Sufism in India

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Sufism has an illustrious history in India evolving for over 1,000 years.[1] The presence of Sufism has been a
leading entity increasing the reaches of Islam throughout South Asia.[2] Following the entrance of Islam in the
early 700s, Sufi mystic traditions became more visible during the 10th and 11th centuries of the Delhi
Sultanate.[3] A conglomeration of four chronologically separate dynasties, the early Delhi Sultanate consisted of
rulers from Turkic and Afghan lands.[4] This Persian influence flooded South Asia with Islam, Sufi thought,
syncretic values, literature, education, and entertainment that has created an enduring impact on the presence
of Islam in India today.[5]

Various leaders of Sufi orders, tariqa, chartered the first organized activities to introduce localities to Islam
through Sufism. Saint figures and mythical stories provided solace and inspiration to Hindu caste communities
often in rural villages of India.[5] The Sufism teachings of divine spirituality, cosmic harmony, love, and humanity
resonated with the common people and still does so today.[6][7] The following content will take a thematic
approach to discuss a myriad of influences that helped spread Sufism and a mystical understanding of Islam,
making India a contemporary epicenter for Sufi culture today.

Contents

  [hide] 

 1 Early history

o 1.1 Influence of Islam

o 1.2 Delhi Sultanate

 2 Development of Education

o 2.1 Traditional Culture

o 2.2 Sufi Khanqahs

 3 Sufi Tariqahs

o 3.1 Shadhiliyya

o 3.2 Chishtiyyah

o 3.3 Suhrwardiyyah

o 3.4 Kubrawiyyah

o 3.5 Naqshbandiyyah
 o 3.6 Qadiriyyah

 4 Sufi Culture

o 4.1 Syncretic Mysticism

o 4.2 Rituals

o 4.3 Musical Influence

 5 Impact of Sufism

 6 Additional Links

 7 References

 8 Bibliography

Early history[edit]
Influence of Islam[edit]
Muslims entered India in 711 A.D. under the Arab commander Muhammad ibn Qasim, by conquering the
regions of Sindh and Multan. This historical achievement connected the South Asia to the Muslim empire. [8]
[9]
 Simultaneously, Arab Muslims were welcomed along the Hindustani (India) sea ports for trade and business
ventures. The Muslim culture of the caliphate began to permeate through India. [10]

Muslims conquered Multan, the capital of Sindh, and thereby expanded the Islamic empire into India.

This trade route linking India to the Mediterranean world and even Southeast Asia lasted peacefully until 900
A.D.[11] During this period, the Abbasid Caliphate (750 A.D. – 1258 A.D.) was seated in Baghdad; this city is
also the birthplace of Sufism with notable figures such as Hazrat Ali ibn al-Husayn ibn Ali ibn Abu Talib, Hasan
al-Basri, and Rabiah.[12][13]

The mystic tradition of Islam gained significant ground spreading from Baghdad (Iraq) into Persia, commonly
known today as Iran and Afghanistan. In 901 A.D., a Turkic military leader, Sebuktigin, established an Afghan
kingdom in the city of Ghaznah. His son, Mahmud, expanded their territories into the Indian Punjab region
during 1027 A.D.[14] The resources and riches annexed from Punjab went into the Ghazni coffers to expand
further into India’s northwest areas.[15] During the early 11th century, the Ghaznawids brought a wealth of
scholars into India’s borders, establishing the first Persian-inspired Muslim culture succeeding prior Arab
influences.[16]

In 1151 A.D., another Central Asian group, called the Ghurids, overtook the lands of the Ghaznawids – who did
very little to monitor their lands in India.[17] Mu’izz al-Din Ghuri, a governor of Turkic origin, initiated a major
invasion of India, extending the previous Ghazni territories into Delhi and Ajmer. By 1186 A.D., northern India
was indistinguishable; a combination of Baghdad’s cosmopolitan culture mixed with Persian-Turkic traditions of
the Ghaznah court accelerated Sufi intellectualism in India. [18] Scholars, poets, and mystics from Central Asia
and Iran became integrated within India. By 1204 A.D., the Ghurids established rule in the following cities:
Benaras (Varansi), Kanaug, Rajasthan, and Bihar, which introduced Muslim rule into Bengal region. [15]

