What is theory?

For example:

(Natural science) theory of gravity: an object thrown up falls down

(Social science) theory of Marx: class conflict and social change

• In simple words, theory is a formal set of ideas that is intended to explain why something
happens or exists.

• It is based on facts, tested and universally accepted

Definition of sociological theory:

“A theory is a plausible explanation about social phenomenon, logically constructed and

organized, that underscores the relation between two well defined variables. It is more
than a hypothesis or speculative reasoning but far away from scientific law”. ---M.
Francis, Abraham

Different sociologists view society differently. For e.g.

i. Some see the social world as a stable and united.

ii. Some other sees it as composed of many groups in conflict, competing for scarce
resources.

iii. Some other sees the interaction among the individuals as the most interesting aspect of
the social world.

So, the same social world or the social phenomena can be studied from different theoretical
perspectives.

Theoretical perspectives refer to broad assumptions about society and social behavior that
provide a point of view for the study of specific phenomena or problem.

 It is like a lens through which society can be viewed.

Major theoretical perspectives of sociology are:

1. The Functionalist Perspective

2. The Conflict Perspective

3. The Interactions Perspective

Functionalist theorists: Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber, Talcott Parsons,
Radicliffe Brown, Bronislaw Malinowski, Robert Merton etc.

 Major Postulates of functionalist Perspective:

• Functionalism is simply a view of society as a self regulating system of interrelated

elements with structured social relationship.

• It compares society with an organism in which each part of the organisms contributes to
its survival. Similarly, society is also composed of interrelated parts such as family,
religion, state, education, economy etc. and each of these components has a function that
contributes to the overall stability of the social system. Functionalist emphasize on
stability, consensus and on the integration of the social system.

• Every element of a social system has a function which contributes positively to the
continued operation of that system or negatively towards its disintegration. And the
function may be manifest or latent.

• Any activity that brings positive consequence for one may bring negative consequence
for other or what is functional for some may be dysfunctional for other.

• For e.g. Rainfall may be good for the farmers while it spoils the picnic of students. &
Globalization of economy may be good for some multinational companies while it
hampers the business of local companies.

Manifest functions are those consequences that are intended and recognized by the participants
in the system of the action concerned. Latent functions are those consequences neither intended
nor recognized by the participants.

• For e.g. sending children to the school for education and getting the leisure time.

• For e.g. The manifest function of higher education is to provide young people with the
knowledge and skills they need to perform job after graduation while its latent function is
to limit unemployment keeping millions of youth out of labor market or the other latent
function of college may be marriage broker, bringing youths of similar background
together

Criticisms of functional perspectives:

 It is criticized as a conservative theory. It fails to explain the changing nature of the social
system.

 It has exaggerated the stability and integration of the social system.

  Consensus is important but insufficient basis for integration in society. It has minimized
the role of power, authority and coercion in enforcing consensus and integration.

 It has ignored the conflict present in the society and its role.

Meaning of Conflict:

 A situation in which there are two opposing ideas, opinions, feelings or wishes

 A situation in which people, groups or countries are involved in serious disagreement / a

violent situation or period of fighting /clash

 Basically, conflict is the situation of struggle between two opposing elements in any
object or two opposing groups/forces in any society.

 Every object consists of two opposite elements and there is conflict among them. For
example, there is proton and electron in atom, North Pole and South Pole in magnet,
positive and negative charge in electricity, composition and decomposition in chemical
reaction, struggle of life and death in living organism, hot and cold in case of
temperature.

 The same case applies in case of society too. There are two opposing groups in society
for eg. Rich and poor people, high caste and low caste.

 As each group has their own specific interest, there is always conflict between them.

 Conflict theory is an important sociological theory to analyze society which assumes that
there is existence of opposite forces in society, there is struggle between them and such
struggle brings changes in society.

 It assumes conflict as a universal phenomenon which has been taking place in every
period of time.

 Basically, it is used to analyze the changeability of society.

