VOLTAGE SURGES CAUSED BY CONTACTOR COILS*

By J. R. TAYLOR, B.Sc.(Eng.), Associate Member,f and C. E. RANDALL.f

{The paper was first received \5th April, and in revised form 20th June, 1942; and it was read before the INSTALLATIONS SECTION
\2th November, 1942.)

SUMMARY were performed with makeshift equipment, most of which

This paper discusses the phenomena associated with the
switching of contactor coils and the like, particularly with refer-
ence to the effects of "switching peak" voltages on insulation
and switch contacts.
The effect of circuit layout on the switching peaks and the
arcing of contacts is described, together with methods of re-
ducing the severity of these effects.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(1) Introduction.
(2) Apparatus.
(2.1) Peak voltmeter.
(2.2) Oscilloscope.
(2.3) Timing equipment.
(3) Investigation of D.C. Coil Circuits.
(3.1) Methods of reducing the peak voltage.
(3.2) Tests on 1200-ampere contactor.
(4) Tests on Alternating-Current Coils.
(4.1) Reducing the peak voltage.
(5) Comparison of the Various Types of Peak.
(5.1) Direct current.
(5.2) Alternating current.
(6) Tests of Alternating-Current Solenoids installed on a
Machine.
(7) Conclusion.
(8) Acknowledgments.
(1) INTRODUCTION
Owing to a series of breakdowns of insulation it was
decided to make an investigation of the voltages to be
expected due to switching-off a direct-current contactor
coil. Early experiments were merely qualitative, butas the
investigation went on it was realized that quantitative
values were necessary, so equipment was built from odd
material available in the laboratory and was added to from
time to time as found necessary. Finally, photographic
records of the various phenomena were made in order to
give a clear picture of the different conditions which are
met. Peak voltages up to 10-50 times the supply voltage
occurred.
After much work had been done with d.c. contactor coils
it was decided to extend the research to a.c. contactor coils.
Peak voltages up to 5-6 times the mains-voltage peak
occurred under favourable conditions.
(2) APPARATUS
As this research was commenced during the war, it was satisfactory and a 50-c/s. voltage is applied to the plates
not possible for the authors to buy apparatus specially during the time the contactor remains closed, being inter-
designed for the purpose, consequently the experiments rupted just before the test. This enables the speed of
* Installations Section paper. t Igranic Electric Co., Ltd.
90]
was made in the laboratory.
The special apparatus consisted of a peak voltmeter, an
oscilloscope with attached camera, and timing equipment.
As this special apparatus may be of interest to others, a
short description is given.
(2.1) Peak Voltmeter
As a very high resistance is necessary in order to prevent
degradation of the peaks, the meter whose connections are
shown in Fig. 1 was made. This consists of a number of
-AV&nder lead from coil on test
f 1000 750 500 250 volts
T....T -T Y .?. 1 I
3 megohms between taps
3 megohms total
NormalV Half scale
Earth
screen
Spy-hole
Neon
lamp
Fig. 1
3-megohm grid-leaks eyeleted to a thin bakelite panel,
together with a composite resistance totalling 3 megohms
at one end. The indicator is a neon lamp, which was found
to flash at between 74 • 5 and 75 volts with great regularity.
To use the instrument, one side of the coil under test is
earthed and a wander lead from the other side of the coil
is tapped into an eyelet well above the expected peak
voltage. If there is no flash the wander lead is moved
down until flashing occurs in four out of six "shots." If
the neon lamp is allowed to flash too powerfully or too
frequently the meter reads high, but normal results are
obtained after a rest.
As the figure of merit is 12 000 ohms per volt, the
degradation is very little more than that due to the normal
wiring of contactor gear in damp weather. The accuracy
appeals to be to well within 10 %.
(2.2) Oscilloscope and Camera
The tube used is a Mullard "blue screen" tube having
electrostatic control.
For most tests a sweep time of 20 millisec. was found
sweep to be checked.
