MENG370L - Worksheets - Student Version - 2016-2017 - Protected PDF

Laboratory Fluid Mechanics Lab -MENG 370L
Experiment F1 Unit: H30, H3a
Calibration of a Pressure gage, Pressure Measurement
Objectives:
1- Demonstration of the pressure measurement methods, and

2- Calibration of pressure gages.
Description:
Pressure Measurement Bench
Calibration of a
pressure gage
apparatus
Figure 1: Pressure Measurement Bench
The apparatus consists of a steel framework/bench construction with vertical

and inclined manometers, and two Bourdon type gages.
One of the gages measures pressure, the other measures vacuum.
The gages and manometers each have pressure sockets for direct connection.
‘Tee’ connectors and tubing allow many different connections. A syringe is
used as a means of creating an adjustable pressure and vacuum.
The “Calibration of a pressure gage” apparatus includes a set of weights and a
weight platform to apply a known pressure to the Bourdon scale to show its
operation and for the calibration experiment.
Page 1 of 5

Setting up:
1- Set out the apparatus on a level worktop,
2- Fill the cylinder with water, and tilt the unit to remove any trapped air in the
transparent tube; it will help if you gently ‘tap’ it. A small amount of air in
the system will not affect the experiment or results.
3- Top up the water and insert the piston into the cylinder,
4- Allow any air and excess water to discharge through the top hole of the
cylinder.
5- Allow the piston to settle.
Experiment Procedure
 Calibration of a Pressure Gage:
1. Record the cross-sectional area

and the mass of the plunger
(piston) and the weight platform
2. Create a blank table of results
similar to Table 1.
3. Ensure the apparatus is level.
4. Add the weights (masses) to the
weight platform in approximately
eight increments up to a
maximum of 5.2 kg. Figure 2: ‘Calibration of a Pressure Gauge’
Apparatus
5. Do not exceed 5.2 kg.
6. Always load the masses gradually, do not drop then onto the platform.
7. Record the pressure gage reading as each mass is added.
8. To prevent the piston sticking, rotate the piston gently as each mass is
added.
9. Remove the masses in the reverse order as you added them.
10. Record the pressure gauge reading as you remove each mass.
11. From your results, calculate the actual pressure (P) and total mass (M)
12. Plot graphs of the gage pressure against actual pressure, and gage error
against actual pressure.
Page 2 of 5
Increasing Pressure Decreasing Pressure
Mass Total mass Actual

Gage Gage Gauge Gauge
added to on piston Pressure
Reading Error Reading Error
piston (M) (P)
kg kg kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2
Table 1: Calibration of a pressure gage
 Pressure and Vacuum Measurement
The syringe has a nozzle that fits into any of the pressure sockets
Note; never apply pressure to the Vacuum Gauge. It will be damaged.
1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 2.

2. For pressure tests, extend the syringe fully before you connect it to the
pressure sockets.
3. For vacuum tests, press the syringe piston in fully before you connect it to
apparatus pressure sockets.
4. For accurate comparison and to save time, you may use the ‘Tee’ pieces
and spare pipes (supplied) to connect a pressure or vacuum gauge and a
manometer at the same time.
5. Make sure that the nozzle of the syringe is firmly connected.
6. Slowly move the syringe in steps to create pressure gauge changes of 50
mm H2O. At each step, record the change in both the gauge reading and
the two manometer levels at the same time.
7. Monitor the manometer levels so that water is not spilt.
Page 3 of 5
Note: the pressure in the left hand tube of each manometer is termed P1, the
right hand tube is termed P2.
8. From your results, calculate the ‘adjusted’ readings for each manometer
9. Plot a graph of the adjusted manometer readings against the pressure
gauge readings. The slope of the graphs will show the error on either the
Bourdon gauge or the manometer.
Figure 3: The Syringe Nozzle Fits into a Pressure Sockets
Pressure
Pressure
Inclined Manometer Vertical Manometer
Gage
P1 P2 P1 P2
Adjusted Δmm Δmm
mm H2O mm mm mm mm
mm H2O H2O H2O
H2O H2O H2O H2O
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Table 2: Pressure Measurement
Page 4 of 5
Vacuum
Pressure
Inclined Manometer Vertical Manometer
Gage
P1 P2 P1 P2
Adjusted Δmm Δmm
mm H2O mm mm mm mm
mm H2O H2O H2O
H2O H2O H2O H2O
0
-50
-100
-150
-200
-250
-300
-350
-400
Table 3: Vacuum Measurement
Page 5 of 5
Experiment F2 Unit: H410
Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement
Objectives:
1- Determining the Viscosity of a fluid (Water)
PRINCIPLE OF VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT

To "determine the dynamic and kinematic viscosities of a liquid, the terminal
velocity of a sphere is measured in a vertical tube filled with the liquid in question.
The measurement is taken during the period of uniform rectilinear motion which
corresponds to equilibrium between the gravitational, buoyancy and viscous
friction forces.
Equation of motion
The mechanics of fluid flow at velocity V around a stationary object are
considered to be the same as the movement of the same object at velocity V in
the stationary fluid. If movement is uniform, the projection on a vertical plane of
the resultant of the forces exterior to the sphere is zero:
Where:
: weight of the sphere
: buoyancy force of the fluid on the sphere
: drag
If m is the mass of the sphere, ρB the density of the sphere, and ρL the density of
the fluid, we have:
Drag
This force is written as follows:

Where:
Page 1 of 6

Where the kinematic viscosity v is linked to the dynamic viscosity µ by the
relationship:
Depending on the value of the Reynolds number, the drag coefficient has the
following values:
Calculating Viscosity
Stokes' Law
In this case, we establish that:
This formula is applicable if:
Oseen's Law
This law gives the following value for kinematic viscosity:
This formula should be used if:
Klyachko's Law
This law should be applied if:
The kinematic viscosity is the solution of the incomplete third-order equation:
Page 2 of 6
This is an equation of the form:
Where:
The solutions for which are in the form:
This equation is resolved numerically by using the values for the densities and
, the radius and the mass of the sphere, and the falling speed.
Correction of falling speed
The velocity V which appears in the preceding formulae is the terminal velocity of
the fluid flowing around a sphere in an limitless space. When using the falling
sphere viscometer, this space is limited by the length and diameter of the tube,
and the measured velocity Vm is noticeably different from V. The correct value of
V is obtained by using the Brenner correction:
Description of apparatus:
The apparatus consists of:
2 measuring tubes (8) lit by a neon light (9) and fitted on the front of a board
marked with 2 reference points indicating a distance of a meter.
2 valves (4) for recovering the spheres and emptying the tubes
2 trays for recovering the spheres (3)
1 stopwatch
1 set of stainless steel and plastic spheres, the diameters of which are given in
the table.
Page 3 of 6

Preparing the spheres:
To avoid having to measure falling times of less than 15 seconds in order to obtain a
satisfactory level of precision, the diameters of the spheres used must be determined
according to the theoretical viscosity of the liquid.
If this viscosity is unknown, spheres which

take more than 15 seconds to fall 1 metre
should be used.
The chart in Figure 2 gives the minimum
diameters of spheres of different materials
according to the dynamic viscosity of the
liquid.
The spheres should be cleaned before being
placed in the tube to prevent any bubbles
forming on them.
It is advisable to wipe them with a lint-free
cloth dipped in alcohol.
Any measurement made when bubbles
appear on the sphere as it descends should
be eliminated from the results.
In this case, the experiment should be
carried out again after carefully cleaning
the sphere and, if necessary, dipping it
into the liquid before letting it fall.
Measurements:
The time taken for the sphere to fall a
distance of 1 meter between the two
reference marks (A) is read from the Figure 1: Viscometer
stopwatch.
This operation should be repeated 7 to 10 times to obtain an average time of
descent over 1 meter.
Where measurements are made using plastic spheres, the diameter of the
spheres should be checked using a micrometer since the spheres are
temperature sensitive.
Experiments
The Viscometer uses the falling speed to determine the following:
- Either the viscosity of a liquid, for geometrically defined spheres,
- Or the drag coefficient for spherical bodies or profiles in a liquid of uniform
viscosity.
These two studies can be conducted consecutively.
The various "empirical" viscosities of the Engler, Seybolt and Redwood type can also be
deduced based on the kinematic viscosity.
The transition formulae are as follows:
Page 4 of 6
a) Degree Engler (°E)

ν = 7.32 °E - 6.31/°E ν in centistokes
b) Seybolt Seconds (S)
ν = 0.0022 S - 1.80/S ν in stokes
c) Redwood Seconds (R)
ν = 0.26 R - 179/R ν in centistokes
RESULTS
By using the time taken to travel one
meter, Vm can be calculated and then
the value of V found using the
Brenner correction.
D: diameter of sphere.
Dt: tube diameter.
Ht: length of tube
The characteristics of the fluid and
the sphere are used to determine
which law of viscous friction is
applicable so that the value of the
kinematic viscosity can then be
calculated at the experimental
temperature. The dynamic viscosity
can be calculated from this value, if Figure 2: Sphere selection
needed.
Viscosity of Water
Experimental data
- mass of sphere
- density of sphere
- diameter of sphere
- time to travel one meter
- density of fluid
- tube diameter
- length of tube
1. Calculate the flow speed in an infinite environment