 It is developed as an alternative against the explanation of structural functional theory in

late 19th century.

 The industrial revolution of 18th century contributed most for the development of conflict
theory. The emergence of capitalist and proletariat class in the industrial society
encouraged Marx for the development of conflict theory.

 Conflict theorists: Karl Marx, C. Wright Mills, Ralf Dahrendorf, Irving Louis Horowitz,
Lewis Coser, Herbert Murcuse, Randall Collins and A.G Frank

Main postulates of conflict theory:

1. Society is not a system of equilibrium but a nebulous structure of imperfectly coordinated
elements. They are held together by the coercive force. Within the society, there are different
unequal structures and unequal groups of people such as rich and poor, higher and lower caste,
strong and weak etc. The inequality prevalent in the society creates the state of unequilibrium
and such society is always vulnerable to the conflict.

2. Society and its elements are in the process of incessant change although at varying degrees.
Sometimes the changes may be rapid while it may be slow the other time. However, the process
of change is continuous and it is the normal feature of the human society.

3. Society is a stage populated with living, struggling and competing actors. The different types
of opposite groups present in the society have their own specific interests and they are always
struggling to each other. As the resources are scare in the society, there is always competition
among these groups in order to achieve it. If we compare it with a drama, then society is the
stage, social universe is the setting4.Social conflict is inherent in the very nature of social
structure. For the conflict to occur external forces are not necessary. The inequality present in the
structure of the society is enough to create any conflict.

4. Social conflict is inherent in the very nature of social structure. For the conflict to occur
external forces are not necessary. The inequality present in the structure of the society is enough
to create any conflict.

5. Conflict is a universal phenomenon. It happens in each and every parts of the world.

6. It is essential law of societal development. The conflict which takes place in the society causes
changes in the society and it accelerates the development of that society. If there is no conflict,
there is no chance of societal development.

And conflict of life is the actions performed in it.

7. Different types of conflict take with in society. Sometime the conflict may be latent (not well
noticeable) or manifest (well demonstrated). Sometime it may be a slow and gradual process or
sometime it may take the violent destructive form.

Weakness/ Criticisms of Conflict Perspective:

 It has focused so narrowly on the issue of struggle and change. It fails to explain the order
and stability of social reality.

 Conflict is not always necessary for social change. It can be achieved by the mutual co-
operation and the development efforts of the government.

 It has not expressed its concern over the negative impacts of the conflict.
  It always argues about the changing nature of the society. But there are many traditional
societies who have remained same over thousands of years.

Symbolic-Interaction Perspective:

• The functionalist and conflict perspectives both analyses society at macro-level.

• Towards the end of the nineteenth century, many contemporary sociologists shifted their
interest from the study of large-scale social structures and process as initially explored by
Marx, Spencer, and Durkheim etc.

• The attention shifted at the micro-level for the study of social interaction and their
consequences for the individual and the society.

• Symbolic interaction is a micro level theoretical perspective that sees society as the
product of the everyday interactions of individuals.

• It was initially influenced by Max Weber.

• It is distinctly American branch of sociology developed from the work of group of

American sociologists who included John Dewey, William I. Thomas, C.H Cooley and
George Herbert Mead. Among them, G.H Mead is the major figure.

Major postulates:

• The interactions perspective focuses on social behavior in everyday life. It tries to

understand how people create and interpret the situations they experience.

• It is concerned with interaction which means action between individuals and assumption
is that action is meaningful to those involved.

• Society is ultimately created, maintained and changed by the social interaction of its
members.

• The individual self concept is based on his perception of the way others are responding to
him.

• The individual’s self concept directs his behavior.

Criticisms:
• It neglects larger social institutions and process which has significant impact on the social
interaction.

• It examines the human interaction in vacuum. It does not concern the historical set up for
the ongoing human interaction.

• It fails to explain social structure. It fails to explain why members of the society are
motivated to act in terms of social norms.

• It fails to explain the source of meanings of interaction to which they attach such
importance.