 134 Suction Line 134 Compressor 135 Oil Separator 136 Conclenser 137 Liquid Receiver 139 Liquid Line 139) ‘Types of Refiigerant Flow Control Motor Control 145 COMPRESSORS MODULE 146 External-Drive Compressors 43 44 415 416 417 418 ag 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 4.28 429 Chapter 5 REFRIGERANT CONTROLS 177 Hermetic Compressors ‘Types of Compressors 1 Motors 168 Service Valves 168 Mutflars. 169 147 47 Compressor Cooling 169 Lubrication 170) ‘Compressor Volumetric Efficiency ‘Compression Ratio 172 Check Valves 172 Untoader 172 Gasvets 172 O-Rings 172 Grankeate Heater 173 Review of Safety 173 ‘est Your Knowledge 174 140 170 131 Compression System Refrigerant Controls Comparing Refrigerant Controls Check Valve 202 Suction Pressure Valves 202 202 i 53 36 Review of Safety 203 Test Your Knowledge 204 “Chapter 6 ELECTRICAL-MAGNETIC FUNDAMENTALS 207 ELECTRICAL FUNDAMENTALS MODULE. 207 6.1 Generating Electiiciy 207 6.2 Types of Electricity 208 63 Circuit Fundamentals 210 64 Electiical Materials 222 65 Magnetism 224 Chapter 7 APPLIED ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICITY MODULE 234 66 Electronics 234 6.7 Electrical Power 242 6.6 Electrical Codes 250 69 Circuit Protection 250 6.10 Review of Safety 253 6.11 Test Your Knawledge 254 ELECTRIC MOTORS 9257 ELECTRIC MOTORS MODULE 257 7.1 Electric Motor Applications 257 ‘The Motor Structure 257) ‘Types of Electric Motors 258) Motor Speeds 261 Starting and Running Windings 262 Staring Current 263 ‘Motor Connections 264 Hermetic System Motors 265, Direct Current and Universal Motors 272 ‘Motor Horsepower and Motor Characteristics 273 7.11 Electric Motor Grounding 273. 12 Motor Protection 274 7.13 Motor Temperature 277 Chapter 8 7.14 Standard Motor Data 278 7.15. Fan Motors 278 7.16 Shaded-Pole Motors 279 7.17 Eksctronic Variable Speed Motors 260 SERVICING FLECTRIC MOTORS MODULE 282 7.18 Servicing Electric Motors 282 7.19 Pulleys 287 7.20 Belts 208 7.21 Motor Testing Stand 290 7.22 Servicing and Repairing Hermetic Motors 290 7.23. Review of Safely 292 7.24 Tesi Your Knowledge 252 ELECTRIC CIRCUITS AND CONTROLS ELECTRIC CONTROL CIRCUITS MODULE 295 6.1 Electrical Circuits—Complete Wiring Diagram 2! 8.2 Electrical Cireuits—Ladder Diagram 297 83 Control Systems—Fundamentals 297 ELECTRIC CONTROLS MODULE 309 8.4 Refrigerator and Freezer Controls 309 85 tee Maker Controls 310 8.6 Comfort Cooling Air Conditioning Contols 314 8.7 Central Ait Conditioning Controls 315. 8.8 Water Cooler Contals 316 295 89 Remote Temperature Sensing Elements 316 8.10 Pressure Motor Controls 317 8.11 Motor Safety Controls 317 8.12 Motor Starting Relays 319 8.13 Automatic Defrost Conticle 324 8.14 Semiautomatic Defrost Cantols 326 8.15. HotGas Deirost Controls 327 816 Ice Bank Controls 328 817 Delce Controls 329 8.18 Humidity Controls 330 8.19 Defrosting Timers 330 820 Review of Safey 331 8.21 Test Your Knowledge 331Chapter 9 REFRIGERANTS 335 9.1 Refrigerants and the Ozone Layer 335 9.12. Refrigerant Cylinders 355, 9.2 Requirements for Refrigerants 337 9.13. Use of Pressure-Ternperature Tables 357 9.3 Use of Prossura-Tomparature Curves 337 9.14 Head Pressures (High Side) 357 9.4 Grouping and Classification of Refrigerants 338 9.15 Refrigerator Temperatures 357 9.5 Group A Refligerants 338 9.16 Refrigerant Applications 356 9.6 Group B Reftigerants 351 8,17 Changing/\dentitying Refrigerants 358 9.7 Combustible Refrigerants 352 9.18 Amount of Refrigerant Required in a System 358 9.8 Expendable Refrigerants 352 8.19 Refrigeration Oil 361 9.9 Water as a Reinigerant 394 9.20 Moisture in Refrigerant 361 9.10 Food Freezants 354 3.11 Cryogenic Fluids 354 Water CELSIUS ARENHECT Figure 1-3. A comparison of Celsius and Fabrenbeit thermometer scales. are also used to identify the operational performance of a product, These ratings can then be used by the techni- cian to compare one manufacturer's products with those cf another manufacturer Figure 1-4 compares the Celsius, Kelvin, Fahrenheit, and Rankine thermometer scales. Problem: What i the temperature at which water freezes and boils using the Kelvin scale? Solution, Freezing Point: Water freezes at (°C. The Kelvin scale zeto is 273 degrees below O‘C. The freezing temperature of water fs, therefore, 273 degrees above zero kelvin (K), or 273 kelvin, The freezing temperature is 273 K. Solution, Boiling Point: ‘Water boils at 100 degrees above 0°C. The boiling oint of water on the Kelvin scale will be: 100 + 273 = 873 K. Therefore, the boiling point is 373 K. 1.7. Basic Arithmetic ‘Basicamathematics plays an important roe in tech- nician’s day-to-day operations. Being able to quickly and accurately compute basic mathematic formulas is en asset for the technician. The following paragraphs pro- Vide you with some background in the types of anath- ematic operations « technician may be expected to perform on the job. + means plus or add. = means equal to or of the same value, Example: 444=8 = means minus, subtract, or take away. Example: 4-3=1 2 moans mull by oF te. Example: 4x + means divide by. Example: 12+2~6 + means multiply by, or times. ()_ are parentheses; do the arithmetic inside the parentheses first. Example: (7-3) +2 =) +2=6 ‘Same calculations use parentheses instead of a multiplication sign Example; (45) = ()?