2. Determine the applicable viscous friction law
3. Calculate the kinematic viscosity
4. Compare the result with the appropriate theoretical value
Page 5 of 6
Material ρ/g.cm-3
Sphere Stainless steel Glass Polyamide Hostaform C
Φ/mm 7.83 2.5 1.13 1.45
1.587 X
2 X
2.5 X
3 X X X
3.5 X
3.969 X (4.00)
4 X X
4.5 X
5 X X X
6 X X (6.35) X
7 X X
7.45 X (8.0)
8 X X
Diameters of spheres
Page 6 of 6
Venturi Meter
Objectives:
Pressure distribution study
Manifold
Air valve
Manometer tubes
Venturi
From supply To measuring tank
Figure 1: Layout of the Venturi meter
Description
Figure 2 shows the arrangement of the Venturi Meter, which is manufactured in
aluminum. Water enters via the bench supply valve and passes through a
flexible hose into the meter. Beyond the control valve, which is just downstream
of the meter, a further flexible hose leads to the measuring tank. At various
points along the length of the convergent-divergent passage of the Venturi,
piezometer tubes are drilled into the wall and connected to vertical manometer
tubes mounted in front of a scale marked in millimeters. The manometer tubes
connect at their top ends to a common manifold in which the amount of air may
be controlled by a small air valve at one end.
The whole assembly of Venturi meter, manometer tubes, scale and manifold is
supported on a base mounted on adjustable screwed feet.
It may be noted that in the usual form of Venturi meter intended for flow
measurement, pressure tappings are made only at the entrance and at the
throat, as these two readings suffice to measure the discharge. The larger
Page 1 of 6
Venturi Meter
numbers of tappings on this experimental Venturi tube are intended to show the
distribution of pressure along the length of the convergent-divergent passage.
Installation Instructions
1. Place the apparatus on the Hydraulic Bench top.
2. Connect the upstream side of the unit to the bench supply valve with a
length of plastic tube.
3. Connect down-stream end of apparatus to a plastic tube, the free end of
which is directed into the weigh tank access hole in the centre of the bench
top.
4. Set both the apparatus flow control and bench supply valve to approximately
one third fully open positions. Before allowing water to flow through the
apparatus check that the air purge valve on the upper manifold is tightly
closed.
5. Switch on the bench supply and allow water to flow. To clear air from the
manometer tubes it may help to slightly tilt the apparatus or lightly tap the
tubes with the finger.
6. Close the apparatus flow control valve. Air will now be trapped in the upper
parts of the manometer tubing and the manifold.
7. Release the air purge valve sufficient to allow water to rise approximately
halfway up the manometer scale.
8. Close the purge valve.
9. Adjust both the bench supply and the apparatus control valves to obtain full
flow.
At this condition the maximum pressure difference between the Venturi inlet
and throat is about 240 mm. During this initial preparation it may be found
helpful to couple the pump to the purge valve, and manipulate accordingly,
to obtain all water levels on the scale.
10. Observe the water levels for a few moments to ensure the purge valve is
sealing properly. If the valve is leaking there will be a steady rise in the
levels. If tightening the valve does not stop the leak, replace the seal in the
valve.
11. Subsequent flow rates are now obtained by closing the apparatus control
valve.
Important notes:
 Water should not be allowed to stand in the apparatus after each test.
 After use the apparatus should be fully drained, and dried externally with a
lint-free cloth.
 The upper manometer reservoir is made from thick walled glass and is
adequately strong for all normal use. However, take care when handling or
moving the equipment.
Page 2 of 6
Venturi Meter
THEORY
Consider the flow of an incompressible fluid through the convergent-divergent
pipe shown in Figure 2. The cross-sectional area at the upstream section 1 is a1
and at throat section 2 is a2. Any other arbitrary section n is an. Piezometer tubes
at these sections register h1, h2 and hn as shown.
Assuming that there is no
loss of energy long the
pipe, and that the velocity
and piezometric heads
are constant across each
of the sections
considered, then
Bernoulli’s theorem
states that:
Figure 2: Ideal conditions in a venturi meter
in which u1, u2 and un are the velocities of flow through sections 1, 2 and n. The
equation of continuity is:
in which Q denotes the volume-flow or discharge rate.