 TAYLOR AND RANDALL: VOLTAGE SURGES CAUSED BY CONTACTOR COILS 91

For photographic records a Leica camera is mounted in consistent results, owing to the time required for the coil
front of the end of the tube. The Elmar 5 cm. / 3 • 5 lens to become fully excited.
is fitted with a No. 2 front lens and is worked at full
aperture. The film found most satisfactory is the new (3) INVESTIGATION OF D.C. COIL CIRCUITS
Kodak "Fiurodak." The insulation which was breaking down was designed
The shutter is set for 1/20 sec. or £ sec, depending on to withstand a test voltage of 3 000 volts (r.m.s.), 50 c./s.,
the size of contactor. The shutter is tripped just before and was reputed to be perfectly safe up to 5 000 volts (d.c).
the opening of the coil circuit by means of the timing Rough tests from time to time on the coils of the contactors
equipment described below. concerned led the authors to expect that the peak voltages
likely to be encountered were of the order of 3 000, but
(2.3) Timing Equipment this figure was only an estimate.
This consists of a series of relays connected as shown in In order to check this the peak voltmeter was made and
Fig. 2. On pressing the "start" button, relay R^ picks up a very large number of tests were performed on a 220-volt
d.c. coil consisting of 17500 turns, No. 34 S.W.G. enamel-
covered wire having a resistance of 1730 ohms, mounted
Contact opens after on a 150-amp. mill-duty contactor; and tests were also
I time-lag
made on larger contactors. Typical results are given in
r^_. Releases
camera Table 1.
o—l shutter From this series of tests it is evident that the voltage
peaks are not unduly higher than might be expected.
Visual tests with the oscilloscope gave very similar re-
sults, although generally the peak voltmeter gave rather
higher values than the oscilloscope. A large number of
photographic records gave very similar results, and the
voltage wave, as shown by " a " in Fig. 4, is typical except
that the voltage and time scales vary with the size of the
contactor.
From these experiments it did not seem possible that
the peaks encountered could damage the insulation, but
Low-voltage &.c. To coil some rough oscilloscopic tests of an installation appeared
calibration supply on test to show that the peaks were much higher than those ob-
Fig. 2 tained in the laboratory. This led the authors to consider
the effect of speed of contact opening. A long series of
and is maintained through its interlock contacts and its tests was made with various master drums and limit
time-lag contacts until the time-lag contacts open. On switches, using both single- and double-break contacts and
releasing the'' start'' button, relay R 2 picks up. Relay R 2 operated at various speeds.
Table 1
SWITCHING PEAKS ON D.C. CONTACTOR-COIL CIRCUITS; COILS SWITCHED BY RELAY HAVING TWO
BREAKS IN SERIES (ALL TESTS MADE ON 220 VOLTS D.C.)

Size Type Core diam. Outside diam. Length No. of turns S.W.G. Resistance Peak voltage

amp. in. in. in. ohms volts

150 Open 1 2-875 2-125 17 500 36 1730 1750
150 Spring-closed 1125 3-25 3-125 20000 34 1320 1750
300 Open 1-125 3-25 3-125 20000 34 1320 1750
300 Spring-closed 1-5 40 3-25 15 200 30 740 1750
600 Open 1-25 40 30 19 500 32 1 180 2000
600 Spring-closed 20 5-375 4-5 14 600 26 446 1750
1200 Open 1-75 5-25 4-625 23 000 27 • 785 4000

energizes relay R3, which picks up. R 3 energizes the coil
on test. During the time period, contacts on Rj apply the
calibration supply to the oscilloscope plates.
At the end of the timed period Ri drops out, and its
"down" contacts close to energize the shutter-release
solenoid momentarily. R 2 and then R 3 drop out, and the
coil on test is de-energized. By suitable adjustment of the
pull-off springs on relays R 2 and R 3 the shutter is opened
a few milliseconds before the opening of the test circuit.
