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Chapter 4 Tissue - Summary of notes which follows the

course outline.
Human Anatomy and Physiology (Athabasca University)

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Chapter 4: The Tissue Level of Organization

Tissue

 Tissue is a group of cells that have a common origin in an embryo and function together to carry
out specialized activities.
 Histology is the study of tissues, and a pathologist is a physician who studies them.

4.1 Type of Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

 Covers the body surface and lines hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts; it also forms glands.
 Allows the body to interact with the internal and external environments.

2. Connective Tissue

 Protects and supports the body and its organs.

 Binds organs together, stores fat for energy, provides immunity to the body against disease-
causing organisms.

3. Muscular Tissue

 Composed of specialized cells for contraction, movement, and heat generation.

4. Nervous Tissue

 Detects internal and external changes, and responds by sending nerve action potentials (nerve
impulses) to activate muscle contraction and glandular secretions (hormones).

4.2 Cell Junctions

 Most epithelial cells, some muscle and nerve cells are joined together into units to form a tissue.

Cell Junctions

 Are contact points between the plasma membrane of tissue cells.

 Types of junctions are: tight, adherens, desmosomes, hemidesmosomes, and gap junctions.

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1. Tight Junctions

 Web-like strands of transmembrane proteins that fuse together the membranes of cells to seal
off passageways between cells.
 Stomach, urinary bladder, intestines have tight junctions which prevent contents from leaking
into the surrounding tissues.

2. Adherens Junctions

 Contains plaque (dense layer of proteins) that are attached to membrane proteins and
microfilaments of the cytoskeleton.
 Adherens resist separation of cells during contraction i.e. food moving through intestines.
 Cadherins are transmembrane glycoproteins that connects the cells together. Cadherins are
attached to the plaque and connects to adjacent cell cadherins.
 Adhesion belts is an area in which cadherins are present (looks like a belt).

3. Desmosomes

 Contains plaque and are joined together by cadherins.

 However, the plaque is attached to intermediate filaments (keratin) instead of microfilaments.
 The connection extends from the intermediate filaments to the cadherins and to the
intermediate filaments of the other cell.
 This results in a stability of cells and tissues, such as in epidermis cells and cardiac cells. This
prevents the cells from separating (skin) and pulling apart during hear contraction.

4. Hemidesmosomes

 “Half” of a desmosome.
 The transmembrane glycoproteins are integrins (rather than cadherins), which attach to laminin
which are present on the basement of membranes.

5. Gap Junctions

 Connexins are membrane proteins that form tunnels (connexons) which connect neighbouring
cells. However, they have a small intercellular space unlike in tight junctions (no gap).
 Ions and small molecules can diffuse from one cytosol to another. The gap is used for cell
communication.
 Developing embryos, some chemical and electrical signals travel through the gaps. It also allows
nerve and muscle impulses to spread among cells.

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4.4 Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial Tissue (Epithelium)

 Consist of cells arranged in continuous sheets in single or multiple layers.

 Tightly pack with many cell junctions, little intercellular space.
 Epithelial tissues are not covered by any other tissue (free space).
 Three main functions:
o Selective barrier that limits or aids movement of substances in and out of the body.
o Secretory surface that releases products produced by cells.
o Protective surface that resists abrasion from environment.
o Protection, filtration, secretion, absorption, and secretion
 Surfaces
i. Apical (free) surface
o Faces the body surface, a body cavity, the lumen (interior space) of an organ.
o May contain cilia or microvilli.
ii. Lateral surface
o Faces the adjacent cells on either side.

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o Contains: tight junctions, adherens junctions, desmosomes, and/or gap junctions.

iii. Basal surface
o Opposite to the apical surface, and is the very bottom. Hemidesmosomes is the basal
surface which adhere to extracellular material such as the basement membrane.

Basement Membrane

 Thin extracellular layer consisting of two layers: basal lamina and reticular lamina.
 Attaching and supporting the epithelial cells.
 Forms a surface allowing epithelial cells to migrate during growth or wound healing, restrict
passage of molecules between epithelium tissue and connective tissue, filtration of blood.
 Basal Lamina
o Closer and secreted by epithelial cells.
o Contains proteins laminin and collagen, as well as glycoproteins and proteoglycans.
o The laminin attaches to the integrins (instead of cadherins) in hemidesmosomes.
 Reticular Lamina
o Closer to the underlying connective tissue.
o Contains collagen produced by connective tissue cells (fibroblasts).