Substituting in Equation (1) for u1 from Equation (2):
( )
and solving this equation for u2 leads to:
√
⁄
so that the discharge rate, from Equation (2) becomes:
√
⁄
In practice, there is some loss of energy between sections 1 and 2, and the velocity is not absolutely
constant across either of these sections.
Page 3 of 6
Venturi Meter
As a result, the measured value of Q usually fall a little short of those calculated from Equation (3)
and it is customary to allow for this discrepancy by writing:
√
⁄
in which C is known as the coefficient of the meter, which may be established by experiment. Its
value varies slightly from one meter to another, and, even for a given meter it may vary slightly with
the discharge, but usually lies within the range 0.92 to 0.99.
The ideal pressure distribution along the convergent-divergent pipe may be seen
from Bernoulli’s Equation to be given by:
For the purpose of calculation and of comparison of experimental results with

calculation, it is convenient to express (hn – h1) as a fraction of the velocity head
at the throat of the meter, i.e.
⁄
Substituting on the right hand side area ratios in place of velocity ratios from the
equation of continuity 2, the ideal pressure distribution becomes:
( ) ( )
⁄
EXPERIMENTS
Figure 3: Dimensions of Venturi meter and positions of piezometer tubes
Page 4 of 6
Venturi Meter
The rate of flow is measured by a weighing technique. While this is in progress,

values of h1 and h2 are read from the scale.
Note: from Figure 3 h1 = point A and h2 = point B.
Similar readings may be taken at a series of reducing values of (h1 – h2).
About 10 readings, roughly equally spread, in the range of 250 mm to zero being
adequate for the purpose. The corresponding flow rate should be measured for
each value of (h1 – h2).
By reading off from all the piezometer tubes at any of the settings used above,
the pressure distribution along the length of the Venturi meter may be recorded.
If, however, this is done in every case, the reduction of all the results becomes
lengthy, so it is suggested that only one or two such comprehensive readings be
taken, preferably, for the sake of accuracy, near the maximum flow.
Ideal Pressure Distribution

Distance from inlet to contraction section (mm)
⁄
( ) ( )
( )
This equation gives us the ideal

pressure distribution along the
meter as a fraction of the velocity
head at the throat.
From our knowledge of the
dimensions of the meter we can
tabulate this as in Table 1.
Measured Pressure
Distribution
The measurements of pressure
distribution along Venturi meter as
a fraction of velocity head at throat
must be tabulated using the table
form 2.
Table 2 must show two complete
sets of piezometer readings taken
for two typical flow rates.
By expressing piezometric head
changes hn – h1 as a fraction of the
velocity head ⁄ at the throat, ⁄
results at different discharges Figure 3
become directly comparable.
Page 5 of 6
Venturi Meter
Piezometer tube Diameter of cross

( ) ( ) ( )
number section dn (mm)
A(1) 26.00 0.615 0.144 0.000
B 23.20 0.690 0.226 -0.082
C 18.40 0.869 0.575 -0.431
D(2) 16.00 1.000 1.000 -0.856
E 16.80 0.953 0.830 -0.686
F 18.47 0.867 0.565 -0.421
G 20.16 0.787 0.400 -0.256
H 21.84 0.730 0.289 -0.145
J 23.53 0.680 0.251 -0.071
K 25.24 0.633 0.168 -0.024
L 26.00 0.615 0.144 0.000
Table 1: Ideal pressure distribution as a fraction of velocity head at throat
⁄ ⁄
Piezometer
tube number hn hn -h1 hn hn -h1
(mm) (m) ⁄ (mm) (m) ⁄
A(1)
B
C
D(2)
E
F
G
H
J
K
L
Table 2: Measurements of pressure distribution along Venturi meter as a fraction of velocity head at
throat
1. Plot the graphs represent the results of Ideal Pressure Distribution as well as
of the Measured Pressure Distribution. (Use the graph form as in Figure 3)
2. Compare both two graphs.
3. Conclude
Page 6 of 6
Experiment F4 & F5-Description Unit: H408
Fluid Friction
Objectives:
The objectives are to investigate the flow, flow measurement techniques and
losses in a wide variety of pipes and fittings.
Figure 1: The Fluid Friction Apparatus
Page 1 of 9
Fluid Friction
Figure 2: The Fluid Friction Apparatus - Left side details
Page 2 of 9
Fluid Friction
Smooth
Pipe 17
mm Bore
Smooth Pipe 17
mm Bore
Figure 3: The Fluid Friction Apparatus - Right side details
Description:
The apparatus has three color coded circuits each fitted with a different control
valve and a selection of pipes and pipe fittings. One of the circuits includes
interchangeable sections, with further selections of pipe components. One of
these interchangeable sections includes a Pitot Assembly with traversing
mechanism.
Page 3 of 9
Fluid Friction
Numbered pressure tappings are fitted at all the important points, for
measurement of the pressure change along each pipe section or pipe
component.
Each pressure tapping includes a special self sealing connector.
To measure the pressure change across each pipe section or components, a
free standing 3 way Piezometer unit is supplied.
To measure the higher differential pressure across the valves and strainer, a
differential pressure gauge is included.
The apparatus will be used with the H1d hydraulic bench for water supply and
flow measurement.
For very low flow rate measurement a 1000 ml measuring cylinder allows a more
accurate volume/time method when used in conjunction with the hydraulic bench
supply.
The pipe sections and pipe components include:

• A roughened pipe and smooth pipes of different internal diameters
• A selection of bends, an elbow and a MITRE corner
• Three different types of valve
• Orifice and Venturi meters
• An in-line Strainer supplied with two different filters
• Sudden expansion and sudden contractions
The Orifice and Venturi Meters

One of the interchangeable pipe sections includes an orifice, a venturi and an
expansion piece. Figure 4 shows the section and its equivalent internal
arrangement.
Figure 4: The Orifice and Venturi Meters - Equivalent Diagram
Page 4 of 9
Fluid Friction
Distances
Tapping
Item Details Between
Numbers
Tappings
Gate Valve 1, 2 -
Globe Valve 3, 4 -
Ball Valve 5, 6 -
Smooth Pipe 17 mm Diameter Bore 7, 8 912 mm
Sudden
Enlargement 13.6 mm to 26.2 mm 9, 10 -
Sudden Contraction 26.2 mm to 13.6 mm 11, 12 -
Smooth Pipe 26.2 mm Diameter Bore 10, 11 912 mm
Smooth Pipe 13.6 mm Diameter Bore 13, 14 912 mm
Radius Bend 50 mm 15, 16 920 mm
Mitre Corner 20, 21 935 mm
Elbow 13.6 mm Radius 22, 23 910 mm
Orifice 20 mm Diameter 24, 25 -
Expansion 26 mm to 52 mm 26, 27 -
d1 = 26 mm Diameter d2
Venturi = 16 mm Diameter 28, 29 -
17 mm Diameter Bore 14
Rough Pipe mm Effective Diameter 30, 31 200 mm
Includes Two Different
Strainer Filters 32, 33 -
Smooth Pipe 4 mm Diameter Bore 34, 35 350 mm
Inlet Pipe Colored White - -
Outlet Pipe Colored Black - -
Table 1: Pipe Fittings and Their Tappings
The Tappings
Each tapping has a small check valve. To connect to the tapping, simply push
the metal tail piece of a connecting pipe into the tapping. To remove, gently
squeeze the plastic halves of the tapping together.
Page 5 of 9
Fluid Friction
The Grey Circuit

The Grey colored pipe circuit includes
four interchangeable sections. They are
separate and interchangeable so that
only one item can be connected at a
time unlike the items in the other two
circuits. This is because the
interchangeable sections would have an
adverse effect on the flow rate, pressure
or flow quality for subsequent sections.
To connect each interchangeable
section, simply unscrew the quick
couplers at the ends of the two flexible Figure 5: Use the Quick Couplings to Connect
pipe sections and reconnect them to the to the Chosen Interchangeable Section of the
ends of the chosen interchangeable Grey Circuit
section (fig. 5).
The Strainer
The Strainer is supplied with two different plastic filters, one with 1.4 mm
diameter holes and the other with 0.5 mm diameter holes.
The Valves
The three valves fitted to the apparatus are typical valves, made from Nickel
Plated Brass or Bronze.
The Globe valve (fig. 6) is a similar design to domestic taps, where a circular
washer is forced onto a circular valve seat to stop the flow. The flow is forced
through a difficult route around the body of this valve.
The Ball valve (fig. 7) comprises of a sphere which rotates through 90 degrees
inside the valve body. The sphere has a hole bored through it which is equal in
diameter to the entrance and exit ports of the valve, so that it causes no
interruption to the flow when it is fully open.
The Gate valve (fig. 6) is a very simple design; a ‘gate’ simply blocks the flow
when it is forced down into position across the body of the valve.
The Globe and Gate valves need several turns of the hand wheel to change
between fully open and fully closed. The Ball valve only needs a 90 degree turn
of its lever.
Page 6 of 9
Fluid Friction
Figure 6
Figure 7: Ball Valve
Figure 8: The Pitot tube Inside the Clear Pipe
Page 7 of 9
Fluid Friction
EXPERIMENTS AND THEORY
Setup:
Bleed Air from All Pipes and Instruments
Before taking any readings, bleed out any air trapped in the circuit, tapping
points, connecting tubes, pressure gauges and Piezometer tubes.
To bleed the connection pipes and piezometer:
(1) Obtain a suitable bucket (10 Liter capacity) to avoid water spills.
(2) Connect and turn on the cold water supply to maximum flow, open the outlet
valve on the circuit you are testing and wait for any trapped air to leave the
circuit.
(3) Close the outlet valve on the circuit you are testing.
(4) Select suitable lengths of connecting tube and place one end into the
bucket. Connect the other ends to the tapping points you wish to use.
(5) Wait until all the air has been forced out of the connecting pipes and quickly
connect the free ends of the pipes from out of the bucket to the pair of
tappings on the Piezometers you wish to use.
(6) Open the valve in the cap at the manifold (top of the Piezometer) and allow
the piezometer to fill up. Release the valve when the Piezometer tubes are
full of water.
(7) Reduce the cold water supply to a low rate of flow and open the outlet valve
on the circuit you are testing.
(8) Open the valve cap on the Piezometer manifold again and allow the
pressure to equalize in the tubes. Close the valve cap.
The self sealing tappings at the base of the Piezometers will help to keep the
tubes full of water between experiments, as long as care is taken when you use
the connecting tubes.
To alter the relative heights of the water column use the hand pump (supplied) to
increase the manifold pressure, or release the pressure by pressing the centre
of the valve in the manifold cap.
To bleed the pressure gauge:

(1) Use the lengths of pipe (supplied) to connect between the gauge tappings
(marked ‘+’ and ‘-) and the tappings at the valve you wish to monitor.
(2) Open the valve fully, increase the water supply to maximum flow and
temporarily block the outlet pipe (hold your hand over the end of the pipe) to
give maximum pressure in the circuit and at the valve.
Page 8 of 9
Fluid Friction
(3) Unscrew the cap from each bleed valve (above the pressure gauge). Turn
each of the caps around and press them into each bleed valve body, this
opens the valves (see Figure 11).
(4) Keep the valves open until all the air has passed out of the pipe.
(5) Remove the block on the outlet pipe and adjust the flow to that needed for
the experiment.
Useful Notes on Procedure

• Allow the flow to settle for several minutes before you take a reading from
the Piezometers and the Pitot assembly.
• The surface of the water in the Piezometer tubes has a slight ‘dish’ shape or
‘meniscus’- be consistent and always measure to the bottom of the
meniscus.
• Lightly ‘tap’ the pressure gauge before you take its reading, it has a
mechanical mechanism which may sometimes stick.
• Unless stated otherwise, set the maximum flow rate for the experiment at the
cold water supply with the circuit valve fully open, and then use the circuit
valve to adjust the flow. This keeps the circuit pressure as high as possible
and allows the flow rate to settle quickly.
Notation
The following symbols are used in the theory and calculations for the
experiments:
Symbol Units Description

3 -1
Q Cubic Meters/Second (m .s ) Volumetric Flow Rate
h Meters (m) Head
u Meters/Second (m.s-1) Flow Velocity
d m Pipe Diameter
ν m2 s-1 Kinematic Viscosity
l Meters (m) Length of pipe (between tappings)
f Friction Factor
-2
g m.s Acceleration due to Gravity
k Loss Factor
ks m Diameter of Sand Grains
A m2 Cross Sectional Area of Pipe
Re Reynolds Number
Table 2: Symbols used
Page 9 of 9
Fluid Friction - Losses in Straight Pipes

Objective
Determining the losses in smooth and roughened pipes.
Procedure
1) Prepare a blank table similar to Table 3.
2) Close the Globe valve and the Ball valve (light blue and grey circuits). Open the
Gate valve (dark blue circuit) half of a turn.
3) Turn on the cold water supply and wait for any trapped air to leave the circuit, then
close the Gate valve
4) Connect one set of piezometer tubes to tappings 13 (upstream) and 14
(downstream), if necessary, bleed the pipes.
5) Use the hand pump if necessary to adjust the pressure in the Piezometer tubes
until the levels are halfway up the scale. The level in each of the Piezometer tubes
should be the same, if not then check for air bubbles or leaks.
6) Fully open the gate valve and wait for the flow to settle. Record the readings on the
Piezometer into Table 3.
7) Use the Gate valve to reduce the flow rate in five suitable steps to give a good
spread of results.
8) Repeat for the other smooth pipes and the rough pipe. Use the measuring cylinder
(supplied) and a stopwatch to measure the flow rate for the 4 mm pipe, as the flow
rate is very low.
Internal Diameter (d)= Area (A)= Length (l)=

Pipe Type (Smooth/Rough)=
Piezometer Readings f=
Blasius
Time Flow
Flow f
for 15 Rate
Velocity Re or /
Liters (Q) Downstr
Difference (m.s-1) Chart
(s) (m3.s-1) Upstream eam
(Δh) value
Tapping (mm) Tapping
(m)
(mm)
Table 3
Results Analysis - Smooth Pipes