A delay of about 10 sec. was found necessary to ensure
As was to be expected, the double-contact switch
generally gave greater peaks than the single-contact switch,
and high speeds gave high peaks. It is not possible to give
figures for these tests, as at this stage of the investigation
the authors were endeavouring to arrive at the cause of
the trouble and, if possible, effect a cure, so that qualitative
results were sufficient for the purpose. It was ascertained,
however, that the peaks were not considered excessive
As consistently higher peaks were being reported from
site at this stage, it was considered that the method of
92 TAYLOR AND RANDALL: VOLTAGE SURGES CAUSED BY CONTACTOR COILS

installation must have something to do with the phenomena cables about 6 in. apart, running direct from the power
and that the capacitance of the cables was the most likely house, a distance of 200 ft., the only load on the feeder
cause. at the time being the contactor under test and the laboratory
As a rough test, the 150-amp. contactor coil was lighting.
connected to the switch through 10 yards of twin tough-
rubber-covered workshop flexible cable having a capa- (3.1) Methods of Reducing the Peak Voltage
citance of 0 001 fxF between wires. Tests with the The obvious method of reducing the peak is to connect
peak voltmeter immediately showed that the peak was a resistance across the coil terminals. This is based on the
practically doubled, and oscilloscope tests gave a voltage well-known law
wave-form generally as " b " in Fig. 4. A large number of Vx = V(r + R)/r
tests were made on the various sizes of contactor, and here
again the form remained, although the scales altered. where V = applied voltage, V{ = peak voltage, r = circuit
Tests were made feeding the circuit from both the switch resistance, and R = added resistance.
and the coil ends of the cable, with practically identical A resistance equal to the coil resistance will therefore pre-
results, so it appeared that the phenomenon was due to vent the peak from exceeding twice normal voltage, and a
capacitance. All subsequent tests were therefore made resistance in shunt of twice the coil resistance keeps the
with a bank of glass-plate condensers, of which one was peak below 3 times line volts, and so on.
infinitely variable. Unfortunately this method of reducing the peak retards
It was found that there was an optimum capacitance for the opening of the contactor. For many duties this does
each size of coil and that at smaller values the peak not matter, but if the contacts of the usual steel-mill type
diminished rapidly, but that with larger capacitance the are allowed to wear right down, the spring push-off may
peak fell off gradually. become so weak that the interval between switching off
The optimum capacitances for the range of coils tested and the opening of the contactor becomes a nuisance. For
are given in Table 2, from which it is evident that the worst certain duties a delay is advantageous, and on this type of
condition may occur in almost any installation having equipment a "slug" resistance is frequently fitted.
wiring external to the control panel, and on large panels A similar reduction of peak occurs if the contactor is
it may occur on the panet itself. fitted with an additional short-circuited winding. This
may be a normal coil short-circuited externally, but more
Table 2 frequently it consists of a copper tube slipped over the
SWITCHING PEAKS WHEN LINE CAPACITANCE IS PRESENT. magnetic core of the contactor, or a ring or rings at one
RECORD OF TESTS AT 220 VOLTS D.C. ON COILS AS end or both ends of the coil. Here again the delay in
IN TABLE 1, BUT WITH OPTIMUM LINE CAPACITANCE opening the contactor is in inverse ratio to the peak
voltage.
Optimum Peak Peak voltage As the contactors under test and the coils fitted to them
Size Type when core
capacitance voltage sleeve fitted were of standard manufacture, it was essential that whatever
was done should not interfere with the stock articles.
amp. volts volts There was room on the core ends to fit "slug" rings up to
150 Open 00015 5 750 •J in. thick, but copper sleeves could not be fitted between
150 Spring-closed 0 003 6 000 4 500 the coil and core except on the spring-closed contactors,
300 Open 0003 6000 which are designed to be slow releasing.
300 Spring-closed 0 0035 5 500 4 500 Tests with the slug rings £ in. thick showed a reduction
600 Open 0 003 6 250 of the peak to the extent of 10 to 15 %. Tests were made
600 Spring-closed 0011 3 000 with special cores and more slugging, which showed that,
1 200 Open 0012 8 250 with the type of contactor used by the authors' firm,
objectionable time-lags crept in.
