+9I0 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88, NO.
6, JUNE 1969
for the same basic reasoni; rapid discharge of the local space charge.
The study reported in [15] covered 50 effectively shielded trans-
mission lines from 115 to 230 kV over a sample size of 52 000 mile-
years.
It would be of interest to know what fractioin, if any, of the
103 strokes recorded were of positive polarity.
The data presented by the authors constitute exceedinigly impor-
tant bench marks which should serve to give impetuis to the study of
voltages on transmission lines caused by electr ic and magnetic
indtuction.
REFERENCES
[15] E. R. Whitehead, "Lightning performance of EHYA. lines,"
CIGRE Lightning and Surges Committee, Auigtust 1968.
Edward Beck, Harold R. McNutt, Jr., Derrill F. Shankle, and
Charles J. Tirk: The authors wish to thank the discussers for their
comments on this paper.
Referring to Mr. Chowdhuri's disculssion, the authors are glad
to note that he agrees that the data in the paper present a strong
case for the Griscom prestrike theory.
With regard to the electromagnetic potential induiced in the KGR,
it is difficult to calculate with mathematical rigor because the light-
ning-stroke channel is variable in diameter and direction. Likewise,
the charge in the leader head is also diffictilt to calcutlate with
mathematical rigor. However, based on the electrostatic component
alone, the KGR records produced gradients reasonably close to those
caleulated. It is possible that the electromagnietic potential com-
ponents may be a factor, but their magnituides canniiot be deter-
mined since the stroke eurrent characteristics were niot available in
these field tests.
Manuscript received M/larch 21, 1969.
Zero-Sequence Current Distribution Along
Transmission
STEPHEN A. SEBO,
Abstract-The zero-sequence current distribution among ground
wires and the ground-return path of overhead transmission lines is
subject to change in the vicinity of a ground fault and the feeding
point. This paper introduces the concepts used in connection with
the end-effect phenomena of transmission lines and describes the
necessity for solving the end-effect current distribution. After
dealing with the influential factors and basic assumptions, it describes
a new calculation method which can be extended to develop general-
ized equations. The procedures to be followed in the case of ground
Paper 69 TP 61-PWR, recommended anid approved by the Trans-
mission and Distributioii Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meetinig, New York, N. Y.,
January 26-31, 1969. Manuscript submitted August 29, 1968;
made available for printing November 27, 1968.
The author was with the Department of Electrical Engineering,
Columbia University, New York, N. Y. He is now with the Depart-
ment of Electrical Engineering, Ohio State University, Columbus,
Ohio.
Mr. Chowdhuri's analysis of the reason for Dr. Berger's recordings
of initially coneave fronts is plausible. There are two possible ex-
planations why the Mount San Salvatore records do not show the
fast rising pip. One is the great height of the lightning target. The
other is that the inistrumentation may not record it. The a,uthors'
investigations on transmission-line towers with an instrument of
fast response, the kineklydonograph, definitely show t,he st,eep rate of
rise.
The strike distance h in Fig. 8 was chosen based on Schonland's
data of 20-70-m step length, with the larger values occurrinig niearest
the earth. We call attention to Fig. 8 in which are plotted the calcu-
lated potentials at the point p for heights h of 25 and 75 m in addition
to 50 m. In the regions of separations of 150-250 feet, the height of
the charge makes little difference in the poteiitials calculated.
Mr. Chowdhuri states that the calibrationi process used for the
KGR distorts the field somewhat and implies that this introduces
an error in the recordings. The authors wish to point, ouit that any
distortion of the field at the KGR is included in the calibration and
does not introduice an error.
We thank Mr. Griscom for the poinit brotught out ill his discussion
on the effect of charge distribuited along the leader relative to the
charge in the leader head.
Mr. Stoelting's discutssion is very pertinenit to the performance
of arresters on overhead distribution systems. It is quite likely that
arresters on meditum voltage tranismission systems also are operated
by potentials induced by nearby strokes.
Dr. Whitehead's discussion emphasizes the interestiig point that
the matter of potentials induced by nearby strokes has been much
neglected for about 40 years and needs attention. Regarding the
polarities of strokes mentioned in the paper, the authors estimate
from the records that less than 4 percent were positive.
Over the years many theoretical studies have been made concern-
ing lightning and its effects. Mlany of the conclusions drawn from
these studies are cointroversial. The authors feel that the best way to
resolve these controversies is to collect good field data t,o establish
facts. To this enid the authors are continuing their investigations and
will report the results to the industry.
Lines
MEMBER, IEEE
faults supplied from either one or both sides are detailed. A summary
of field tests is also included. The deviations between the measured
and the computed values are found to be less than 15 percent.
Several cases were studied to investigate the effect of factors,
such as ground-wire material, tower-footing resistance, soil re-
sistivity, and distance between feeding point and fault.
INTRODUCTION
W HEN a grounid fault occurs in a network with an ef-
fectively grounded neutral, a fault (or zero-sequence)
current flows through the fault, through the ground-return path
and, if they are present, through the ground wires (Fig. 1).
The distribution of this zero-sequence current among ground
wires and ground-return path cau be calculated easily in the
simplest case, n-amely, when the circuit consists of a phase
SEBO: ZERO-S
Ht)+.1FNC CURRENI' DISIURIUNUTION 9) I 1.