Two Types of Epithelial Tissue

1. Covering and Lining epithelium

o Outer covering of skin and some internal organs
o Inner lining of blood vessels, ducts, and cavities
o Interior of respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems (RDUR)
2. Glandular epithelium
o Secreting portions of glands
o Thyroid gland, adrenal glands, and sweat glands

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Classification of Epithelial Tissue

1. Arrangement of cells in layers

a. Simple epithelium
i. Single layer that functions in diffusion, osmosis, filtration, secretion, or absorp.
ii. Secretion is the production and release of substances such as enzymes, sweat.
iii. Absorption is the intake of fluid or substances such as digested food.
b. Pseudostratified epithelium
i. Appears to have multiple layers; not all cells reach the apical (top) surface.
ii. Simple epithelium because all are touching the basement membrane.
iii. Cells that do not reach apical have cilia.
c. Stratified epithelium
i. Consists of two or more layers for protection of underlying tissues in areas of
high wear and tear.
2. Cell Shapes
a. Squamous cells
i. Thin, flat for rapid passage of substances.
b. Cuboidal cells
i. Wide and cubed/hexagon shaped, with microvilli at apical (top) region.
ii. For secretion and absorption.
c. Columnar cells
i. Tall for protection of underlying tissues.
ii. Have microvilli or cilia, specialized for secretion and absorption.
d. Transitional cells
i. Changes from squamous to cuboidal for organs that stretch such as urinary
bladder.

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Covering and Lining Epithelium (page 112)

1. Simple Squamous Epithelium

Description:
 Single layer flat cells, centrally located nucleus that is flattened and circular or oval shaped.
Location:
 Lines the cardiovascular and lymphatic system (aka endothelium).
 Epithelial layer of serous membrane (aka mesothelium).
 Air sacs of lungs, Bowman’s capsule of kidneys, inner surface of ear drum.
Function:
 Present at sites of filtration, diffusion, and secretion in serous membrane.

2. Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

Description:
 Single layer of cubed-shaped cells, round centrally located nucleus.
Location:
 Surface of ovaries, anterior (front) of the lens of eyes, posterior surface of retina.
 Kidney tubules, small ducts of glands, secreting portions of thyroid gland, ducts of pancreas.
Function:
 Secretion and absorption.

3. Nonciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Description:
 Single layer of nonciliated column-like cells with oval nuclei near the base.
 Contains columnar epithelial cells with microvilli at apical (top) surface. Microvilli finger like
projections that increase surface area, thus increasing absorption rate.
 Contains Goblet cells. Goblet cells secrete mucus at the apical surface.
Location:
 Lines gastrointestinal tract, ducts of many glands, and gallbladder.
Function:
 Secretion and absorption.
 Secreted mucus for lubrication of linings of digestive, respiratory, reproductive, urinary.
 Prevents destruction of stomach due to stomach acid.

4. Ciliated Simple Columnar Epithelium

Description:
 Single layer ciliated column-like cells with oval nuclei at base. Goblet cells present.
Location:
 Lines bronchioles, fallopian tube, uterus, nasal sinuses, central canal of spinal cord and
ventricles of brain.
Function:
 Cilia helps move foreign particles to throat. Cilia moves oocytes from ovaries through fallopian
tube into uterus.

5. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium

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Description:
 Appears to have (false impression) multiple layers because nuclei are in various levels. All cells
are attached to the basement membrane, but some cells do not extend to apical surface.
Location:
 Ciliated lines airways; nonciliated lines large ducts, epididymis and male urethra.
Function:
 Ciliated secretes mucus to remove foreign particles; nonciliated for absorption and protection.