As fluid flows through a straight pipe, energy is dissipated due to turbulence and friction.
This energy can be measured by the head loss for a length of pipe. Much research has
been done into the losses in pipes, and it has been shown that the head loss, h, can be
represented by a friction factor f, where:
Page 1 of 3
h = 4flu2 / 2gd
c) For each pipe, calculate the flow rate (Q) and hence the flow velocity (u) as
below.
u = Q/A
To allow a meaningful comparison to be made between pipes of different

diameter and different flow rates, the Reynolds number, Re, for each test point
is calculated, where
Re = ud/ν
Given that ν = 1.004 x 10-6 m2/sec for water at 20°C.

b) Calculate the friction factor, f, and the Reynolds number, Re, for each of the
smooth pipes at each flow rate.
For a smooth pipe, the friction factor is given by the empirical Blasius formula.
f = 0.079(Re)-1/4
c) Calculate the Blasius friction factor for each test point and compare to the
measured value of f.
Do these values suggest that the pipes are perfectly smooth?

From these calculations, what effect does the pipe diameter have on the
apparent smoothness?
Results Analysis - Roughened Pipes

Figure 10 shows a graph produced by the American engineer Lewis Moody (1880-
1953) which shows the relationship between friction factor and Reynolds number
for different levels of pipe roughness. The line for a smooth pipe is the same as the
Blasius formula.
a) From the recorded results, calculate the f factor and the Reynolds number for
the roughened pipe. This pipe is coated internally with sand that has an average
grain size of 0.5 mm (see fig. 9). The effective pipe diameter is 14.0 mm, so
ks/d = 0.036.
b) Compare the f factor
for the roughened
pipe with the value
from the Moody
graph.
c) Use the Moody graph, to estimate Figure 9: Roughened Pipe

the surface roughness of the ‘smooth pipes’ used on this apparatus.
Page 2 of 3
Figure 10: Moody Chart

Page 3 of 3
JAF 2014
Fluid Friction - Losses in Bends
Objectives: To determine the head loss in bends and elbows.
This experiment tests all three of the different bends on the light blue circuit at
the same time. It then tests the mitre and elbow on the dark blue circuit at the
same time.
Figure 1: Bend Radius and Pipe Diameter Relationship
Procedure
1. Prepare several blank tables similar to Table 1.
2. Close the Gate valve and the Ball valve (dark blue and grey circuits).
Open the Globe valve (light blue circuit) half of a turn.
3. Turn on the cold water supply and wait for any trapped air to leave the
circuit, and then close the Globe valve.
4. Connect each of the three sets of piezometer tubes to the tappings at
each side of the bends (see Table 1). If necessary, bleed the pipes.
5. Use the hand pump if necessary to adjust the pressure in the Piezometer
tubes until the levels are halfway up the scale. The level in each of the
Piezometer tubes should be the same, if not then check for air bubbles or
leaks. Note that tappings 18 and 19 are actually the same point, but are
selected with the two way valve next to them. The valve handle points to
the tapping that is connected. The valve is fitted to remove any possibility
of pressure imbalance when tappings 4, 19, 18 and 17 are used at the
same time.
6. Fully open the Globe valve and wait for the flow to settle. Record the
Piezometer readings into your tables.
7. Use the Globe valve to reduce the flow rate in three suitable steps to give
a good spread of results.
8. Repeat for the mitre and elbow, but use the Gate valve to control the flow.
Page 1 of 4
JAF 2014
Table 1: Blank Results Table for Bends, Elbows and Corners

Page 2 of 4
JAF 2014
Results Analysis
When a fluid flows round a bend, energy losses occur due to flow separation,
wall friction and some secondary-flow patterns caused by the bend. Bends may
be characterised by the ratio of bend radius to internal diameter, R/d, where
gently sweeping bends may have values of 10 or more, or an abrupt ‘mitre’ bend
would be 0.
For tight bends such as mitres, the losses will be mainly due to flow separation
and secondary flow patterns.
For more gentle bends, flow separation and wall friction will predominate.
These losses can be represented with a loss factor, k.
However, it is helpful to differentiate between the total loss round the bend (kL,
hL), and the loss due to bend geometry, (kB, hB) which ignores wall friction
losses.
The losses around the bend are created by the bend losses and an additional
loss due to the length of pipe that it is made from. This additional loss must be
added to hB to find kL and hL.
The loss due to bend geometry is found by measuring the head loss between
the tappings and deducting the calculated head loss for an equivalent length of
straight pipe.
The distances between tappings for each bend are given in the description
sheet.
a) For each test point for each bend, calculate the flow velocity, and hence the
Reynolds number.
b) From the Reynolds number, calculate the frictional head loss for an
equivalent length of smooth straight pipe using the Blasius equation. The
head loss due to the bend geometry can now be found.
c) For a more accurate measure of the frictional head loss, use the k/d value
from Experiment F4 to find the f factor from the Moody chart, at the given
Reynolds number.
d) To determine the value of kB for each bend, plot the head loss due to bend
geometry, hB, against u2/2g. The gradient of the line will be kB.
e) If you were designing a piping system with 13.6 mm inside diameter pipe,
and wanted to reduce the losses due to bends, what would you set as the
minimum bend radius?
Page 3 of 4
JAF 2014