It was suggested to the authors that a bank of selenium-
Experiments were made to find what effect the speed of thallium rectifier units with the elements mounted in
opening had on the peaks, and it was soon evident that opposition in pairs [see Fig. 3(b)] would act as an efficient
low speeds might be even more dangerous than- high safety valve. Tests were made with such a bank and no
speeds. Certain experiments led the authors to believe appreciable peak occurred, but the slugging was most
that as the speed of break is increased from a low value, the effective. Such an arrangement appears to be most suit-
peak passes through a series of minima and maxima; here able for industrial use with magnetic chucks, separator
. again, owing to lack of time, only qualitative results were pulleys and the like apparatus, where time of flux decay
obtained. does not matter, also for deliberately slugging relays. The
It was definitely proved that with very slow breaks very advantage over a copper sleeve is that the whole of the
large high-frequency oscillations could be set up, and on a core may be used to accommodate the exciting winding.
number of occasions the effect was so great that gas-filled This means either fewer watts in the coil or a shorter iron
lamps in the laboratory flashed across inside the envelope, circuit. There is also a very decided advantage over a
and in a couple of instances they were "blown." This resistance shunt, as practically no loss occurs in the rectifier
occurred when experimenting with the 600-amp. and discharge-path. Rectifier discharge-paths of the copper-
1 200-amp. contactors. It is thought that the blowing of oxide type have been much used, but as far as the authors
the lamps occurred owing to the inductance of the mains are aware they must be connected with the correct polarity
feeding the laboratory. These consist of two separate [see Fig. 3(o)]. With industrial control gear, which is
 TAYLOR AND RANDALL: VOLTAGE SURGES CAUSED BY CONTACTOR COILS
usually merely connected to the two supply leads, it is a
great advantage if polarity does not matter. Further, if
the control gear is to be connected between the line and
neutral of a 3-wire supply, and one lead must be connected
to neutral, it is essential that polarity should not matter.
The authors were aware of the silicon-carbide materials
on the market under the trade names of "Thyrite,"
"Metrosil," etc., having the property of a reduction in re-
sistance with increase of voltage. Blocks of these materials
are available having a characteristic such that the re-
sistance drops to, say, ^ t h , if the voltage is doubled, and
consequently they act as very efficient safety valves without
large standby losses.
Tests were made with small commercial units of this
class, and it was found that the shape of the voltage peaks
without any line capacitance was modified, but there was
not any great diminution in the voltage attained. This is
clearly shown by "c" in Fig. 4, which should be compared
rSooo
5 10 IS 20 0 5 10 15 20
Milliseconds Milliseconds
Fig. 4
with "cr." The results were unexpectedly disappointing, as
a decided reduction had been expected. There was, how-
ever, no objectionable slugging.
Tests were next carried out with capacitance across the
coil and Metrosil block, and it at once became apparent
that the very high peak which is a characteristic of line
capacitance had disappeared. The peak was no greater
than when using the unit without capacitance. Tests were
carried out with the different sizes of contactor under
examination, and it was found that the results were uni-
formly good. The highest peak occurred with the optimum
line capacitance, and in no case was the peak greater than
that which occurred with a contactor switched at the coil
(see "d" in Fig. 4).
The most remarkable result of this investigation so far
was that when using the optimum capacitance, or any
capacitance up to at least 10 times the optimum, and a
Metrosil block, the opening of the contacts was practically
sparkless, the only proviso being that the contacts should
open cleanly. Tests were made with the range of con-
93
tactors available, using a Satchwell thermostat having the
usual very small gap of 0-008 in. (standard) to 0-012 in.;
and clean switching was obtained even on 550 volts.