6. Stratified Squamous Epithelium

Description:
 Two or more layers; cells in apical to several layers are squamous (flat) and deeper are cuboidal
or columnar.
 Cells are squished and pushed to apical as bottom cells divide. Apical layer is tough. Keratin –
tough fibrous protein that helps for protection.
 Keratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium – apical to several layers are tough as the cells move
away from blood supply and organelles die.
 Nonkeratinized Stratified Squamous Epithelium – Not a lot of keratin, moistened by mucus,
organelles not replaced.
Location:
 Keratinized = top layer of skin. Nonkeratinized = wet surfaces (mouth, vagina, etc.) and tongue.
Function:
 Protection against microbes, abrasion, water loss, UV.

7. Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Description:
 Two or more layers of cubed-cells; rare.
Location:
 Ducts of sweat gland, esophageal glands, male urethra
Function:
 Protection; some secretion and absorption.

8. Stratified Columnar Epithelium

Description:
 Bottom layer are irregular shaped cells, apical layer is columnar.
Location:
 Lines urethra, excretory ducts of esophageal gland, areas of anal mucous membrane, in eye.
Function:
 Protection and Secretion.

9. Transitional Epithelium
Description:
 Variable appearance.
 Relaxed or unstretched, looks like stratified cuboidal with top layers being large.
 When stretched, cells flatten, looks like stratified squamous.

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 Elasticity makes it good for expanding organs.

Location:
 Urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra.
Function:
 Enables urinary organs to stretch, while maintaining lining and holding fluids.

Glandular Epithelium

 Secretion by glandular cells in covering and lining epithelium.

Gland

 Single or group of cells that secret substance into ducts, surface, or into the blood.
 Classified as either endocrine or exocrine.

i. Endocrine Glands
 Secretes hormones which diffuse directly into bloodstream.
ii. Exocrine Glands
 Secret products into ducts onto covering and lining epithelium such as skin.
 Products are sweat, wax, saliva, etc.
a. Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands
 Classified as unicellular or multicellular.
i. Unicellular Glands
o Goblet cells are important and secretes mucus onto the apical surface of
a lining epithelium.
ii. Multicellular Glands
o Composed of cells that form distinctive micro/macroscopic organs.
o i.e. sudoriferous (sweat), sebaceous (oil), and salivary glands.
o Organized into branched (1) or unbranched (2) ducts.
a. Simple Gland: duct that does not branch.
b. Compound Gland: branched duct.
c. Tubular Glands: contains tubular secretory parts.
d. Acinar Glands: rounded secretory parts.
e. Tubuloacinar Glands: both tubular and round.

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b. Functional Classification of Exocrine Glands

i. Merocrine Glands
o Synthesized on ribosomes on rough ER – Processed by Golgi complex – released
in secretory vesicles via exocytosis.
o i.e. salivary glands and pancreas.
ii. Apocrine Glands
o Accumulate secretory product on the apical surface – pinches off by exocytosis –
cell repairs itself.
o i.e. milk fats from mammary glands
iii. Holocrine Glands
o Accumulate secretory product in the cytosol – cell matures and ruptures
o i.e. sebaceous (oil) gland of the skin

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4.5 Connective Tissue

 Most abundant tissue in the body
 Support, protection and insulation, transportation, stores energy as fats, immune response

Connective Tissue

 Does not usually occur on body surfaces, and rich in blood supply.
 Two basic elements: extracellular matrix and cells.
 Extracellular matrix is the material located between the cells.
o Consists of protein fibers and ground substance.
o Secreted by connective tissue cells and controls watery environment.
o Structure determines the tissue’s qualities. i.e. extracellular matrix of cartilage is firm, in
bones they are hard.

Connective Tissue Cells

 -blast (“to bud or sprout”) are a type of immature cells that can undergo cell division and secrete
extracellular matrix.
 -cyte are mature cells that monitor and maintain extracellular matrix.
1. Fibroblasts
 Large, flat cells present in connective tissues.
 Migrates through the connective tissue secreting fibers and certain components of the ground
substance of the extracellular matrix.
2. Macrophages
 Develops from monocytes (white blood cell).
 Irregular shape with short projections that engulfs bacteria and cell debris (phagocytosis).
 Fixed macrophages reside in a particular tissue.
 Wandering macrophages moves throughout the tissue to sites of infection.
3. Plasma cells
 Develops from B lymphocyte (white blood cell).
 Secrete anti-bodies, proteins that attack or neutralize foreign substances.
 Abundant in gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts.
4. Mast cells
 Produce histamine to dilate small blood vessels for inflammatory response of the body.
5. Adipocytes
 Fat cells that stores triglycerides.
 Found deep in the skin and around heart and kidneys.
6. Leukocytes
 White blood cells, not usually found in connective tissues.
 Migrate from blood into connective tissues during an infection.
 Neutrophils – infection; eosinophils – parasitic invasion and allergic reactions.