An emphasis on translation of Arabic and Persian texts (Qu'ran, Hadith corpus, Sufi literature) into vernacular
languages helped the momentum of Islamization in India.[19] Particularly in rural areas, Sufis helped Islam
spread generously into prior polytheistic populations. Subsequently, the general consensus among scholars
remains that there were never any forced mass conversions recorded during this early history time period.
[20]
 Between the late 12th century (1100–1200 A.D.) and 13th century (1200–1300 A.D.), Sufi brotherhoods
became firmly consolidated in northern India.[21]

Delhi Sultanate[edit]
The period of 1206 A.D. – 1526 A.D. is labeled as the Delhi Sultanate.[17][22] This time frame consists of four
separate dynasties that ruled territorial parts of India: the Mamluk, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi dynasty. In
history, the Delhi Sultanate is usually given marginal attention compared to the succeeding Mughal Dynasty.
[23]
 At its peak, the Delhi Sultanate controlled all of North India, Afghan frontier, and Bengal. The security of their
lands protected India from the Mongol Conquests terrorizing the rest of Asia between 1206 A.D. and 1294 A.D.
[24]
 The Mongols also succeeded in destroying Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate, proving that this
reign of violence was no minor feat.[according to whom?] When the Mongol invasion penetrated Central Asia, fleeing
refugees chose India as a safe destination. [25] This historical move can be deemed[by whom?] a significant catalyst
of Sufi thought in India. Scholars, students, artisans, and common people arrived into the protection of Mamluk
rulers, the first dynasty in the Delhi Sultanate. Soon the court had an immense influx of diverse cultures,
religiosity, and literature from Persia and Central Asia; Sufism was the main ingredient in all mediums. During
this medieval period, Sufism spread through various regions, expanding to the Deccan plateau with the
succession of the Tughlaq dynasty of 1290 A.D. – 1388 A.D. [17][26] During this time, the Muslim rulers of the
Sultanate dynasties were not necessarily of orthodox Islam; yet, they were still deemed powerful. Advisors of
the dynastic sultans included Muslim religious scholars (ulama) and notably, Muslim mystics (mashai’kh).
[27]
 Although practicing Sufis rarely had political aspirations, the declining ethical reign of the Sayyid and Lodi
dynasty (1414 – 1517 A.D.) required renewed leadership. [28]

Development of Education[edit]
Traditional Culture[edit]
During 901 - 1151 A.D., the Ghaznawids began to build numerous schools called madrasa that were attached
and affiliated with masjids (mosque). This mass movement established stability in India's educational systems.
[20]
 Existing scholars promoted the study of the Qu'ran and hadith, beginning in North West India.[29] During the
Delhi Sultanate, the intellectual caliber of India's residents increased multiple - fold due to the Mongol
invasions. Various intellectuals hailing from regions such as Iran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia began to
enrich the cultural and literary life of the Delhi capital. [30] Among the religious elite existing during the Sultanate
time period, two major classifications existed. The ulama were noted exclusive religious scholars who had
mastered certain Islamic legal branches of study. They were sharia oriented and tended to be more orthodox
about Muslim practices. The other group of religious elites were the Sufi mystics, or fakir. This was a more
inclusive group that was often more tolerant of non-Muslim traditions. Although the commitment to
practice sharia remains a Sufi foundation, early Sufis in India focused on proselytizing through service work
and helping the poor. During the Delhi Sultanate, the rise prevailing mystical approach to Islam was not a
substitute for madrasa education nor traditional scholarship.[31] The teachings of sufism only built upon the
foundations of a madrasa education. The spiritual orientation of Sufism only sought to refine the
"consciousness of the divine, intensify piety, and inculcate a humanistic attitude." [31]