NECESSITY FOR SOLVING TH1J END-EFFECT

STATION, FAULTY
FEEDING POINT TOWER
(FP) (F)
Fig. 1. Ground fauilt of a transmission line with griotind wires.
Zom
PHASE CONDUCTOR
'(P)
z mutual impedances
Zoc
GROUND WIRE,
COMPENSATING
Vpt, CONDUCTOR
(C)
Fig. 2. Sche me foi the phase conductor and ground-wire system.
conductor and a parallel ground wire with grounid-return paths.
Using Fig. 2, the voltage equations are (see List of Symbols)
VP = 11,Zop -IcZom
0 = IpZom - IcZoc.
Solvinig 6'2) for l,:
IC= I4-
zoc
In termlls of the tower-footing resistances, the distribution of
the zero-sequence current shows a changing patterni along the
spans of the line sections in the vicinity of the fault and the
feeding point. These line sections are called end-effect sections.
The current distribution developing along these end-effect
sections is termed end-effect current distribution.
A ground fault may be fed either from one or both sides.
In any case, the fault current eniters the tower nearest the fault.
One part of this current flows into the ground through the
tower and tower-footing resistance; the other part flows into the
ground wires, but in both directions. In case of insulator-string
flashovers, but apart from the impedance of the arc, the imped-
ance between the faulty phase conductor and ground wires is
equal to the sum of the impedance of the upper section of the
tower, and the contact resistance between the tower and the
ground wires, a sum which is generally negligible. The iinpedance
betweeni the faulty phase conductor and the ground is approx-
imately equal to the tower-footing resistance Rt.
The currents carried by the ground wires of the first spans on
both sides of the faulty tower are considerably higher than those
flowing in the spans further away from the fault. Here the value
of current ceases to change from span to span. The final, un-
changing, or constant value of the current is expressed by (3).
The constant value of the current of an open-ended line section-
namely, when the fault is fed only from one side-is zero. Reced-
ing froiim the fault, and flowing in the ground wires, the current is
gradually reduced to the constant value.
CURRENT DISTRIBUTION
The knowledge of the end-effect currenit distribution-
ground wire and tower currents-is necessary for calculating
1) the electromagnetic interference between power and tele-
communication lines
2) the potential rise of station and tower grounds
3) the thermal stresses imposed on ground wires.
Based on the rather extensive related literature (e.g., see the
references of Klewe [21), the main task to be solved is to develop
a calculation method suitable for generalization. The method
must take into consideration
1) the resistive and inductive components of the self- and
2) the resistive values of the feeding-point grounds and of the
individual tower footings
3) the variation of distance between the feeding point and the
fault
4) the factors characterizing the fault and the feeding condi-
tions.
In this paper two approaches of a new calculation method are
described. The method fully satisfies the outlinied requirements.
In addition, it lends itself to digital computer processing.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The factors influencing the end-effect current distribution are
(1)
1) number, material, size, and arrangement of grouniid wir-es
(2) 2) saturation in the case of steel ground wires
3) soil resistivity
4) tower-footing resistances
5) resistance of the station ground
(3) 6) distance between feeding point and ground fault
7) circuit arranigement of the zero-sequence network and con-
ditions of supply (feeding from one or both sides).
The calculations are based on the following assumptions:
1) the calculation method is applied to a single-circuit three-
phase overhead transmission line
2) a symmetrically transposed line is assumed
3) line capacitances are neglected; series impedances are con-
sidered as lumped elements
4) zero-sequence self- and mutual impedances are computed
by means of the Carson-Clem formulas [1 ]
5) the network is assumed to be linear and in the sinusoidal
steady state, only the fundamental frequency is considered
6) the impedance of the arc is brought about by a flashover;
the impedanices of the towers and the contact resistances
between the towers and the ground wires are neglected
7) values for the conductor impedance, the soil resistivity,
and the tower-footing resistances can be either homoge-
neous or inhomogeneous along the line.
BASIC EQUIVALENT ZERO-SEQUENCE CIRCUIT
The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 3 represents one span of a
line where the impedance ZOg of the ground-returni path is taken
into account as an auxiliary quantity. A similar arrangement is
given by Clarke [3].
The tower-footing resistance Rt also appears in the equiv-
alent network. The impedances given in the circuit represenit
912 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JUNE 1969

Zop Zog _-- I P

Op AA -o pp
PHASE CONDUCTOR
zom-zog =z
Oc Aqc Zog J IC
° PC
GROUND WIRE
Rt (COMP. CONDUCTOR)

Izog 4- Ip- IC
Pg
12
GROUND RETURN
Fig. 5. Graph of the basic equivalent circuit.
Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit otn onte span of a line.

FIRST PROPOSED SOLUTION WITH

GRAPHS AND MATRICES
The basic equivalent circuit is a six-terminal network with
terminals O,, Oc, 0,, and PP, PC, PD. Fig. 4 shows the impedances,
currents, and voltages of the basic equivalent circuit of the kth
span. This network is built up of 12 branches and 8 nodes,
shown by the linear graph in Fig. 5. To solve for the unknown
voltages and currents of the network, loop and node equations
can be used together with the assumed reference

Ip = 1.0 + jO.O. (8)