Connective Tissue Extracellular Matrix

 Two major components: ground substance and fibers.

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Ground Substance

 It is the component of connective tissue between cells and fibers.

 Can be fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified.
 Supports cells, binds them together, stores water, medium for exchange between blood and
cells.
 Glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) combinations of polysaccharides and proteins.
 Proteoglycans are core proteins in which GAGs project out of.
 Hyaluronic acid is a viscous slippery substance that binds cells together, lubricates joints, and
maintain shape of eyeball.
 Chondroitin sulfate provides support and adhesiveness in cartilage, bones, skin, and blood
vessels.
o Dermatan sulfate: skin, tendons, blood vessels, heart valves
o Keratan sulfate: bone, cartilage, cornea of eye
 Adhesion proteins connects components of ground substances together and to surface of cells.
o Fibronectin: main adhesive protein of connective tissues.

Fibers

 Strengthen and support connective tissues

i. Collagen Fibers (glue)
o Very strong and resists tension, but are flexible.
o Found in bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
ii. Elastic Fibers
o Elastin bundle which are very stretchy (up to 150%).
o Plentiful in skin, blood vessels, and lung tissue.
iii. Reticular Fibers
o Provide support of the walls of blood vessels and form networks around cells of some
tissues.
o Helps form the basement membrane.
o Plentiful in reticular tissue which forms the stroma (supporting framework) of soft
organs.

Classification of Connective Tissue

1. Embryonic Connective Tissues

a. Mesenchyme
i. Description: irregular shaped mesenchymal cells in semifluid ground substance
with delicate reticular fibers.
ii. Location: Under skin and developing bones of embryo.
iii. Function: Forms all other types of connective tissues.
b. Mucous Connective Tissue
i. Description: scattered fibroblasts in jellylike ground substance with fine collagen
fibers.
ii. Location: Umbilical cord of fetus.
iii. Support.

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2. Mature Connective Tissue: Loose Connective Tissue

a. Areolar Connective Tissue
i. Description: most distributed connective tissue; consists of fibers and several
cells arranged randomly, in semifluid ground substance.
ii. Location: In and around nearly every body structure (packing material of body).
iii. Function: Strength, elasticity, support.
b. Adipose Tissue
i. Description: cells derived from fibroblasts that are specialized for storage of
triglycerides (fats). Cells fill up with fat and nucleus and cytoplasm pushed to
sides. White adipose tissue = adults, brown adipose tissue = infants/fetus.
ii. Location: Wherever areolar connective tissue is located.
iii. Function: Reduces heat loss, energy storage, supports and protects organs.
c. Reticular Connective Tissue
i. Description: fine interlacing network of reticular fibers (thin collagen fiber).
ii. Location: Stroma (framework) of liver, spleen, lymph nodes; red bone marrow;
around blood vessels and muscles.
iii. Function: Forms stroma of organs, binds smooth muscle tissue cells, filters and
removes worn-out blood, as well as microbes.
3. Mature Connective Tissue: Dense Connective Tissue
a. Dense Regular Connective Tissue
i. Description: Forms shiny white extracellular matrix; collagen fibers arranged
regularly with fibroblasts. Collagen fibers are not living.
ii. Location: Tendons, ligaments, aponeuroses (tendons that attach muscle to
muscles or bone).
iii. Function: Provides strong attachment, tissue can withstand tension along axis.
b. Dense Irregular Connective Tissue
i. Description: collagen fibers arranged irregularly with fibroblasts.
ii. Location: In sheets deep in the skin, bone, organs (kidneys, liver), and heart
valves.
iii. Function: Provides tensile strength in many directions.
c. Elastic Connective Tissue
i. Description: elastic fibers with fibroblasts.
ii. Location: Lung tissue, walls of elastic arteries, trachea, elastic tube organs.
iii. Function: Allows stretching of organs, can revert back to original shape.