_ means that the number inside the parentheses is to be multiplied by itself, or squared, Example: (4) 4% 4~ 16; in this example, multiply together two 4s (means that the number inside the parentheses is to be multiplied by itself three times, or cubed. Example: (4) = 4x4 %4= 64; in this example, multiply together three 45, ij means that the top number, “a,” is to be divided by the bottom number, “b.” Example: if "a" ~ 6, and “b” ~2 pra ot? A. (delta) means a difference Example: ST = difference, for instance, °C to 40°C 1.7.1 Basic Unit or Digits Most calculations include the use of basic units. Basic units are expressed in digits. In the statement, 7% 8 =56, 7 and Sare digits 56 is made up of two dig- its, 5 and 6. In the metric system, multiples of digits are fn the basis of 10, For example: the digit 1, if divided bby 10, would be 0.1; each subsequent division of 10 would result in 0.01, 0.001, and the like, The prefix (name) for these follow. The digit 1, if multiplied by 10,+3 |] | 260 a.) | | 279 —arzoue Za Chapter 1_ Fundamentals of Rergeration xu Rentie ASS F we 636 200 se 528 eau ane Farge of vapor ermpecaios fot Foe 20 4 2 ase |} | 2+ ael|Lo Figure 1-4. Kelvin, Celsius, Fahrenheit, and Rankine thermometer scales are compared. would be 10; each subsequent multiplication by 10 ‘would result in 100, 1000, 10,000, 100,000, and the ike. Each level of multiplication or division has a name: Symbol Prefix Quanity Prenunelation mega ~ 1,000,000 like megaphone Xe? = tt00"° latter Recto = 100 heck’-toe da deka =10 deck’-uh basic unit, 1 do ded = 04 des ih © centi ODL son’-tih m milli =0.001 _ like military micro = 0.000.001 my-crow In many calculations, It is difficult to work with mumbers using many zeros elther aheed of or behind the decimal point. A special number, called a “powers of ten,” may be used to expross those types of numbers: "Power of 10" means that the number 10 is malti- plied by itself the desired number of times to obtain the required number of zeros. The small number above and to the right of the number 10 is called the “exponent.” It works 3§ follows: For numbers larger than one: ON = 10? means muliply together three 10s (Wx 10x 10) = 1G means multiply together two 10s (0x 10) 10 = 10" or (10) For numbers less than one, a minus sign is placed before the exponent, This means that 1/10 or 0.1 is to ‘be multiplied together, instead of 10: 01 = 107! or 10) 01 = 10° or (0.10 x 0.19) 0.001 = 10~* or (0.10 x 0.10 x 0.10) 1.7.2. Rounding Numbers In tefrigeration calculations, itis not usually nec- essary to use fractions o decimals of a unit. When the ecimal is less than 5, round to the number and ignore the decimal. When the decimal is 5 or over, round fo the next larger number. For instance, 35:5 becomes 36. If a32 Medes Refrigeration and Air Conditioning problem has been carried two or more decimal places and less accuracy iS required, itis acceptable to round such numbers tc a single decimal. For instance: 3.52: may bbe rouncied tod. 1.8 Temperature Conversion It's often necessary to convert a temperature from ‘one scale to another. Formulas have been developed for this purpose. It is not necessary to memorize these fore ‘mulas, only to refer to them when needed. °C _ means temperature in degrees Colsius means temperature in degrees Fahrenheit K_ means temperature in degrees Kelvin °R means temperature in degrees Rankine “To convert from one of these scales to another, fol low the procedures outlined in the following examples. 1.8.1 Degrees Celsius to Degrees Fahrenheit ieee 190 Bove :) Bxample: Convert 75°C to Fahrenheit. Solution: Gea) ve (isx78) +22 1.8.3 Degrees Fahrenheit to Degrees Rankine (Fahrenheit Absolute) Convert 40°F to °R (F,). Solution: °R (Fy) = 40 +460 RAF) = S0PRE) 1.8.4 Degrees Rankine to Degrees Fahrenheit ope in"F="R— 60 Example: Convert 180°R to "F Solution: “F = 180 ~ 460 °F = —260F 1.8.5 Degrees Celsius to Kelvin fom te: Convert ~10°C to K Solution: K=~10+273 K=263K 1.8.6 Kelvin to Degrees Celsi Example: Convert 400 K t0 °C. Solution: °C = 400-273, C= 1urC 1.8.7 Degrees Rankine to Kelvin “remnese Example: Convert 180°R to K. Solution: K= 8x10 9 K=101K 1.8.8 Kelvin to Degrees Rankine(Chapter 1_ Fundamentals of Reirigeration 33 1.9 Temperature Difference Calculations Calculations which require converting Fahrenheit temperature difference to Celsius temperature difference and Celsius temperature difference to Fahrenheit tem= perature difference may be computed as follows acne i sag tries sie) Example—Fahrenheit to Celsius: Thon the ost tompenatarh 1° andthe te side temperature 1s 75°F. the temperature difference is 65°F, What is the temperature difference in °C? Solution: “teense fea or —— Ta oune to ewhat When the outside temperature is 10°C and the in- side temperature is 26°C, the temperature difference ts 1G'C, What is the temperature diference in Fahrenheit? Solution:

temperature change in °C 187 19% 27-1) 187 19 x 26 ‘Another metric unit, the calorie, is the amount of heat required to reise the temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius. However, the calorie is such a small unit that it is no longor used in rofrig- eration work. Most calculations in engineering science are made using the kilocalorie which equals 100) ealo- ries, Example: Find the amount of heat required to raise the tom perature of 150 grams of water fram 10°C to SU°C. Solution: Calorie = mass'in grams * temperature change in°C Calorie = 150 grams x (90 ~ 10) Calorie = 130 * 60 Calorie ~ 12,000 celories ~ 12 ilocalories 0.008 Btu 1 Btu = 1.055 k) = 252 cal = 0.252 kilocalories 1.18.1 First Law of Thermodynamics “The First Law of Thermodynamics states that “heat and mechanical energy are mutually convertible.” US. Conventional Units In Section 1.4, the Btu is defined as the unit of heat Jn Section 1.15, the unit of work is defined as tne ft-lb. Since work is convertible to heat, the conversion factor from Btu to ft-lbs, is used: 1 Btu = 78 ftelbs. Example: Change 10 Btu to ft-tbs, Solution: 10 Beu = 10 % 778 = 7780 ft-lbs. SI Metric Units Similarly, in St units, heat and mechanical energy are mutually convertible, In Section 1.4, the joule is dle- fined as the unit of heat. In Section 115, the umit of work is ako the joule, or newton-meter For example, 10) joules of work equal 100 joules of heat, or 100 newton- meters, 1.18.2. Sensible Heat Heat which causes a change in temperature ina substance is called sensible teat. When a substance is hreaied! (heat added) and the temperature rises as the hheat is added, the increase in heat is called sensible heat. Likewise, heat may be removed from a substance (heat subiracted). If the temperature falls, the heat removed 4, again, sensible heat 1.18.3. Specific Heat Capacity The specific heat capacity of 9 substance is the amount of heat added or released tochange the tempera- ture of one pound of the substance 1* Fahrenheit. The sensible heat required to cause a temperature change in substances varies with the kind and amount of substance. Different substances require diferent amounts of heat per unit mass to cause changes of tern- perature, The specific heat capacity ef common sub- stances is shown in Figure 1-20. “The amount of heat necessary to cause 3 desired change of temperature is caleulated using the following ‘formula (provided there is no change of State ofthe sub stance Q= Mx sp.ht x AT Where: Q = Heat added oF removed (represents Blu) M = Mass pounds sp, ht. = Specifc heat measured in Btu/tb."F AT = Temperature in °F Example: ‘Determine the amount of Btu that must be removed to ool 40 Ib of 20% salt brine from 60°F to 20°F Figure 1-20. Table of specitic heat capacity values for ‘some substances.Q=Mxsp.bt.xAT (Q= 40 Bb C0185 gp. he x (60°F 20°F) Q=40x085 x40 SI Metric Units Tin SI metric units, the specific heat capacity of a substance isthe amount of heat that must be added or released fo change the temperature of one Kilogram of the substance one degree kelvin (K). The specific heat capacity unit is expressed as joules per kilogram eelvin Oks Ki Formula: — Hea adda or temoved = Masses» Spe ‘heat substance x Change in te cee © Q=Mxsp. ht xAT Where: Q-= Heat added or removed measured in Klajoules(k)) ‘M= Mass measured in kilograms (kg) sp.ht.= Specific heat measured in joules per kilogram kelvin 0/kg®) AT = Temperature, measued in kelvin (K) Example Find the amount of heat (in kJ) that must be removed to cool 15 ky of 20% sal: brine from 16°C to 7°C, Q=Mxsp.ht.xaT Jeg 3359 sp, ht capacity x (16°C -7°C) 133.589 %9 Q=4803 K) Specific Heat Capacity Equivalents Veal/g:°C=4.187}/g-K 1 Bea /ib. “*F = 1.187 kj /kg-K (kilojoule per Islogram kelvin) 1 K)/ege K= 0.2388 Bra Tb. ~ 212 Temperate boseteeze x a) > wo ex 800 au Yeo 7200 7400 Chapter |_ Fundamentals of Reiigeration 5 1.18.4 Latent Heat ‘Heat which brings about a change of state with no change in temperature is called latent (hidden) heat. All pure substances are able to change thelr state, Solids become liquids, liquids become gas. These changes of state occur at the same temperature and pres- suze combinations for any