Sufi Khanqahs[edit]
Once reason why Islam became more favorable in India was due to the establishment of khanqah. A khanqah
is commonly defined as a hospice, lodge, community center, or dormitory ran by Sufis. [15][24] Khanqahs were
also known as Jama'at Khana, large gathering halls.[23] Structurally, a khanqah could be one large room or have
additional dwelling space.[21] Although some khanqah establishments were independent of royal funding or
patronage, many received fiscal grants (waqf) and donations from benefactors for continuing services.[15]
[32]
 Over time, the function of traditional Sufi khanqahs evolved as Sufism solidified in India.

Initially, the Sufi khanqah life emphasized a close and fruitful relationship between the master-teacher (sheikh)
and their students.[31] For example students in khanqahs would pray, worship, study, and read works together.
[33]
 Sufi literature had more academic concerns besides just the jurisprudential and theological works seen
in madrasa.[31] There were three major categories of mystical works studied in South Asia: hagiographical
writing, discourses of the teacher, and letters of the master.[31] Sufis also studied various other manuals
describing code of conduct, adab (Islam). In fact, the text (trans.) "Path of God's Bondsmen from Origin to
Return" written by a Persian Sufi saint, Najm al-Din Razi, spread throughout India during the authors' lifetime.
[24]
 Sharing that Sufi thought was becoming increasingly favorable to study in India. Even today, preserved
mystical literature has proved invaluable as a source of religious and social history of Sufi Muslims in India. [31]

The other major function of a khanqah was of a community shelter. Many of these facilities were built in low
caste, rural, Hindu vicinities.[23] The Chishti Order Sufis in India, especially, crystallized khanqahs with the
highest form of modest hospitality and generosity. [34] Keeping a "visitors welcome" policy, khanqahs in India
offered spiritual guidance, psychological support, and counseling that was free and open to all people. [15][21] The
spiritually hungry and depressed caste members were both fed with a free kitchen service and provided basic
education.[23] By creating egalitarian communities within stratified caste systems, Sufis successfully spread their
teachings of love, spirituality, and harmony. It was this example of Sufi brotherhood and equity that drew
people to the religion of Islam.[23] Soon these khanqahs became social, cultural, and theological epicenters for
people of all ethnic and religious backgrounds and both genders. [15][35] Through a khanqah's humble services,
Sufis presented the true form of Islam and forged a way for voluntary large scale conversions of lower class
Hindustanis.[36]

Sufi Tariqahs[edit]
Shadhiliyya[edit]

Madurai Maqbara, the tomb of Shadhili Sufi saints in Madurai, India.

Shadhilyya was founded by Imam Nooruddeen Abu Al Hasan Ali Ash Sadhili Razi. Fassiya branch of
Shadhiliyya was brought to India by Sheikh Aboobakkar Miskeen sahib Radiyallah of Kayalpatnam and Sheikh
Mir Ahmad Ibrahim Raziyallah of Madurai. Mir Ahmad Ibrahim is the first of the three Sufi saints revered at
the Madurai Maqbara in Tamil Nadu. There are more than 70 branches of Shadhiliyya and in India. Of these,
the Fassiyatush Shadhiliyya is the most widely practised order. [37]

Main article:  Shadhili

Chishtiyyah[edit]
Nizamuddin Auliya's tomb (right) and Jama'at Khana Masjid (background), at Nizamuddin Dargahcomplex, in Nizamuddin
West, Delhi