Cartilage

 Dense network of collagen fibers (strength) in chondroitin sulfate (ability to go back to original
shape).
 Does not have blood supply due to antiangiogenesis factor.
 Chondrocytes are mature cartilage cells occurs in spaces called lacunae in the extracellular
matrix.
 Perichondrium a dense irregular tissue surrounds cartilages and contains blood vessels.

Repair and Growth of Cartilage

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 Due to lack of blood vessels, repairs very slowly.

 Interstitial Growth
o Growth from within the tissue.
o Rapid growth of cartilage due to chondrocytes deposition of new material.
o The growth occurs in cartilage that is young (childhood and adolescence).
 Appositional Growth
o Growth at the outer surface of the tissue.
o Matrix accumulates beneath the perichondrium, causing growth in width.
4. Mature Connective Tissue: Cartilage
a. Hyaline Cartilage
i. Description: contains resilient gel as ground substance. Contains chondrocytes
in lacunae surrounded by perichondrium.
ii. Location: Most abundant in body, at end of long bones, parts of larynx, trachea,
embryonic and fetal skeleton.
iii. Function: Smooth surface for joint movement, flexibility, and support.
b. Fibrocartilage
i. Description: Chondrocytes in thick collagen fibers; lacks perichondrium.
ii. Location: hip bones, intervertebral discs, cartilage pads of knees
iii. Function: Support and joining structures together. Strongest type
c. Elastic cartilage
i. Description: chondrocytes in elastic fibers; perichondrium present.
ii. Location: Epiglottis, external ear, auditory tubes.
iii. Function: Strength, elasticity, maintains shape of structures.

Bone Tissue

 Bones are composed of several different connective tissues

o Bone or osseous tissue, periosteum, red and yellow bone marrow, endosteum
 Classified as either compact or spongy.

Compact Bone (osteon)

 Osteon has four parts:

I. Lamellae
 Concentric rings of extracellular matrix made up of calcium and phosphates
(compressive strength) and collagen fibers (tensile strength).
 Responsible for compact nature.
II. Lacunae
 Small spaces between lamellae which contain mature bone cells osteocytes.
III. Canaliculi
 Provide routes for nutrients to reach osteocytes and waste to leave them.
IV. Central (Haversian) Canal
 Contains blood vessels or nerves.

Spongy Bone

 Lacks osteons.

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 Consists of columns called trabeculae which contains lamellae, osteocytes, lacunae, canaliculi
5. Mature Connective Tissue: Bone Tissue
a. Description:
i. Compact bone tissue consists of osteons which contain lamellae, lacunae,
osteocytes, canaliculi, and central (haversian) canals
ii. Spongy bone tissue consists of columns called trabeculae which are filled with
red bone marrow.
b. Location:
i. Compact and spongy bone tissue make up various parts of the bones.
c. Function:
i. Support, protection, storage, blood-forming tissues, levers that enable
movement.
6. Liquid Connective Tissue
 has liquids as its extracellular matrix.
 Blood, a liquid connective tissue, has an extracellular matrix called blood plasma.
 Blood plasma is a pale yellow fluid that consists of water (mostly), nutrients, wastes,
enzymes, proteins, hormones, etc.
 The blood plasma contains:
o Red blood cells (erythrocytes) – transport O2 and removes CO2
o White blood cells (leukocytes) – phagocytosis, immunity, allergic reactions
o Platelets (thrombocytes) – blood clotting
 Lymph extracellular fluid in lymphatic vessels. Similar to blood plasma but with less
proteins.
o Lymph contains lymphocytes, a type of white blood cell.

4.6 Membranes
Membranes

 Flat sheets of tissue that cover or line a part of the body.

 The majority consists of epithelial layer and a connective tissue called epithelial membrane.