given substance. It takes the addition of heat or the removal of heat fo produce these changes. Tn Figure 1-21, note that considerable heat (144 Btu/ib., 335 kJ/kg) was added between points B and C. Even 0, the temperature did not change. This hheat was required to change the ice to water. This heat is called “latent heat of melting” or “latent heat of Fusion,” ‘which means the same thing, Likewise, between points D and E, 970 Btuy/Ib. (2257 kJ/kg) were ecided and the temperature did not change. This heat was required to change the water to steam. This heat is called “latent heat of vaporization.” When cooling the steam to water, the latent heat removed is called the “latent heat of condensation.” “There are two latent heets for each substance, solid to liquid (melting end freezing) and liquid to gaseous (vaporizing and condensing). Figure 122 shows the latent heat for water and several common refrigerants “The latent heat of fusion of ice is 144 Bru/Ib. (335 8) (cg). The latent heat of vaporization for water (at 212°F, 100°C) =970 Biu/Ib, (2257 kJ/kg), ‘The addition of heat to a solid increases the vibra~ tion of the molecules. This continues until they separate at the change-of-state point In the liquid form, the mole ‘eles are only weakly attracted to other molecules, Thus, they are free to move around. At the transition from a solid to aliquid, some molecules are attached in a sclid form, Others are weakly attracted in a liquid form. When all the solid attachments are broken, further =o e . i | uaraen I, Corr -E al AL. (Heat Content ig Figure 1-21, A—Temperature-heat diagram for 1 I. of water at atmospheric pressure, heated fiom ~40°F through complete vaporization. Fram A-B, 36.3 Btu were added to heat ice from ~40°F to 32°F (72° temperature change). (Btu = 1 Ib. 0.504% 72 = 36.288), From B-C. 144 Btu were added to melt the ice. The temperature cid not change fiom 8 to C. From C-0, 180 Btu were ackled to heat the water from 32°F to 212°F. from D-£, 970 Buu were added to vaporize water. Note that temperature did not change from Oto E. B8—Temperature-heet diagram for one kilogram of tater at atmospheric pressure (100 KPA) heated fram ~50°C. trough complete vaporization. From A to 8, 100 kj of Treat are added to increase ice temperature irom -50%C to OC. Ths is 2 ki/kg °C x SOC = 100 id/kg. From B-C. 335 hI fare added to melt the ice without changing its temperature. From C-D, 420 kj were added to heat the water to its boiling point (4.2 Kikg °C x 100% = 420 k). from D-E, 2260 k! were added to convert the water to steam without changing its temperature, More heat increases the temperature of steam as shown in doted line46 ‘Modern Refigeration and Air Cordtioning, Figure 1-22. Table of latent heat of vaporization of water and some commen refrigerants. Latent heat of fusion is only siven for water as refrigerants da mot ireeze at temperatures commonly handled by refrigeration service engineers. heating causes the molecules in liquid form to move cnr h chan t requires as much energy to the molecular siiscamett cfm lock of Sys dove tia the tee perature ofthe same amount of liquid from 32°F to 176°F. In SI metic, it requires as much heat to change 1 ky of ice to 1 kg of water as it does to raise the temperature of that same amount of water from 0°C to 80°C. All of the basic operations of the compression re- frigeration eycle are based upon these two heats— sensible and latent Equivalents: 1 Kj/kg = 04299 Bub, 1 Btu/ib. = 2326 KJ/kg 1K) /kg = 0.2388 keal/kg, 1 keal/kg = 4.187 j/k 1 M)/kg = 02388 cal/g Leal/g ~ 4.187 Ki/kg 1.18.5 Application of Latent Heat In refrigeration work, the physics of Intent heat is specially important. Applications of this principle the cold or freezing temperature died a As ice melts, its temperature remains constant. Nevertheless, it absorbs a considerable amount of heat in changing from ice to water. To melt 1 Ib. of ice, 144 Bau are required. (To melt 1 tom of ice, 288,000 Btu are required) To melt one kg of ice, 235 KJ of heat are required ‘When a substance passes from a liquid to a va- por, is ability to absorb heats very high, This prin Giple is useful inthe operation of the mechanical refrigerator. ture at which a substance changes its state depends on the pressure, The higher the pressure, the higher the temperature needed 10 bring about the change. The opposite is also true. Ifthe pressure is low- cred, the temperature at witich the change of state will take place is also lowered. This principle is shown in Figure 123, A liquid under low pressure will boil at a lower temperature. If the vapor resulting from this boiling, is then compressed, it will condense back inio @ liquid at a higher tempesature. Every substance has a different latent heat vale, ‘This is because each substance has