The Chishtiyya order emerged out of Central Asia and Persia. The first saint was Abu Ishaq Shami (d.940–41
A.D.) establishing the Chishti order in Chisht-i-Sharif within Afghanistan[38]Furthermore, Chishtiyya took root
with the notable saint Moinuddin Chishti (d. 1236 A.D.) who championed the order within India, making it one of
the largest orders in India today.[39] Scholars also mentioned that he had been a part-time disciple of Abu Najib
Suhrawardi.[40] Khwaja Moiuddin Chishti was originally from Sistan (eastern Iran, southwest Afghanistan) and
grew up as a well traveled scholar to Central Asia, Middle East, and South Asia. [41] He reached Delhi in 1193
A.D. during the end of Ghurid reign, then shortly settled in Ajmer-Rajasthan when the Delhi Sultanate formed.
[21]
 Moinuddin Chishti's Sufi and social welfare activities dubbed Ajmer the "nucleus for the Islamization of
central and southern India."[40] The Chishti order formed khanqah to reach the local communities, thus helping
Islam spread with charity work. Islam in India grew with the efforts of dervishes, not with violent bloodshed or
forced conversion.[21] Chishtis were famous establishing khanqahs and for their simple teachings of humanity,
peace, and generosity. This group drew an unprecedented amount of Hindus of lower and higher castes within
vicinity.[40] Until this day, both Muslims and non-Muslims visit the famous tomb of Moinuddin Chishti; it has
become even a popular tourist and pilgrimage destination. Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar (d. 1605 A.D.), the 3rd
Mughal ruler frequented Ajmer as a pilgrim, setting a tradition for his constituents. [42] Successors of Khwaja
Moinudden Chishti include eight additional saints; together, these names are considered the big eight of the
medieval Chishtiyya order. Moinuddin Chishti (d. AD 1233 in Ajmer, India) Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki (d. AD
1236 in Delhi, India) Fariduddin Ganjshakar (d. AD 1265 in Pakpattan,Pakistan) Nizamuddin Auliya (d. AD
1335 in Delhi).[2] Nasiruddin Chiragh Dehlavi[43] Bande Nawaz (d. AD 1422 in Gulbarga, India) [44] Akhi Siraj
Aainae Hind (d. 1357 in Bengal, India[45] Alaul Haq Pandavi [46] Ashraf Jahangir Semnani(d. AD 1386,
Kichaucha India) [47]

Main article:  Chishti Order

Suhrwardiyyah[edit]
The founder of this order was Abdul-Wahir Abu Najib as-Suhrawardi (d. 1168 A.D.). [48] He was actually a
disciple of Ahmad Ghazali, who is also the younger brother of Abu Hamid Ghazali. The teachings of Ahmad
Ghazali led to the formation of this order. This order was prominent in medieval Iran prior to Persian migrations
into India during the Mongol Invasion [24] Consequently, it was Abu Najib as-Suhrawardi’s nephew that helped
bring the Suhrawardiyyah to mainstream awareness.[49] Abu Hafs Umar as-Suhrawardi (d. 1243 A.D.) wrote
numerous treatises on Sufi theories. Most notably, the text trans. “Gift of Deep Knowledge: Awa’rif al-Mar’if”
was so widely read that it became a standard book of teaching in Indian madrasas. [48] This helped spread the
Sufi teachings of the Suhrawardiyya. Abu Hafs was a global ambassador of his time. From teaching in
Baghdad to diplomacy between the Ayyubid rulers in Egypt and Syria, Abu Hafs was a politically involved Sufi
leader. By keeping cordial relations with the Islamic empire, Abu Hafs’s followers in India continued to approve
of his leadership and approve political participation of Sufi orders. [48]

Main article:  Suhrawardiyya

Kubrawiyyah[edit]
This order was founded by Abu'l Jannab Ahmad, nicknamed Najmuddin Kubra (d. 1221 A.D.) who was from
the border between Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan [50] This Sufi saint was a widely acclaimed teacher with
travels to Turkey, Iran, and Kashmir. His education also fostering generations of students who became saints
themselves.[24] This order became important in Kashmir during the late 14th century (1300-1400). [51] Kubra and
his students made significant contributions to Sufi literature with mystical treatises, mystical psychology, and
instructional literature such as text "al-Usul al-Ashara" and "Mirsad ul Ibad." [52] These popular texts regarding
are still mystic favorites in India and in frequent study. The Kubrawiya remains in Kashmir - India and within
Huayy populations in China.[24]