Zog,k
All currents can be obtained as per-unit complex values of the
Fig. 4. Basic ground-returni (zero-sequence) equivalent circuit chosen reference quantity Ip.
of one span. In solving the equations a stage is arrived at in which the
equations contain only Vp,k+l, Vp,k, VC,k+in Vck, Ip, c,k+1 'cC,k,
and the impedances:
the single-phase ground-returin quatntities of one span. In the
case of zero-sequence quantities, the value 3Mt appears in the Vp,k+l - IpZop,k + Ic,kcZom,k -
Vp,k = 0 (9)
circuit diagram instead of Rt. One can interpret the "compensat- Vc,k +1 -
IpZom,k + Ic,kZoc,k -
Vc,k = 0 (10)
ing conductor" (Figs. 2 and 3) as either an overhead ground wire
or a cable sheath. ~~Zoc,k Vc,k
Applying a short circuit across terminals Pp, P6, Pg, then -ic,k+l - IPR tI,k + C,k (1 + Zowk
R t ,k R t,k
=
O. (1 1)
separately across terminals O0, 0O, and inserting voltage Vp
across Op, O., the following voltage equations can be written:
Relations (9)-(11) of the six-terminal network can be re-
written into a form which permits the left-hand side quantities
phase conductor to ground: Vp,k+l, VC,+1, Ipy, Ic,k+ to be expressed by the right-hand side
Vp = Ip(Zp - Z0g) -I(ZO ZO) + (IP Ic)Zog (4)
- -
quantitiesVp,k, Vc,k, Ip, I,k and by the impedances of the net-
work:
ground wire to ground: [V p,k+1 1 0 Zop,k -Zom,k FP,k
0 =Ip(Zom- Zo) Ic(Zoc Zog) + (Ip -IC)ZO0.
- - (5) V c,k +1 0 1 Zom,k -Zoc,k Vc,k
0
Equations (4) and (5) can be reduced to 0 1 0 jjIp (12)

VP = IpZop - IcZom (6) I

c,k+l
Rto
0Rt,l1 o,k ZoM,kc (l
Zo+Rc,)
0 = IpZom -IcZOc. (7) Denoting the column vector of the left-hand side quantities by
These relations are identical to those given by (1) and (2). [L], that of the right-hand side quantities by [Rd], and the
As a last step, the OpOcPpPC four-terminal subnetwork of matrix of the constants of the six-terminal network represeniting
Fig. 3 can be transformed. The resulting six-terminal network is the kth span by [Sk], we have two matrix equations:
shown in Fig. 4, in which the simplified notation Z = Zom-Zov (13)
[Lk] = [Sk ][Rk]
is used. The network consists exclusively of self-impedances.
It may be used to advantage with network analyzers. If the [Rk] =
[Sk ]-[Lk]. (14)
network is short-circuited as detailed above, voltage equations
analogous to those obtained above can be written, and from APPLICATION OF THE FIRST SOLUTION TO
these relations (1) and (2) can again be obtained. FAULTS SUPPLIED FROM ONE SIDE
It can be stated that the networks of Figs. 2-4 are equivalent By means of the matrices [Lk], [Rk], and [Sk], the voltage and
because (6) is equivalent to (1) and (7) is equivalent to (2), and current values of the terminals and of the connection points can
the driving point and transfer impedances of the respective net- be calculated for n six-terminal networks in cascade. On the basis
works are identical. The circuit diagram shown in Fig. 4 could of Fig. 6 this method, applied to the case of a ground fault
be called the basic ground-return (zero-sequence) equivalent supplied only from one side, can be described as in the next few
circuit of one span. paragraphs.
SEBO: ZERO-SEQUENCE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION 913

FEEDING ZkZom,kZog,k FAULTY

Zop,7zog n v Zop,n-rZog,n., i TOWE
0O-----A' n-
P opr-Z og
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~I
-_
Ip 'P

f 1 1~~i 4'^s 1
I

c,nal
=t a tZop,nzog,'n Zoc,n rZog,n-i ZocirZog,
cIc,n Vc,n -1c,n-i lC2 'CI
I t,n (IPIC,n)4 RFP t,n-i4 Rt,n.l It,'n-24 Rt,n_2lIt,4 Rt, Ip-pc,4 4
I > < z 5'~~~ZFL '- F
g,n 0~°
l n _d Aog,n 7iII
Zog,n-.i .oI
41.-

gq,n-i

_(n-t)TH 1.LI st SPAN

n-TH SPAN SPAN LADDER NETWORK

Fig. 6. Equtivalent circuit of a faulty line section supplied from one side, consisting of n spans
between the feeding point and the fault.

Fig. 6 is the equivalenit circuit of a line section consisting of n -Ip(Zom,n - Zog,n) + Ic,n(Zocn- Zog,n)
spans between the feeding point and the fault. The phase con-
ductor, ground wire, and ground-return path impedances, the - (IC n-l-IC n) R t,n - (I IPc,n)(Zog,n
- + RFP) = 0
tower-footing and station-grouiid resistances, as well as the or
mutual impedance between the phase conductor and the ground
wires are shown. The values can deviate from span to span. The Ip(Zom,n + RFP) -c,n(Zoc,n + Rt,n-l + RFp)
nth span contains the resistance RFP of the station (feeding-
point) ground. The resultant of the impedance of the ladder net- 0. (19) + IC,n_lRt,n-I =
work extending beyond the fault and of the resistance of the Thus, the calculation is simplified in such a way that matrix
faulty tower footing R'fl is ZFL. The impedance of the ladder equation (18) has to be written only for n - 1 spans. The nth
network can be calculated according to the most recent study span is to be considered by loop equation (19).
of Endrenyi [4]. This ladder network consists of ground-wire The five unknown quantities can be computed with the aid of
sections with ground-return paths and of tower-footing resis-
tances. (8), (18), and (19). This means that, in the knowledge of [La-,]
The boundary conditions at the fault are and using (14), the value of all ground-wire currents is readily
obtainable. The currents that flow in the ground-return path
Vp, ZFL(Ip - Idi) and towers can be calculated by means of Kirchhoff's current
law:
vcl ZFL(Ip -Icl)
(15) IV - Ic,k -Ig,k = 0 (20)
[Ri] = I = IP
L- C, _- IC, _i
ic,k 'c/C-I + It,k-l = 0. - (21)
If the values for conductor impedances, soil resistivity, and
The bounidary conditions before the nth span are tower-footing resistances are homogeneous along the line, then
Vp, n the Zop, Zoe) Zomy Zogy Z, and Rt values are uniform and
Vp,n
[S1] = [S2] = ** = [Sn-1] = [S]. (22)
_Rt,n_1(Ic,n-1- Ic,n)2
-