a different molecular structure, Latent heat temperatures for water and the ‘moze common refrigerants are shown in Figure 1-22. See Chapter 9 for more information concerning refrigerants Ina modern refrigerator, freezar, or air conditioner, liquid refrigerant is piped under pressure to the evapo- racor. In the evaporator, the pressure is greatly reduced, The refrigerant boils (vaporizes), absorbing heat from the evaporator. This produces a low temperature and cools the evaporator. ‘The compressor pumps this vaporized refrigerant ‘out of the evaporator, It compresses (squeezes) the re- frigerant into the condenser, Here the heat that was ab- sorbed! in the evaporator is "squeezed out.” Itis released to the surrounding atmosphere. Having lost this heat of vaporization, the refrigerant becomes a liquid again. The ‘yee is then repeated. 1.19 Effect of Pressure on Evaporating Temperatures ‘The evaporating (boiling) temperature for any lige “uid is controlled by the pressure placed upon it, Water at atmospheric pressure (15 psia or 100 kPa) normally boils at 212°F (100°C), IF the pressure is increased to 45 pia (31! kPa), the boiling tomperature is raised to 271°F (133°C). Ifthe pressure is lowered to 3 psia (20 kPa), the boiling temperature will be lowered 10 142"F (62°C), as shown in Figure 1-23. Mechanical and absorption refrigerators tse the ef- fect of reduced pressure to lower the boiling tempera- ture. (See Chapter 3) Consider the refrigerant, R-12. It boils under atmospheric pressure (15 psia or 100 kPa) at 20°F (-29°), If the pressure is lowered to 9 psia (62 kPa), the boiling temperature is ~42°F (41°C). Arelrig- ‘erator ean then cool to ~42°F (—41°O), if the pressure on the evaporator is lowered to 9 psia (62 kPa). How- ever. if the evaporator were to operate at atmospheric pressure, the lowest temperature possible with R-12 would be ~20°F (25°C). Figure 1-24 shows the effect of pressure change on the boiling temperature of three substances used in refrigeration work.Chapter 1 Fundamentals of Refrigeration a7 TTT [ T] ee 5 | | | | te 4 CLL Fresing Font" 08h 2 1 pala aw ae 3 ‘acai a PS o = T Ss Bio Aboolte Proseare in Kilopascals Figure 1-23, Temperaturespressure curve for water. At atmospheric pressure, water boils at 12°F (100°C). At point A vwith vacuutn of 24° Hg (20 kPa), water boils at 142°F (62°C). Increasing pressure above almospheric raises boiling temperature. At B, which is at @ pressure of 45 psia (317 kPa), bolling temperature is 277°F (133°C). 1.20 Effect of Pressure on Freezing Temperature of Water “The temperature at which water freezes is affected by the pressure on the surface of the water, Increasing the pressure lowers the freezing temperature, Decreas- ing the pressive raises the freezing temperature. Figure Figure 1-24, Efiect of pressure is shown on evaporating 1.25 shows this relationship. temperatures of three substances, This relationship goes the opposite way from the general rule given in Section 1.184. This is because wa- Bitupande when it Reeres. Most substances expand The specifi eat of ce 0.40 Btu /0h) The latent eat of hen tiey melt and obey the rule in Section 1184. For —_MS0R of ice is 144 Btu/Ib. them, the higher the pressure, the higher the melting temperature. Latent heat 1.21. Refrigerating Effect of Ice Baaisales How many Btu will be absorbed in changing 25 Ib. Jee isstilimportant tothe seftgeration industry. As of je at SF 0 water al 40°F? sated befor, ice changes to woter at 32°F (O°) and Solution (in steps: atmospheric pressure. Heat absorption to produce this © Change is 144 Brin GBS ki /ig) 1, Raise the temperature of ice from 5°F to 32°F: ‘The specific heat equation for changing. ice to ku = we office sp. ht capacity of water is: Heat = wt of ice % sp. It capacity of ice x ice temperature change temperature change. Heat will be in Bta. The weight Btu = 25 0.50 x (32 —5) (Wt) will be in pounds, Specific heat (Gp. ht.) will be Btu = 25 «0.50 x 27 given in Bu/Ib. (The specific heat of water is 1 Bu/b. ‘Bru = 3375 Btu48 ‘Moslem Reftigeation and Air Conditioning Freosere kee Iblegin aime rae 20280 viet 7 zo co wise 1870 1D Bor 17% i g 8 ° 8 c= -08 0 07 ~08 -05 4 03 92 01 0 or 02 F 30.18 30.96 90.54 99.72 9090 3108 31.28 31.46 9151 S182 Go sete coMe TF ‘Temperate Figure 1-25. Char shows effect of pressure on freezing ternperature of water 2, To melt the ice at 32°: Beu = Wt. of ice X latent heat of fusion of ice Bru = 25 x 14g Beu = 3600 Btu 3, Te warm the water from 32°F to 40°F: ‘Buu = wt. of water X sp. ht. capacity of water x temperature change Beu = 25 1 x (40 ~ 22) Beu = 25x1x8 Bru = 200 Bru 4. Total heat required to change 25 Ib. of ice at 5°F to water at 40°F ‘Beu = 337:5 + 3600 + 200 = 41375 Bea SI Metric Units In ST metric, the specific heat capacity of ice = 2.11 