Epithelial Membranes

a. Mucous Membranes (areolar connective tissue)

o Lines body cavity that opens to the exterior.
o Defense against microbes and other pathogens, secrete mucous for lubrication of food,
food and fluid absorption in gastrointestinal tract.
o Line the digestive, respiratory, reproductive tracts, and urinary tract.
o The connective tissue of the mucous membrane is called lamina propria, which supports
the epithelium, binds it to underlying structure, flexibility of membrane, protection for
underlying structure.
b. Serous Membranes (areolar connective tissue)
o Lines a body cavity that does not directly open to exterior.

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o Consists of areolar connective covered in mesothelium (simple squamous).

o Two layers:
 Parietal layer: layer attached to and lining the cavity wall.
 Visceral layer: layer that covers and adheres to organs within the cavity wall.
o The mesothelium secretes serous fluid, lubricant for organs.
o Pleura is the serous membrane lining the thoracic cavity and covering the lungs.
o Pericardium lines the heart and covers heart cavities.
o Peritoneum lines abdominal cavity and covers abdominal organs.
c. Cutaneous Membrane (skin)
o Covers the entire body and consists of the epidermis (superficial) and dermis (deeper).
o Epidermis consists of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium for protection.
d. Synovial Membrane
o Line the cavities of freely movable joints.
o Lack epithelium, thus not epithelial membranes.
o Synovial fluid lubricates and nourishes cartilage covering the bones at movable joints.
Contains macrophages to remove microbes.

4.7 Muscular Tissue

Muscular Tissue

 Consists of muscle fibers that use ATP to generate force.

 Produces movement, maintain posture, generate heat.
a. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
i. Description: long, cylindrical, striated fibers. Multinucleated with nuclei in the periphery.
Skeletal muscles are voluntary (conscious controller).
ii. Location: Attached to bones by tendons.
iii. Function: Motion, posture, heat production, protection.

b. Cardiac Muscle Tissue

i. Description: branched, striated fibers with usually one nucleus. Attached end to end by
intercalated discs. Desmosomes strengthen and hold fibers during contractions; gap
junctions provide route for electrical signals. Involuntary control.

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ii. Location: Heart wall

iii. Function: Pumps blood

c. Smooth Muscle Tissue

i. Description: nonstriated, involuntary fibers. Spindle-shaped, the middle being the
thickest part with a single nucleus. Can produce powerful contractions.
ii. Location: Iris; hollow internal structures such as blood vessels, airways, stomach,
intestines, gallbladder, urinary bladder, and uterus.
iii. Function: Motion (constriction of blood vessels, food movement, urinary and gallbladder
contraction)

4.8 Nervous Tissue

Nervous Tissue

 Description:
o Consists of neurons and neuroglia.
o Neurons are sensitive to stimuli. Convert stimuli to electrical signals called nerve action
potentials, and conduct action potentials to other neurons, muscle tissue, and glands.
 Cell body contains nucleus and organelles.
 Dendrites highly branched short cells, the receiving input portion of the neuron.

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 Axon single cylindrical portion, the output portion for nerve impulses.
o Neuroglia do not conduct impulses but have supporting functions.
 Location: Nervous system.
 Function: sensitivity to stimuli and converts to nerve impulses, conducts nerve impulses to other
neurons, muscle fibers, or glands.

Excitable Cells

 Neurons and muscle fibers are excitable cells as they exhibit electrical excitability which is the
ability to respond to stimuli by producing electrical signals such as action potentials.
 Neuron releases neurotransmitters which are chemicals that allow neurons to communicate
with each other.

Homeostatic imbalances in tissues

 Aging causes tissues to become more fragile due to:

o Loss of skeletal muscle mass and strength
o Decrease efficiency of heart pumping
o Decrease activity of smooth muscle organs
o Cross-links of molecules causes stiffening and loss of elasticity
o Loss of flexibility of arterial walls lead to atherosclerosis.
 Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE)
o Chronic inflammatory disease of connective tissue.
o Tissue damage in every body system.
o Genetic and environmental reasons; viruses, bacteria, chemicals, drugs, excessive
sunlight, and stress.
o Inflammation of kidneys, liver, spleen, lungs, heart, brain, and gastrointestinal tract.

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