[Ln_1
[Ln-1] = [R]
[Rn] = Vc, n (16) Thus, instead of (18),
= =

TIchln _o i_ Ictn [Ln-1] = [S](n--) [Ri]

(23)
The calculation itself is can be used. ([Sn] is not identical to [S], since Rt is replaced by
RFP-)
[Li] = [R2] = [Sl] [Rl] (17)
SECOND PROPOSED SOLUTION WITH
EQUIVALENT IMPEDANCE STARS
Every span can be represented by a six-terminal network.
[Ln_l] [Rn] = [Sn-][Sn-21. [S2][Si][R1].
= (18) We can close the right-hand side terminals of the kth span with
an impedance star that replaces the previous k - 1 spans (Fig.
The five unknown quantities are Vp,n ITl i, Tcn Icn -. Matrix ,, 7(a)). An equivalent network can be also set up from the left-
equation (18) gives three equations; the fourth one is (8). The hand side terminals of the kth span. In this case we again obtain
fifth equation still required is represented by relation (19), which an impedance star that is equivalent to k spans. This star can be
is a loop (a-b--c-d) equation for the nth span containing RFP of used to close the right-hand side terminals of the next (k + I)th
the feeding point (Fig. 6): span (Fig. 7(b)).
9'14 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JUNE 1969

(k+i)-TH SPAN k-TH SPAN _k-I SPANS

IZk-Z k
ic,k+il Zoc,KZog,k Zk k F
c,kk
I

t,k
ig.kx 1 Zog,kI
09
t,k g,kt a)

Z A,k
7

I4k+l
oc ~-'Iv
Zs,k
b)
7ZZ,k
c k SPANS
0l9 P g,k4l (RESULTANT)

Fig. d. Six-ter^minal network which represents the kth span. Fig. 8. The btuilding up of the equivalent circuit of a faulty line
(a) Closed with an impedance star. (b) Resultant. section supplied from both sides. (a) Line sections at the fault.
(b) Resultant (last step).
If the process beginS at the fault, then
(24) Ipi
ZA,O = 0 ZB,O O0 ZZC,0 = ZFL. 0.6
- CALCULATED VALUES
If the process begins at the feeding point, then - MEASURED VALUES

ZA,O = ZN ZB,O = 0 ZC,O = RFP. (25) .4

The method can be checked by means of the voltage equations LINE SECTION
TOWARDS
LINE SECTION
BEYOND
from which relations (1) and (2) can again be obtained. It can FEEDING
POINTI
FAULT

also be checked by considering the identity of the driving point

and transfer impedances.
Taking into consideration the case where the formation of the
equivalent impedance stars begins at the feeding point, then
proceeding towards the fault, span by span, all resultant imped- FAULT 0 ___

ances are obtainable. Proceeding back from the fault toward the 10 5 0
SPANS
5 Io
feeding point with the knowledge of the resultant impedances,
all currents are readily obtainable. Fig. 9. Deviations between measured and computed values.

APPLICATION OF THE SECOND SOLUTION TO

FAULTS SUPPLIED FROM BOTH SIDES
The line sections between the feeding points and the fault can
be represented as six-terminal networks in cascade. The line
sections at the fault are shown in Fig. 8(a). Because of the
parallel connection, 2R'ta appears in the basic equivalent circuits
of the first spans on each side of the faulty tower. Fig. 8(b)
shows the last step in the formation of equivalent impedance
stars described above. After computing the driving point imped-
ance as seen from the fault location OP, OC, and assuming I, =
IPA + IPB = 1.0 + jO.0, all ground wire, ground-return path,
and tower currents can be calculated.
FIELD TESTS
The objectives of the measurements may be summarized as
follows:
1) to measure the extension of the end-effect section at the
fault
2) to measure and determine the relative values of ground
wire and tower currents to the total zero-sequence current
3) to obtain a qualitative picture of the effect of various
factors, such as tower-footing resistances
4) to check the accuracy of the calculations.
A detailed description of the field tests is given in a previous
paper [5]. The tests were carried out on a 120-kV single-circuit
three-phase transmission line with two steel ground wires.
An artificial fault was arranged. The fault was supplied from one
side. The distance between the feeding point and the fault was
approximately 20 miles (30.7 km or 132 spans). Measurements
were performed over a length of 3 miles (5 km or 20 spans) at
the fault. All along the section under consideration the ground
wires were released and isolated from the clamp fittings, and
special tie conductors were set up between each ground wire
and the tower in order to facilitate the measurement of the
tower and ground-wire currents.
EVALUATION OF THE CALCULATION METHOD
The results of the two approaches of the new calculation
method, from equations based on these two different solutions,
show complete identity.
Further checking has been provided by programming the
individual data of the field tests and then computing the current
distribution. The deviations between the measured and com-
puted values can be seen in Fig. 9.
Comparing the results of the field tests with the computed
values, the deviations are found to be less than 15 percent.
SEBO: ZERO-SEQUENCE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION 915

TABLE I
DATA FOR EXAMINED TRANSMISSION LINES AND THEIR GROUND WIRES

Transmission Line
Number of
Voltage Circuits Number of Ground Wires
Class and Towers
Case (kV) Arrangement per Mile Number Material Size
one, 3/8 in
I 120 horizontal 6.5 2 steel (50 mm1)
one, 475 kemil
II 220 wishbone 4.5 1 ACSR (250/40 mm2)