It was immediately realized that a very useful property
had been discovered, and a unit consisting of a condenser
and voltage-controlled discharge path was designed. A
number of these units are in service (known as "sup-
pressors") and are used to enable very small switches to
control large contactors.
As an example of the use of this suppressor the authors
would cite the case of a planing machine which over-ran
the limits and consequently shut down. This was due to
the arc being maintained at the limit-switch contacts, thus
preventing the reversers from operating at the correct
moment. By fitting suppressors the trouble was over-
come, and it was found possible to discard the clumsy
switch which had been necessary because of the arcing,
and to fit a much smaller and cheaper switch.
It is well known that a large condenser of at least 1 JXF
capacitance will reduce contact sparking, but unless a re-
sistance is connected in series with the condenser there is
a danger of the charging current damaging light contacts.
Such large-capacitance condensers are usually paper-
insulated and bulky. The condensers used with the sup-
pressor are of the order of 0-001 to 0 02 /u,F and may be
cheaply made, using mica insulation which will withstand
a test voltage of 5 000 V (r.m.s.).
The suppressor should not be confused with a discharge
unit of the Metrosil type, as the latter does not give sparkless
operation of the contacts unless line capacitance is present.
In the suppressor the minimum capacitance required for
sparkless operation is deliberately connected in circuit and
extra line capacitance has been shown to have very little
effect.
The condenser provides a path for the coil energy at the
point of separation of the contacts, and the Metrosil unit
apparently keeps the maximum voltage peak below the
restriking value during the earliest opening period.
(3.2) Tests on 1200-ampere Contactor
The tests already described were made on a compara-
tively small contactor. Tests on a 220-volt coil fitted to a
large 1200-amp. contactor gave the results shown in
-110000
10 20
Milliseconds
Fig. 5
94 TAYLOR AND RANDALL: VOLTAGE SURGES CAUSED BY CONTACTOR COILS

Fig. 5. The large high-frequency component in " b j " and (4.1) Reducing the Peak Voltage
the very high peak in "b 2 " are especially interesting. Tests with a Metrosil discharge block reduced the peak
to something approaching the peak value of the applied
(4) TEST ON ALTERNATING-CURRENT COILS voltage. Fig. 6(c) is typical, but not the worst case.
During the investigation of the d.c. switching peaks a Tests with a suppressor reduced the peaks still further,
series of insulation breakdowns occurred on a.c. circuits, and no peak has been observed in excess of 125 % of the
and the authors were asked to investigate the possibility of maximum value of the applied voltage. A typical form
high-voltage switching peaks occurring with a.c. contactor is shown in Fig. 6{d). The suppressor does not appear to
coils and small tractive solenoids. Whilst it was realized quench the arc at the contacts as completely as it does in
that such peaks were likely to occur from time to time, it the case of d.c. coils, but this may be due to the optimum
was expected that the investigation would be extremely value of the discharge resistance not having been found.
arduous, as the coil under test might be switched off at any Much more investigation is required on this point.
part of the cycle. A few oscilloscope tests were made on
the coil of a standard 15-amp. contactor. The coil con-
sisted of 4 700 turns of No. 42 S.W.G. enamel-insulated (5) COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS TYPES OF PEAK
wire, having a resistance of 1 200 ohms. This coil is
designed for use on 400 volts, 50 c./s., but as it was found (5.1) Direct Current
essential to keep one end of the potential divider at earth When the switch is connected to the coil without capa-
potential it was not possible to use the full voltage owing citance an arc which is of a pale green colour is drawn at
to lack of apparatus. All tests were made on 340 volts, the contacts (silver); and with the double-break contacts
which gives a crest voltage of practically 500. used, having an air gap of \ in. at each contact, the arc
These preliminary tests snowed that voltage peaks appeared to extend to the full extent of travel before ex-
occurred with considerable regularity, and values up to tinguishing. While the arc was burning, the voltage rose
1 250 volts were observed, but of course it is not possible irregularly to a peak at fhe moment of breaking.
to say that this represents the maximum peak. Photo- When capacitance is present the arc is of a greenish blue
graphs were taken and a typical trace is shown in Fig. 6(a). colour and is much more brilliant and concentrated. • In
this case also the arc appears to extend to the full travel.