Naqshbandiyyah[edit]
The origin of this order can be traced back to Khwaja Ya‘qub Yusuf al-Hamadani (d. 1390 A.D. ), who lived
in Central Asia.[24][53] It was later organized by Baha’uddin Naqshband (b. 1318–1389 A.D.) of Tajik and Turkic
background.[24] He is widely referred to as the founder of the Naqshbandi order. Khwaja Muhammad al-Baqi
Billah Berang (d. 1603 A.D.) introduced the Naqshbandiyyah to India. [24][39] This order was particularly popular
Mughal elites due to ancestral links to the founder, Khawja al-Hamadani [54] [55] Babur, the founder of the Mughal
dynasty in 1526 A.D., was already initiated in the Naqshbandi order prior to conquering India. This royal
affiliation gave considerable impetus to the order. [3][17]

Main article:  Naqshbandi

Qadiriyyah[edit]
The Qadiriyyah order was founded by Abdul-Qadir Gilani who was originally from Iran (d. 1166 A.D.)[24] It is
popular among the Muslims of South India.[56] As a widespread order, the Qadiriyyah had a prominent sheikh in
India. Muhammad Mayan Mir (d. 1635 A.D.) was a famous scholar known for significant non-Muslim tolerance
and community service work.[39] Worlds largest religious organisation Dawate-E-Islami also belongs to the
Qadiriyyah order whose founder was Moulana Ilyas Qadri

Main article:  Qadiriyyah

Less accurate information is known about the following other orders within India: Mujahhidiyyah.

Sufi Culture[edit]
Syncretic Mysticism[edit]
Islam was not the only religion in India contributing the mystical aspects of Sufism. The Bhakti movement also
gained respect due mysticism popularity spreading through India. The Bhakti movement was a regional revival
of Hinduism linking language, geography, and cultural identities through devotional deity worship. [57] This
concept of "Bhakti" appeared in the Bhagavad Gita and the first sects emerged from south India been the 7th
and 10th century.[57] The practices and theological standpoints were very similar to Sufism, often blurring the
distinction between Hindus and Muslims. Bhakti devotees linked puja (Hinduism) to songs about saints and
theories of life; they would meet often to sing and worship. The Brahman Bhaktis developed mystical
philosophies similar to those advocated by Sufi saints. For example, the Bhaktis believed that there is a special
reality beneath the illusion of life; this reality needs to be recognized to escape the cycle of reincarnation.
Moreover, moksha, liberation from Earth is the ultimate goal in Hinduism.[58] These teachings run nearly parallel
to Sufi concepts of dunya, tariqa, and akhirah.

Sufism helped the assimilation of the Afghani Delhi Sultanate rulers within mainstream society. By building a
syncretic medieval culture tolerant and appreciative of non-Muslims, Sufi saints contributed to a growth of
stability, vernacular literature, and devotional music in India.[59] One Sufi mystic, Saiyid Muhammad Ghaus
Gwaliori popularized yogic practices among Sufi circles. [60]Literature related to monotheism and the Bhakti
movement also formed sycretic influences in history during the Sultanate period. [61] Despite the camaraderie
between Sufi saints, yogis, and Bhakti Brahmans, medieval religious existed and continue to splinter peaceful
living in parts of India today.[59]