I'ci
Ip
10.6
P = 100 OHM METERS I7I A
I U

RFP= O.1 OHM 475 MCM, ACSR GROUND WIRE

b: Rt = 5 OHMSa A
/ab c C: Rt = 2 OHMS/R/ .

d e f 2-3/8 IN, STEEL GROUND WIRES

e. Rt =,5 OHMS d .
f _
R=2 OHMS f

FEEDING
IPOINT IFAULT O
0 -
2 4 3 2 0 - b
DISTANCE IN MILES SPANS

Fig. 10. Ground-wire currents, effects of the ground-wire materials Fig. 11. Ground-wir e ctilrrents, effect of soil resistivity.
and of the tower-footing resistances.

j'IC
-0.8
lIcl P = IOO OHM METERS e 0
|iIp Rt = 5 OHMS DISTANCES BETWEEN FEEDING
v.v RFPA = 0.1 OHM d / 0.6 POINTS (FPA,FPB) AND FAULT (F)
P =100 OHM METERS 2-3/81N, STEEL GROUND WIRES RFPS = 0.1 OHM a FPA - F 25 SPANS,
Rt = 5 OHMS DISTANCE BETWEEN FEEDING b: FPA - F 10 SPANS,
RFP= 0.1 OHM POINT AND FAULT: C FPA - F 5 SPANS,
a 50 SPANS 475 MCM, ACSR GROUND WIRE c d: FPA - F 3 SPANS,
b 20 SPANS e: FPA - F SPAN,
c 10 SPANS
d 6 SPANS 0.4
e; 3 SPANSe

d 0.2
a ~~~~~~~~~~~~b

FEEDING FEEDING FEEDING

POINT C FAULT 0 POINT-A FFAULT POINT-B
50 40 20 0 8 25 20 10 0 10 20 25
SPANS SPANS

Fig. 12. Ground-wire currents, effect of the location of the fault Fig. 13. Ground-wire currents, effect of the location of the fault
and the distance between the feeding point and the fault, in the and the distance between the feeding point and the faullt, in the
case of a fault fed only from one side. case of a fault fed from both sides.

The deviations may be accounted for by: RESULTS OF COMPUTATIONS

1) inaccuracies in the measurement of the tower-footing resis- The curves of Figs. 10-13 show some representative current
tances profiles selected from about 200 cases. Instead of step functions
2) inaccuracies in the measurement of the soil resistivity corresponding to the ground-wire currents flowing in the dif-
3) saturation of the steel ground wire ferent spans, envelope curves are given according to Fig. 10,
4) use of the Carson-Clem formulas case c. All the conductor impedances, the soil resistivity, and
5) local inhomogeneities tower-footing resistance values are homogeneous along the line.
6) inaccuracies in the measurement of the currenlts. The ground-wire currents are per-unit absolute values. In the
case of ground faults fed only from one side (Figs. 10-12), the
Considering all these factors, the accuracy of the calculations is line sections beyond the fault are shown with the current values
satisfactory both from theoretical and practical viewpoints. of the first eight spans.
916 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JUNE 1969

For the cases shown in Figs. 10-13, the data for the two ex- TABLE II
amined transmission lines and their ground wires are compared LENGTH OF END-EFFECT SECTIONS AND SELECTED FACTORS
in Table I. WIIICH INFLUENCE IT

Effect of Material of Ground Wire Length of

Number End-Effect
Fig. 10 shows that there is a significant difference in magnitude Ground of Towers Rt Section
of the constant value of the currents (represented by the flat Wire per Mile (ohms) (miles)
portion of the curves) between the two different materials. 2 0.8-1.2
A similar observation can be made for the end-effect currents. Steel 6.5 5 1.5-2.0
20 2.5-3.0
More detailed data on the constant current values are given in a 2 2.0-2.5
previous paper [6]. ACSR 4.5 5 3.0-3.5
The length of the end-effect section is shorter if steel ground 20 5.0-5.5
wires are used because of the larger impedance.
All six cases were computed using a distance of 50 spans be-
tween the feeding point and the fault, but the curves were
plotted for distance in miles, measured from the feeding point PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
and from the fault. Potential Rise of Tower Footings
Knowing on the one hand the spreading resistance values of the
Effect of Tower-Footing Resistances tower footings and station grounds, and on the other hand the
Fig. 10 shows that the constant ground-wire current values are tower currents (the difference between the adjoining ground-wire
independent of the R t values. currents) and the ground current at the station, the potential
The length of the end-effect section is longer if the Rt re- rise of the footings can be computed.
sistances are larger.
Table II shows the combined effect of the ground-wire ma- Thermal Stresses of Ground Wires
terial and the tower-footing resistance.
Knowing the duration of the short circuit (i.e., the clearing
Effect of Soil Resistivity time of the fault) and the ground-wire current values, especially
in the first span at each side of the faulty tower, the nominal
Fig. 11 shows that if the soil resistivity is larger, the constant thermal stresses of the ground wires can be computed. The
ground-wire current values are larger. The length of the end- actual thermal stresses can be considerably larger because of the
effect section is practically independent of the soil-resistivity uncertain contact resistances between the tower clamps and
values. ground wires or due to casual fatigue breaks caused by aeolian
vibrations.
Effect of Location of Fault and Distance between Feeding Point
and Fault Screening Factor Values Which Take the End Effect into Account
Fig. 12 shows the ground-wire current profiles in the case of a The screening factor, as defined by the CCITT directives
fault fed only from one side; when the distance becomes larger [7], can be determined by the ratio of the difference between the
than 10 spans, the end-effect current distribution beyond the total fault current and the current flowing in the compensating
fault remains practically unaltered. If the distance is at least conductors to the total fault current. i.e.,
20-25 spans, the constant value of the ground-wire current can
develop. Ip - IC
(26)
Fig. 13 shows the ground-wire current profiles in the case of a lp
fault fed from both sides, changing the distance on one side Using this definition, a modified km screening factor accounts
and keeping it as a constant value on the other. The current for the changing pattern of I,. This modified formula was first
values are per-unit values with reference to the total fault introduced in a former study [5]:
current.
Ip - Ic,mod
End Effect at Feeding Point (27)
km= Iv
The length and extent of the end effect at the station grounds where
are considerably smaller than those at the fault. The reason is
n
that there is a large difference in the orders of the resistance
of station grounds (usually about 0.1 ohm) and of tower footings E Ic,kLk (28)
(usually about 5 ohms). Ic mod = I=1
If the length of the faulty section exceeds the length of 20-25 ELk
k= I
spans, the ground-wire current values are only 1.1-1.4 times
larger than the constant current values (Figs. 10 and 11). But if The modified screening factor curves, computed for the line
the length of the faulty section is shorter, the ground-wire current sections between the feeding point and the fault, are plotted in
distribution is composed of the two end-effect distributions, Fig. 14 against the distance from the fault. The screening factor
and the ground-wire currents at the feeding point are con- values calculated with the constant values of the ground-wire
siderably larger than in the previous case (Figs. 12 and 13). currents are also indicated as straight lines.
SEBO: ZERO-SEQUENCE CURRENT DISTRIBUTION9 917