KJ/kg-K. Its heat absorption ability, when chang- ing from @ temperature below OC. to O°C, is 2.11 kJ/kg per degree change. The latent heat of fasion (melting) of ke=335 Ki/kg, The specific heat of water= 4.19 KI/g -K. Example: Flow many KJ will be absorbed in changing 93 kg of ice at ~20°C to water at °C? Solution (in three steps): 1, Tofind beat needed to bring ice from ~20°C to OFC: kJ = mass of ice ¥ sp. he. capacity of temperature change 2. To find heat needed to melt ice at 0 kk] = mass of ice * latent heat of fusion of ice K] = 93 x 335 KJ = 31 155.0 KI 3, Tofind heat needed! to mise water temperature from OC to £C: 1) = mass of water sp. ht. capacity of water x ‘temperature change i] =93 x 419 x 40) KJ =93 419 4 = 15587 Wy 4. Total heat required to change 93 kg of ce at ~20'C to water at 4 i] = 39246 kj +31 1550K) +15 i) = 356383 H) Equivalents Tkj/kg-K = 0.259 Btu/tb-F 1 Beu/tbvF = 4.187 KJ/kgK 8.7 i 1.21.1 Ice and Salt Mixtures Refrigerating by ice alone will not provide tem- peratures below 22°F ((°C), Therefore, to get the lower temperatures required in some instances, ice and salt mixtures are used. These mixtures, ice and salt (s0- ium chloride or NaCD, and ice and calcium chloride (CaCl,), lower the melting temperature of ice. An ice and salt mixture may be made which will melt at OF C180), ‘Acsolution of water arid salt freezes ata lower tem. perature because more energy must be removed from the solution before ice will start to form. This phenom- enon is called “freezing point depression.”1.21.2 Tom of Refrigeration Effect The cooling capacity of older refrigeration units is often indicated in “tons of refrigeration.” A ton of refrig- tration represents the heat energy absorbed when a ton (2000 Ib.) af ice melts during one 24-hour day. The ice is assumed to be a solid at 32°F (0°C) inidally and becomes water at 32°F (0°C), The energy absorbed by the iceis the latent heat of ice times the total weight. “Today, reftigeration units ae offen rated in Bhu/hr. instead of tons. The Btu equivalent of one ton of retig- tration is easy to calculate. Multiply the weight of ane ton oF ice (2000 Ib) by the latent heat of fusion (melting) of ice (144 Blu/Ib.). Then, divide by 24 hours to cbiain Bru/br: (ne ton of refrigeration effect = 2000 144/24 ne ton of refrigeration effect = 288,000 Beu/24 hours (One ton of refrigeration effect = 12.000 Btu /hr. A 12,000 Bur, cooling capacity is equivalent to one ton of refrigeration. 'A reirigerating or air conditioning mechanism apd af eotite Want can be tel tne per 24 hours by its heatabsorbing ability (HA) in Btu ‘vided by 258,000. ‘T= tons of refrigeration effect HA = heat absorbing ability = HA, = tons of refriger: T= Eka = tons of refrigeration effect 1 ton of refrigeration = 12,000 ftu/hr. Example: “The heat-absorbing ability of 11440,000 Buu per 24 hours. What Solution: p=_i#iao00_ _ 1,830,000 24x 12,000 ~ 288,000 T= 5 tons of refrigeration effect Example: What will be the “ton” rating of a refrigerating mechanism capable of absorbing 1,728,000 Btu in 2 hours? Solution: = L728000 288,000 ‘T= 6 tons of refrigeration effect Example: ‘Whats the Btu heat absorbing capacity of a1/2-ton refrigerating system? Solution: 1/2 % 288.00 refrigerator unit is ston rating? 44,000 Btu per day, or 6000 Bru per hour ‘Most room ai conditioners are rated on their heat absorbing ability ia Blu per hour. A 1-ton machine is Chapser 1_ Fundamentals of Refrigeration 49 St Metric Units “The SI metric system has no unit which can be ‘compared with the “fon of refrigeration." 1 ton = approximately 907 kg latont heat = 335 kJ/kg energy absorbed = latent heat x weight ‘energy absorbed = 335 4) /kg «907 ky ‘energy absorbed = 303 845 K] ‘The melting of this ice in one day has a cooling or rergaratoncapacy of 8 845 fo convert the rating to kilowatts: kW = 1K1/sec. 4 ton refrigeration capacity = 303 845 /(24 x 3600 sec) 1 tam efrigecation capacity = 303 8415/86 400 sec. 1 ton refrigeration capacity = 352 kj /sec. 1 ton refrigeration capacity = 3.52 kW A refrigerator which produces an equivalent cool- ing rate of this ice melting will be rated as a I-ton unit. 1 Btu/hr = 0.20W 1 ton” = 12,009 Btu /he. 1.22 Ambient Temperature Ambient temperature is the temperature of the air surrounding a motor, a control mecharism, or any otber device. For example, a motor operated at full power may be guaranteed not to get hotter than 72°F (40°C) ebove the ambient temperature. Then, if the room temperature (ambient temperature) is 86°F (30°C), the temperature of the motor could get as high as 158°F (70°C) when work- ing at full power: ‘Ambient temperature {snot usually constant, Tt may change day by day and hour by hous, depending fon usage of the space, sunshine, and many other factors, 1.23. Heat of Compression ‘Asa gas is compressed, its temperature rises, See Figure 1-1. Thisis due to the work (energy) added to the gas by the compressor, The energy added is often termed “heat of compression.” “The temperature of the vaporized (gas) refrigerant returning to the compressor from the evaporator will probably be at, or slightly below, the room temperattze. ‘This same vapor, leaving the compressor and entering, the condenser, will be at a much higher temperature. ‘The compression of vaporized refrigerant in a refrigerator compressor is considered to be a nearly adi- abatic process. Adiabatic compression is process in ‘hich a gas is compressed without losing heat to the surroundings. The refrigerant passes through the50 Modern Relrigeration and Air Conditioning compressor very quickly. Therefore, it only loses a small amount of its heat of compression there, ‘The compressed vapor in the condenser is now much warmer than the temperature of the surrounding sic. Heat of compression will be rapidly transferred through the condenser walls to the surrounding air or condenser cooling water, Gee Second Law of Thermo- ‘dynamics, Chapter 31.) 1.24 Energy Units In reftigeration work, three common, related forms of energy must be considered: mechanical, electrical and heat energy: The study of refrigeration deals mainly with heat energy, However, «refrigerator must make use of lectricel and mechanical energy to move heat energy from one place to another. In a compression refrigerating unit, electrical en- ergy flows into an electric motor. There this electrical en- ergy is tured into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is used to {urn a compressor. The compressor, in tam, compresses the vapor to a high pressure and high temperature. This process transforms mechanical energy into heat energy. Various units are used for measuring mechanical, heat, and electrical energy, Energy conversion units are expressed as follows: Mechanical toheat 1 hp =2346 Bru/hr 778 ftrlb, = 1 Bu Mechanical to electrical 1 hp ~ 746 watts (W) Electrical to mechanical 746 waits = 1 hp Electrical to heat 1 watt (1 joale/sec.) = 3412 Bru/hr Thilowatt (kW) = 3412 Btu/hr Heat to mechanical 1 Btu/hr ~ 0.000393 hp Heat to electrical 1 Btu/hr = 0.283 watts ‘These conversion units are used in calculating loads and determining the capacity of equipment required for specific refrigeration applications, SI Metrie Units Jn SI meitic, the unit for measuring energy in all three of these forms is the joule. The kilowatt hour is widely used, howevor, as & measure of electric en- ena. Equivalents 1] = 0.7376 f-tb, 1 fttb, = 1.3558 J 1 W = 0.7376 fe-Ib,/see, 1 Rb. /sec. = 1.3558 W 1 KW = 1.34 hp = 3412 Bta/h I np = 0786 kW REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS AND TERMS MODULE 1.25. Refrigerant In refrigerating systems, flulds which absorb heat inside the cabinet and release it outside are called refrig- rants, In the evaporator, under a reduced pressure, the fuid changes from a liquid to a vapor, thus absorbing heat. In vapor form, the fiuid is taken into the compres- sor. There the temperature and pressure are increesed. ‘This allows the heat that was absorbed in the evapora tor to be released (squeezed out) in the condenser. The refrigerant is then returned to @ liquid form for another cycle. ‘The refrigerants most commonly used and their technical characteristics are explained in Chapter 9. 1.26 Heat Transfer Heat may be transferred or moved from one body to another by one of three methods: radiation, conduc: tion, or convection. Some systems of heat transfer use a ‘combination of these three methods. 1.26.1 Radiation Radiation is the transfer of heat by heat says. ‘The earth receives heat from the sun by radiation. Light rays from the sun turn into heat as they strike ‘opaque or transhucent materials. These materials. will absorb some or all of the rays. (Opaque means light ‘cannot shine through. Translucent means light can 20 Brough but one cannot see through. See Chapter 25) Air ig heated very little as light rays pass through it Likewise, a glass pane absorbs litle heat as rays pass through it Sunlight generates more heat when striking dark- ied ofan hen when striking light-colored or pol- ished surfaces, This is because light-colored and polished Objects reflect the rays, Retlected rays are not absorbed and changed into heat, Rough, dark-colored surfaces will get hotter than light-colored or polished surfaces, so they will radiate more heat. ‘Any heated surface loses heat to cooler surround- ing space or surfaces through radiation Likewise, ¢ cold surface will absorb radiated heat Some space heating systems use radiant heating sources located in the ceilings, walls, or loots 1.26.2 Conduction Conduction is the flow of heat betweon parts of a