Rituals[edit]
One of the most popular and controversial[citation needed] rituals in Sufism is the visiting of grave-tombs of Sufi
saints. These have evolved into Sufi shrines and are seen among cultural and religious landscape of India. The
ritual of visiting any place of significance is called ziyarat; the most common example is a visit to
Prophet Muhammad's Masjid Nabawi and grave in Medina, Saudi Arabia. [62] A saint's tomb is a site of great
veneration where blessings or baraka continue to reach the deceased holy person and are deemed (by some)
to benefit visiting devotees and pilgrims. In order to show reverence to Sufi saints, kings and nobles provided
large donations or waqf to preserve the tombs and renovate them architecturally.[63] Over time, these donation,
rituals, annual commemorations formed into an elaborate system of accepted norms. These forms of Sufi
praxis created an aura of spiritual and religious traditions around prescribed dates. [64] In response, many
orthodox or Islamic purists denounce these visiting grave rituals, especially the expectation of receiving
blessings from the venerated saints. Nevertheless, these rituals have survived generations and seem adamant
to remain.[64]

Musical Influence[edit]
Music has always been present as a rich tradition among all Indian religions. [65] As an influential medium to
disperse ideas, music has appealed to people for generations. The audience in India was already familiar with
hymns in local languages. Thus Sufi devotional singing was instantly successful among the populations. Music
transmitted Sufi ideals seamlessly. In Sufism, the term music is called "sa'ma" or literary audition. This is where
poetry would be sang to instrumental music; this ritual would often put Sufis into spiritual ecstasy. The common
depiction of whirling dervishes dressed in white cloaks come to picture when paired with "sa'ma." [65] Many Sufi
traditions encouraged poetry and music as part of education. Sufism spread widely with their teachings
packaged in popular songs accessing mass demographics. Women were especially affected; often used to
sing Sufi songs during the day and in female gatherings.[33] Sufi gatherings today are known as qawwali. One of
the biggest contributors to the musical Sufi tradition was Amir Khosraw (d. 1325). Known as a disciple of
Nizamuddin Chishti, Amir was known as the most talented musical poet in the early Muslim period of India. He
is considered the founder of Indo-Muslim devotional music traditions. Nicknamed "Parrot of India," Amir
Khosraw furthered the Chishti affiliation through this rising Sufi pop culture within India. [65]

Impact of Sufism[edit]

The massive geographic presence of Islam in India can be explained by the tireless activity of Sufi preachers.
[66]
 Sufism had left a prevailing impact on religious, cultural, and social life in South Asia. The introduction of the
mystical form of Islam was done by Sufi saints.[67] Sufi scholars traveling from all over continental Asia were
instrumental in the social, economic, and philosophic development of India. [68][69] Besides preaching in major
cities and centers of intellectual though, Sufis reached out to poor and marginalized rural communities and
preached in local dialects such as Urdu, Sindhi, Panjabi versus Persian, Turkish, and Arabic. [66] Sufism
emerged as a “moral and comprehensive socieo-religious force” that even influenced other religious traditions
such as Hinduism.[70] Their traditions of devotional practices and modest living attracted all people. Their
teachings of humanity, love for God and Prophet continue to be surrounded by mystical tales and folk songs
today.[66] Sufis were firm in abstaining from religious and communal conflict and strived to be peaceful elements
of civil society.[69] Furthermore, it is the attitude of accommodation, adaptation, piety, and charisma that
continues to help Sufism remain as a pillar of mystical Islam in India.

Additional Links[edit]
  List of Sufi Saints of South Asia

 Islam in Pakistan

 Islam in Bangladesh

 Islam in India

 Sufi Saints of Aurangabad

 Moinuddin Chishti

 Ashraf Jahangir Semnani

 Ahmed Ullah Maizbhanderi

 Universal Sufi Festival

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1642 CE). A short biography of the prominent sufis of India have been

mentioned in this book including that of Hazrat Akhi Siraj Aainae Hind)

46. Jump up^ 'Akhbarul Akhyar' By Abdal Haqq Muhaddith Dehlwi (d.1052H-

1642 CE). A short biography of the prominent sufis of India have been

mentioned in this book including that of Hazrat Alaul Haq Pandavi

47. Jump up^ Ashraf, Syed Waheed, Hayate Syed Ashraf Jahangir Semnani,
Published 1975, India

48. ^ Jump up to:a b c Schimmel 245

49. Jump up^ Zargar, Schimmel
50. Jump up^ Schimmel 254
51. Jump up^ Schimmel 255
52. Jump up^ Schimmel 256, Zargar
53. Jump up^ Lal, Mohan. Encyclopædia of Indian literature 5. p. 4203.
54. Jump up^ Ohtsuka, Kazuo. "Sufism". OxfordIslamicStudies.com.
Retrieved 2010-02-11.