P =100 OHM METERS

Rt= 5 OHMS
Further theoretical studies can be generated with the use of
RFP= O.I OHM these principles and procedures. These studies could examine the
km arrangement of conductors on the towers, and the saturation of
I .0I [gttiiC I=. - steel ground wires. Furthermore, the studies could also investigate
the development of more exact equations for both very short
0.8
lines and for underground cable sheaths.
0.6
LIST OF SYMBOLS
0.4
475 MCM, ACSR GROUND WIRE
voltage ac voltage rise (volts rms); considered as a
0.2
complex quantity
current ae component of the short-circuit currents
0 I | ~~~MILES (amperes rms); considered as a complex
0 2 3 quantity
DISTANCE FROM THE FAULT impedance zero-sequence (or ground-return) impedance
Fig. 14. Modified screening factors. (ohms), computed by means of the Carson-
Clem formulas [1 ] and reduced to one spani;
P = 15 OHM METERS
considered as a complex quantity
LENGTH OF A SECTION =40 METERS
licl 1191 VpI (Vp ,k) voltage between phase conductor and
RFP- 0.07 OHMS I Id 1.0 ground (at the beginning of kth span)
Vc, (Vc,k) voltage between ground wires and ground
1, ~~~~~~~0.75 (at the beginning of kth span)
IP zero-sequence current flowing in phase
I8 conductor
0.50
IpA, IPB zero-sequence currents in phase conductor,
flowing from stations A and B, respectively
ICy (Ic,k) ground-wire current (in kth span)
FEEDING I9, (1,v,k) current flowing through ground-return
IPOINT FAULT path (in kth span)
1.0 0.75 0.50 0.25 0. .2 It, (It,k) tower current (in kth span)
DISTANCE IN MILES
I'C,mod modified ground-wire current
Fig. 15. Sheath I, and ground I, currents of a faulty cable sectiion Z0p, (Zop,k) zero-sequence self-impedance of phase
supplied from one side [8]. conductors (in kth span)
Zom, (Zom,k) zero-sequence mutual impedance between
It is important to note that in the case of a ground fault phase conductor and ground wires (in kth
supplied from one side, there will be interference beyond the span)
fault caused by the ground-wire currents flowing in the ladder zoc, (Zoc ,) zero-sequence self-impedance of ground
network of this section. wires (in kth span)
Z0og (Zog,k) fraction of zero-sequence impedance repre-
Additional Cases That Can Be Solved senting ground-return path (in kth span)
ZFL resultant impedance at faulty tower, taking
The method described in the previous sections is applicable into account the driving-point impedance of
not only in the case of single-circuit three-phase overhead trans- the line section beyond the fault and resis-
mission lines with one or two ground wires, and a fault supplied tance of the faulty tower ground
from one or both sides, but also, with some modifications, it is ZN zero-sequence system impedance in front
applicable in the case of: of bus at a given station
1) double-circuit transmission lines ZA,k, ZB,k, ZC,k equivalent impedances which represent the
2) underground cables, with some approximations (Fig. 15). basic equivalent circuits of k spans
Rt, (Rt,k) tower-footing resistance (of kth tower)
CONCLUSIONS R)t, resistance of faulty tower footing
In this study, a new calculation method with two approaches RFP, (RFPA, RFPB) resistances of feeding-point (station) grounds
is presented. This method helps to determine the zero-sequence (stations A and B, respectively)
current distribution along transmission lines. The method may [SI matrix of constants of six-terminal network
be extended because it takes into account all the self- and [L] column vector of left-hand side boundarv
mutual impedances, the characteristics of the line, the fault, conditions
and the feeding points, the inhomogeneous parameters, and the [RI column vector of right-hand side boundary
distance between the feeding point and the fault. conditions,
An extended field test was carried out on a transmission line; ks screening factor
the agreement between the measured and computed values was km modified screening factor
found satisfactory. Lk length of span
Several phenomena and the effect of numerous factors were p specific ground resistivity (ohm-meters)
examinied, some of them for the first time. k index of spans, counted from fault.
918
REFERENCES
[1] Electrical Transmission and Distribution Reference Book.
Pittsburgh, Pa.: Westinghouse Electric Corp., 1950.
[2] H. R. J. Klewe, Interference between Power Systems and Tele-
communication Lines. London: E. Arnold, 1958.
[3] E. Clarke, Circuit Analysis of A.-C. Power Systems I-II. New
York: Wiley, 1956.
[4] J. Endrenyi, "Analysis of transmission tower potentials
during ground faults," IEEE Trans. Power Apparatus and
Systems, vol. PAS-86, pp. 1274-1283, October 1967.
[5] I. Sebo and L. Regeni, "Measurement of the zero sequence
current distribution on a transmission line," Periodica Poly-
tech., vol. 7, pp. 295-317, 1963.
[6] I. Sebo, "Screening factor values of overhead line ground
wires and counterpoises," Periodica Polytech., vol. 9, pp.
269-300, 1965.
[7] CCITT, "Directives concerning the protection of telecom-
munication lines against harmful effects from electricity lines,"
Internatl. Telecommunication Union, 1963.
[8] "Interferelnce caused by 120 kV cables," Dept. of Elec. Power
Stations, Budapest Polytechnical University, Hungary, Tech.
Rept., 1967.
Discussion