3000i- Practically all photographs show that during the arcing
period there is a high-frequency component which appears
as a blur covering several hundreds of volts in certain cases.
2000- Certain observers have noticed a distinct whistle. Where
(»)
the time scale of the oscilloscope has been opened up,
1000- this oscillation is resolved and may be clearly observed
visually, although with the apparatus available it is not
_ ^ 6 5 10 possible to obtain photographic records.
Milliseconds Rough tests with the coil under test laid on the bench
show oscillations of similar form and probably similar
2000 2000 frequency, so it is possible that during the arcing period the
coil behaves as if the iron circuit were missing.
(d) No traces have been observed of oscillation after the
1000 1000 rupture of the arc. This is doubtless due to the high
relative resistance and to damping in the non-laminated
iron of the core and frame.
0 5 10 0 5 10 In the case of the coil shunted with a Metrosil block the
Milliseconds Milliseconds
arc is similar to that which occurs with the coil alone. The
Fig. 6
trace is also similar, but the peaks are rounded off, the
main peak at rupture of the arc being more rounded than
As would be expected, all sorts of conditions varying from the smaller peaks which occur during the arcing period.
zero to the maximum were observed from time to time, but When a suppressor is used the arc is non-existent, and
those which were not zero showed this general form. there is usually only a feeble spark rather like the spark
From the d.c. experiments it was anticipated that the which occurs when a circuit of, say, 100 ohms is switched
addition of capacitance would increase the value of the off a 6-volt battery. In many instances the spark is not
peak, and this was found to be the case. As for d.c. coils visible. The trace, shows that the circuit is broken practi-
the peak increased to a maximum with increase of capaci- cally instantaneously. The characteristics just discussed
tance, and then slowly decreased. This conclusion was apply to conditions where the capacitance is the optimum
not arrived at from a few isolated tests but from a series or greater; but where the capacitance is less than the
of several hundred experiments. It was found that if a optimum the conditions approach those of the Metrosil
d.c. equivalent to the r.m.s. sealed current (i.e. current with block alone.
iron circuit closed) was passed through the coil, a few tests
with increasing values of capacitance enabled the optimum (5.2) Alternating Current
condition to be found with ease. The characteristics of the traces of the four circuit con-
Photographs were taken, and Fig. 6(b) is typical but not ditions (coil only, coil and condenser, etc.) are very
a true maximum. similar to those of the d.c. conditions, but as the contacts
 TAYLOR AND RANDALL: VOLTAGE SURGES CAUSED BY CONTACTOR COILS
may open at any part of the cycle the peak value may
vary from zero to a maximum. The maximum occurs
when the arc occurs at the point of maximum current.
Owing to the low power factor of the load, maximum
current occurs near zero voltage.
When line capacitance is present the coil-capacitance cir-
cuit oscillates, as is shown clearly in the photographs
referred to in Section (4).
(6) TESTS OF A.C. SOLENOIDS INSTALLED ON
MACHINE
A series of tests in the field were made using the peak
voltmeter on an installation comprising a number of small
a.c. solenoids which were wired to a contactor panel by
means of a tough-rubber-covered twin cable. The tests
were carried out over a period of 2 days and typical results
on a machine are shown in Table 3. These tests show that
peak voltages of the order of 3 000 volts occurred fre-
quently, with occasional extra high peaks of as much as
6 000 volts.
Table 3
TYPICAL PEAKS TAKEN ON A 400-VOLT 3-PHASE 50-C/S.