55. Jump up^ Alvi 15

56. Jump up^ Gladney, Dru. "Muslim Tombs and Ethnic Folklore: Charters for
Hui Identity" Journal of Asian Studies, August 1987, Vol. 46 (3): 495-532;

pp. 48-49 in the PDF file.

 57. ^ Jump up to:a b Walsh 64
58. Jump up^ Walsh 66
59. ^ Jump up to:a b Aquil 34
60. Jump up^ Aquil 35
61. Jump up^ Aquil 10
62. Jump up^ Schimmel 238
63. Jump up^ The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India (2006)
64. ^ Jump up to:a b The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India. (2006)
65. ^ Jump up to:a b c The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India p.15
(2006)

66. ^ Jump up to:a b c Schimmel 240

67. Jump up^ The Cambridge history of Southeast Asia: From early times to
c. 1800 By Nicholas Tarling|Page 29|publisher=Cambridge University

Press|url=http://books.google.co.in/books?

id=rOw8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA29&dq=Sufism+and+Its+Impact+on+Muslim+S

ociety+in+South+Asia&client=opera&cd=9#v=onepage&q=&f=false

68. Jump up^ Role of Sufis in Spreading Islam

69. ^ Jump up to:a b The Islamic Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India (2006)
p. xi

70. Jump up^ Medieval Islamic Civilization: L-Z, index By Josef W. Meri, Jere
L. Bacharach|url=[1]|pg=773

Bibliography[edit]

 Islam, Sirajul (2004). Sufism and Bhakti. USA. ISBN 1-56518-198-0.

 Schimmel, Annemarie (1978). Mystical dimensions of Islam. USA:

University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-1271-4.

 Alvi, Sajida Sultana (2012). Perspectives on Mughal India: Rulers,

Historians, Ulama, and Sufis. Karachi: Oxford University Press.

 Aquil, Raziuddin (2007). Sufism, Culture, and Politics: Afghans and Islam

in Medieval North India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.
  Morgan, Michael Hamilton (2007). Lost History: The Enduring Legacy of
Muslim Scientists, Thinkers, Artists. Washington D.C.: National
Geographic.

 Walsh, Judith E. (2006). A Brief History of India. Old Westbury: State

University of New York.

 Schimmel, Anniemarie (1975). "Sufism in Indo-Pakistan". Mystical

Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

 Schimmel, Anniemarie (1975). "Sufi Orders and Fraternities". Mystical

Dimensions of Islam. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.

 Saiyid Zaheer Husain Jafri and Helmut Reifeld, ed. (2006). The Islamic
Path: Sufism, Politics, and Society in India. New Delhi: Konrad Adenauer
Foundation.

 Zargar, Cyrus Ali (2013). "RELG 379: Islamic Mysticism". Augustana

College.

 Sells, Michael A. (1996). Early Islamic Mysticism: Sufi, Qur'an, Mi'raj,

Poetic and Theological Writings. New Jersey: Paulist Press.

 Abidi, S.A.H. (1992). Sufism in India. New Delhi: Wishwa Prakashan.

 Abbas, Shemeem Burney (2002). The Female Voice in Sufi Ritual:

Devotional Practices in Pakistan and India. Austin: University of Texas
Press.

 Anjum, Tanvir (2011). Chishti Sufis in the Sultanate of Delhi 1190-1400:

From Restrained Indifference to Calculated Defiance. Pakistan: Oxford
University Press.

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