Ahmed H. El-Abiad (Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind. 47907):
Prof. Sebo is to be highlv congratuilated for an excellent paper on
a subject that deserves more attention, particularly because of the
accelerating expansion of EHV systems. Evaluation of ground wire
and tower currents is needed not only under fault conditions, but
also due to normal operation as a result of not transposing EHV lines
and unbalanced operating conditions, such as during single-pole
switching.
The assumptions made by the author in developing his methods
are reasonable, and there should be no objection to their practical
application except in the case of the first two. These objections are
1) neglecting mutual coupling between circuits on the same right-of-
way and 2) assuming that all circuits are symmetrically transposed.
To overcome these difficulties in problems involving the analysis
of network of multiconductor elements, Purdue University re-
searchers have developed several programs [9], [10] based on the
methods in [11, chs. 5 and 6]. In these applications, the charac-
teristics of multiconductor lines are computed according to the
method published by Coleman et al. [12] and later by Hesse [ 13].
REFERENCES
[9] A. H. El-Abiad, M. K. Cheney, Jr., W. N. Keene, and D. C.
Tarsi, "Three-phase analysis of unbalanced distribution
circuits," 1967 PICA Conf. Rec., pp. 411-419.
[10] A. H. El-Abiad and D. C. Tarsi, "Load flow solution of un-
transposed EHV networks," 1967 PICA Conf. Rec., pp. 377-
384.
[111 G. W. Stagg and A. H. El-Abiad, Computer Methods in Power
System Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.
[12] D. Coleman, F. Watts, and R. B. Shipley, "Digital calculation
of overhead-transmission-line constants," AIEE Trans.
(Power Apparatus and Systems), vol. 77, pp. 1266-1270, 1958
(February 1959 see.).
[13] NI. H. Hesse, "Electromagnetic and electrostatic transmission-
line parameters by digital computer," IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus and Systems, vol. 82, pp. 282-291, June 1963.
Manuscript received February 24, 1969.
A. Clerici (CESI, Milan, Italy): This paper gives a very clear picture
of the influence of different factors on the zero-sequence current
distribution along transmission lines and on the possible calculation
Manuscript received March 31, 1969.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, JUNE 1969
Ip P1 Zop- Zom P2
Ic C4
G-
Zoc - Zom
.....
C2
@
Ip+ Ic G I Zom G2
....
Fig. 16.
methods. If line capacitance is neglected, I would like to point out
that in the case of a phase conduictor and a parallel ground wire with
ground-return path,' an equivalent circuit simpler than those of
Figs. 3 and 4 could be adopted.
This possible six-terminal equlivalent circuit is reported in Fig. 16.
If Z,p and Zo,c are the self-impedance of one span of the phase con-
ductor and ground wire, respectivelv, and if Zom is the mutual imped-
ance between the phase conductor anid the ground wire with common
earth return, it is very easy to verify that the general equations
AUp = Z1pip + Zomlc
NlVrc = Zoamlp + ZocIc
are satisfied, and therefore the circuit is correct.
I have used in CESI the equivalent circuit of Fig. 16 for the same
problem as the author's and also, with the addition of capacitances,
for the study of transients in cables [14].
With respect to the equivalent circuits of Figs. 7 and 8, 1 think
that my equivalent circuit allows a faster computation of the for-
mation of the equivalent impedance stars and of the proceeding
back from the fault to obtain all the currents.
REFERENCES
[14] A. Clerici and R. -_Manara, ''Transient network analyser study
of overvoltages in cross-bonded ac cables," presented at the
IEE Conf. on Progress in Overhead Lines and Cables for 220 kV
and Above, Lonidon, England, September 1968.
1 And in general in the case of two parallel wires with ground-return
path.
K. H. Feist (Siemelns AG, Erlanigen, Germany): As a conitribu-
tion to the interesting paper of Prof. Sebo, I should like to submit a
short discussion about studies and tests that I have made myself.
Earth electrode potentials of towers, ground-wire currents, and
current flowing through ground-return paths can easily be estimated
by the solution of an equiation of differences. A mean value of
the length of the spans and a mean value of tower-footing resistance
must be used. I have explained this in a theoretical study completed
in 1958 [15, pp. 56, 60 - 64]. In this connection tests were made
oIn several transmission lines [16, Fig. 10], [15, Figs. 36, 37, Appen-
dix, Fig. 25, pp. 94-95].
The symbol ks denotes the screenin-g factor [18] in the middle of a
longer line section betweeni the substation with neutral grounded
at the one line end and the fault location. If IF is the ground-fault
current, an upper limit of the earth electrode potential at the fault
tower is given by
VS = IF AS . W.
dManuscript received February 4, 1969.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS, VOL. PAS-88,
where the factor c represents the influence of the other tower-footing
resistances. c varies between 1.05 and 1.20 and is dependent on the
material, number, and size of the grotunid wires and the length of the
spans.
The above formula could easily be applied because lists of the