MACHINE BY MEANS OF THE PEAK VOLTMETER
Solenoid 1 Solenoid 2 Solenoid 3
volts volts /olts
3 250 — — — — 6 750 x x x x 1 750 — —
3000 X X — X Limit of range 1 500 X X
of instrument
2 750 X X X X 1 250 X
2 500 X X X X 1 000 X X X X
Flash. No flash.
Solenoid 2 was fitted with suppressor apparatus after this
test and new readings of peaks taken are given in Table 4.
DISCUSSION BEFORE THE INSTALLATIONS SECTION, 12TH NOVEMBER, 1942
Dr. T. E. Allibone: This interesting paper provides some
general data on which to base a theory of surge-voltage
generation in an interrupted d.c. circuit, but the writing
speed of the oscillograph was inadequate to resolve the
rapid variations of voltage which occurred at the switch
and I think that, in consequence, the authors have been
led to wrong conclusions.
The appearance of a so-called "optimum" value of
capacitance, referred to in Section (3), with which the
highest surge voltages were obtained, is not unexpected.
Clearly, with very large values of capacitance the rate of
rise of voltage will be lower than the rate of recovery of
electric strength of the gas in the switch, so that no arc
will occur at all. With very small values of capacitance,
the rate of rise will be so high that current will flow across
the switch within a fraction of a microsecond of the first
opening of the switch, and a glow discharge will be struck
and continuously maintained as the contacts separate.
The energy initially stored in the inductance will be dissi-
pated in the glow, and the increasing voltage drop in the
glow as the current falls will result in ultimate extinction
of the glow. With small switch traverse and with high
95
Table 4
SOLENOID 2 IN SUPPRESSED CONDITION
volts
•1 250 X — —
-t
1 000 X X X X
750 X X X X
x = Flash. — = No flash.
* Reading checked at J-hour intervals up to 30 readings in 3 hours and no
higher peaks observed,
t Flash very faint, indicating a reading just in at this point.
(7) CONCLUSION
In conclusion the authors hope that this paper will shed
a little light on the large number of mysterious breakdowns
of contactor coils and other insulation troubles which are
only too familiar to the manufacturers and users of auto-
matic control gear, and that some investigator with suffi-
cient time and really good apparatus will be sufficiently
interested to make a full study of the phenomena. Control-
gear designers are always being asked to reduce the
clearances of their apparatus in order to reduce the size,
but it is obvious from these tests that clearances which are
satisfactory for electric lamps on 230 volts are totally
inadequate for coil circuits even on 100 volts, and that on
higher voltages it is essential to have large clearances and
creepage distances. Instances are known of sparks jumping
distances of as much as § in. along the surface of slate on
— —
control panels connected to 550-volt tramway supplies.
X X
X X X (8) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the directors of the Igranic
Electric Co., Ltd., for permitting them to publish this
paper and for their encouragement throughout the course
of the investigation. They also wish to thank those friends
who, from time to time, assisted them with suggestions,
criticism and material.
mains voltages, the glow may persist indefinitely. With
intermediate values of capacitance of, say, 0 01 /xF, the
phenomenon is more complex. In the circuit described
by the authors the current be ore switch-opening is about
130 mA, and so, when the contacts separate, the voltage
rises on the condenser linearly at the rate of 13 volts per
microsec. till it reaches a value sufficient to break down
the gap; this value increases as the switch opens, but may
be expected to be a few hundred volts. When breakdown
occurs, the current from the condenser is limited only by
spark resistance and the inductance of the leads, and so the
spark completely discharges the condenser in, say, 10~7 sec.
Once more the voltage rises at the rate of 13 volts
per microsec., and during this period no current flows in
the switch gap. There will come a time when the gap
has widened to such an extent that restriking does not
occur, and then the balance of energy left in the inductance
charges the 0 01-/t*F condenser to the high peak shown in
curve b, Fig. 4. Thus the great difference between curves
a and b in Fig. 4 is that without capacitance the glow dis-
charge current is continuous; with capacitance, the current
in the gap is discontinuous. The oscillations shown in