substance by molecular vibrations. The flow can also befrom one suipstance to another substance in direct con tact ‘A piece of iton with one end in a fire will soon become warm from end to end, This is an example of the transfer of heat by conduction, The heat travels through the iron, using the metal 2s the conducting medium. Substances differ in their ability to conduct heat. In general, substances which are good conductors of elec- Iricity are also good conductors of heat (Wiedmann- Frank Law), Substances which conduct hent poorly ane called in- sulators. Such substances are used to insulate refrigera- tors and homes. Any structure that is to be maintained at a temperature difference from its surroundings may use insulators. 1.26.3 Convection Convection isthe movement of heat from one place tw another by way of fluid or air. For example, heated air moves from a furnace into the rooms of a howse, It releases its heat to the rooms. Then cooled air returns through cold air ducts to receive another supply of heat. ‘The same mnethod may be used to cool a space. Un- wanted heat is collected and discharged outside the space. 1.26.4 Control of Heat Flow “The flow of heat by radiation, conduction, and con- vvection can be controlled. The transier of heat by each can be increased or cut back according to need, Use of materials that are good radiators of heat im- ove marfer of heat by rallaion col now to ‘a good radiator can also be used. Radiation may also ‘be improved by the type of receiving surfaces used. Ma- terials or colors that are good absorbers (poor reflectors) of radiated heat should be used. Radiation may be re- duced by reversing this application. ‘Dark materials or colors absorb and radiate readily Light-colored or shiny materials have the opposite prop- erties, ‘Conduction may be improved by providing large conducting surfaces. Good conducting materials, such as copper, aluminum, and iron also improve conduction. Cork, foam plastics, mineral wool, and many other simi- lar materials are poor conductors of heat. Poor conduic- tors of heat are commorly referred to as heat insulators (insulation). ‘Convection may be improved by increasing the flow of the conveying medium, Forced-air circulation heating systems are an example, A blower speeds up air ovr. Conversely, convection can be slowed by retarding, the circulation of air Heat transfer is also controlled (affected) by the temperature difference (T, D. ), The greater the tempera ture difference, the greater the heat flow. ‘chapter 1 Fundarnemals of Refilsesation 31 1.27. Brine and Sweet Water Some refrigeration and air conditioning appli- cations require that water be kept from freezing at temperatures considerably below the normal freez- ing temperature of 32°F (V°C). Other applications require that weter at atmospheric pressure be Kept from boiling at temperatures above 212'F (are). Salt, sodium chloride (NaC), or calcium chloride (CaCi,), added to water, raises the temperature at which the water will boil. It also lowers the temperature at ‘which it will freeze. Sec Chapier 31 for tables of brine solutions with @ feezing point and specific gravity for cach. ‘Some refrigerating and air conditioning, installa tions use tap water without adling any salt or other sub stance. This is referred to as “sweet water.” 1.28 Dry Ice Solid carbon dioxide (CO.) is sometimes used for refrigeration. Solid CO, is a white crystalline (ike cxys- tals) substance. It is formed when liquid carbon dioxide isallowad to escape into a snow chamber (heat-insulated box). ‘The heat for vaporizing the liquid is drawn from the interior of the chamber. A very low tempemiure (-108°F, -78°C) is formed. Ao a rosult, quantities of the carbon dioxide solidify, "This solid is pressed into various shapes and sizes and sold for refrigeration purposes. It i$ given such names as dry ice, zero ice, and 50 forth. It remains at ‘temperature of ~108°F (~78°C) while in a solid state at atmospheric pressure Dry ice does not melt into a liquid. It goes di- vectly from the solid to the vapor state. This is calied “sublimation.” Dry ice has some desirable char- acteristics. It does not wet the surfaces that it touches. The vapor given off is a preservative. The low erature maintained its handling fro2- en foods without using a heavily insulated con- finer “The latent heat of sublimation is 248 Btu/Ib. (57 ki/ikg). The heat absorbed by the vapor in passing from ~108F (~78°C) to 32°F (0°C) is approximately 27 Bru/Ib. (63 W)/kg). This, added to the latent heat of sublimation, makes a total heat-absorbing capacity of 275 Bru/lb. (640 KI) Dry ice has a greater heat-ebsorbing capability than does water ice. It is generally more expensive than water ice. Equivalents 1 kJ/kg = 0.4299 Bta/Ib. 1 Btu/b, = 2.326 kI/kg