spans and the tower-footing resistances were available.
From the theory of zero-sequence current distribution along trans-
mission lines it is possible to develop measuring circuits, which
simulate in the earth an electromagnetic field proportional to that
under the faulty line [16, Figs. 6, 9, and 12].
Such a simulation is also possible for lines with varying soil
resistivity or a varying number of ground wires along the line [18].
Tests made with the measuring circutits mentioned also show the
influence of other compensating conductors. For instance, it is often
possible in this manner to determine that certain grounding measures
or installation of gas discharge tubes at the end of telecommunication
lines can be dispensed.
REFERENCES
[15] K. H. Feist, "Die Erderspannung geerderter stromdurch-
flossener Leiter bei Wechselstrom niedriger Frequenz und ihr
elektrisches Str6mungsfeld im Erdreich," dissertation, Tech-
nische Hochschule, Hanover, Germany, 1958.
[16] ,"Der Einfluss der Sternpunktbehandlung auf die Be-
messung der Erdungsanlageni in Hochspannungsnetzen,"
Elektrizitatswirtschaft, pp. 105-112, 1958.
[17] "Bestimmungen fuir Massnahmeni bei Beeinflussung von Fern-
meldeanlagendurch Drehstromanlageni," VDE Publ. 0228/4.65,
paragraph 23e, 4, 1965.
[18] K. H. Feist, "Einflussgr6ssen der Drehstromhochspannungs-
netze fuir die Induzierung unid ohmsche Einkopplung von
Spannungen in Fernmeldekreisen,' ETZ-A, vol. 85, pp. 641-
646, 1964.
Switching Surges on Northern States
Company's 345-ky
G. W. ALEXANDER, SENIOR MEMBER, IEEE,
HENRY T. TROJAN,
Abstract-This paper reports the results of field tests conducted
on the Northern States Power Company's 345-kV transmission
system which investigated the effects of various system switching
operations on transient overvoltages. Following the field tests a
transient network analyzer was used to duplicate the field tests and
then explore the maximum switching transients which system pa-
rameters could produce.
Paper 69 TP 62-PWR, recommended and approved by the Trans-
mission and Distribution Committee of the IEEE Power Group for
presentation at the IEEE Winter Power Meeting, New York, N. Y.,
January 26-31, 1969. Manuscript submitted October 31, 1966; made
available for printing November 25, 1968.
G. W. Alexander is with the General Electric Company, Pittsfield,
Mass. 01201.
J. E. Mielke is with Northern States Power Company, Minne-
apolis, Minn.
H. T. Trojan is with the General Electric Company, Schenectady,
N. Y. 12305.
NO. 6, JUNE 1969 919
Stephen A. Sebo: I wish to thank the discussers for their efforts and
for their valuable contributions to this study. I am most grateful for
the kind remarks made by the distinguiished discussers.
With regard to Dr. El-Abiad's discussion, I certainly agree that it
is necessary to develop programs that do the more sophisticated
types of calculations. The programs presented here are valid only for
single-circuit three-phase overhead transmission lines. With mod-
ifications the same principle is also applicable for multiconductor
lines and cables. This additional research is only too welcome by me.
I thank Dr. Clerici for presenting a view on how to form another
equivalent circuit. I agree with him on the possibility of different
equivalent scheme arrangements. Nevertheless, the advantage of the
equivalent scheme shown by Figs. 3 and 4 is that the identity of each
circuit (each conductor, ground-return path, and tower-footing
resistance) was retained. Concerning his second suggestion, I would
like to remark that rather simple equations can be derived in the
course of the use of my second proposed solution with equivalent
impedance stars. That means that there should not be too much
difference between the computational speeds using the different
equivalent schemes.
It is very valuable to have Dr. Feist's discussion. His method
represents another approach to the problem, and his results are well
known internationally. I think one of the differences between our
approaches is that his method uses the mean value of the length of
the spans and the mean value of the tower-footing resistances. The
programs presented here are based on the assumption that values
for the conductor impedance (or length of the span), the soil re-
sistivity, and the tower-footing resistances can be either homo-
geneous or inhomogeneous along the line.
MIanuscript received April 2, 1969.
Power
Circuits
JAi\IES E. MIELKE, MEMBER, IEEE, AND
MEMBER, IEEE
This paper documents the effectiveness of the resistor preinsertion
breaker in reducing switching-surge transients and compares this
breaker with one having direct closing contacts (on a single-phase
basis). Phase-to-phase transient overvoltages are discussed, and
voltage distribution curves are presented.
INTRODUCTION
ALMIOST ALL EHV transmission systems are thoroughly
analyzed in the design stages, but the urgent need to place
them in service upon completion often precludes field testing.
While field testing is concerned with electrical characteristics,
such as switching-surge overvoltages, there are additional
benefits in obtaining operating confidence in the system addition.
In view of this, the Northern States Power Company scheduled
field testing prior to placing their initial 345-kV system in
operation.