f) Standard graphs of kL against R/d show that kL has minimum value at R/d
of between 2 and 3 (see Figure 2). Why do you think this is?
g) Which value kB or kL do you think is of most practical use and why?
kl
kB
Figure 2: Loss Coefficients for Smooth Bends
Page 4 of 4
Experiment F6 Unit: AF10
Pressure Distribution around an Airfoil

Objectives
The students have to
- Measure the excess pressure and reduced pressure below and above the airfoil
at several angles of attack.
- Define the angle at which the lift force deteriorates.
Fig. 1: Airflow Bench shown with the multitube manometer

Page 1 of 9

Description of Airflow Bench
The Airflow Bench comprises a fan which draws air from the atmosphere
and delivers it along a pipe to an air box which is above the test area. In
the pipe is a valve which may be used to regulate the discharge from the
fan.
There is a rectangular slot in the underside of the air box to which various
contraction sections may be fitted. The air accelerates as it flows from the
box along the contracting passage, and any unsteadiness or unevenness
of the flow at the entry becomes proportionately reduced as the streaming
velocity increases towards the test section, which is fitted at the exit of the
contraction.
THE INCLINABLE MULTITUBE MANOMETER
It is a 14 limb multi-tube
manometer, as shown in Figure 3.
The reservoir for the manometer
liquid is mounted on a vertical rod
so that it may be set to a
convenient height. It is
recommended that the manometer
tubes at the two sides, marked A in
Figure 3, and the reservoir
connection, be normally left open
to atmospheric pressure.
Pressures p1, p2, p3 ... in tubes 1,
2, 3 are then gage pressures,
measured relative to an
atmospheric datum.
Fig. 2: Inclinable Multi-tube Manometer

The manometer liquid is water. To aid visibility, the water may be colored
by a dye. The specific gravity of the water is not significantly altered by
addition of the dye. To fill, the reservoir is positioned about halfway up the
bar, and the fitting at the top is unscrewed. Using the funnel provided,
manometer liquid is poured in until the level is halfway up the scale. Any
air bubbles from the manometer tubes are then removed by tapping the
inlet pipe, or by blowing into the tops of the tubes.
Page 2 of 9
Fig. 3: Inclinable Multitube Manometer
The manometer scale is graduated in mm. Pressure readings taken in

terms of mm of water may be converted to units of millibar (mb) from the
relationship:
1 mm water = 0.0981 mb
The manometer may be used vertically, or, for increased sensitivity,
inclined at some suitable angle to the vertical (the manometer has a scale
to its side, marked in 5 and 10 degree divisions):
0°, gives a scale magnification of 1.0 (reading . 1);
60°, gives a scale magnification of 2.00 (reading . 0.5);
78°, gives a scale magnification of 5.00 (reading . 0.2).
Scale readings are therefore to be divided by factors of 2.00 and 5.00
respectively to obtain equivalent readings on a vertical scale. The
manometer is sufficiently accurate and sensitive for all of the experiments.
The manometer must be levelled before taking readings. This can be done
by using the adjustable feet, while observing the manometer liquid levels
across all of the tubes under static conditions.
Page 3 of 9

It is possible that, as the air speed is increased; liquid may be driven out of
the tops of the manometer tubes, or drawn down into the manifold at the
base. The connection between tapping points and the manometer would
then have to be cleared, or the reservoir may need to be refilled. It is
therefore advisable, before starting a test, to guard against these
eventualities by adopting the following setting-up procedure.
With the fan at rest and the bench valve closed, the manometer should be
set to the vertical position, with the liquid level at about mid-height. The fan
should then be started, and the air speed raised gradually by carefully
opening the bench valve, while observing the levels in the manometer
tubes. As the pressures in the various tubes change, the reservoir level
should be moved up or down, as found to be necessary to keep all the
liquid levels within the bounds of the scale. A good setting would use most
of the scale at full airspeed. If, however, only a small proportion of the
scale is used, the procedure should be repeated with the manometer
inclined to the vertical.
AIRFOIL WITH TAPPINGS
The Airfoil with Tappings fits onto the AF10

and shows the pressure distribution
around a symmetrical NACA0020 airfoil
and the characteristics of lift.
It is a small-scale model wing, but the
results from its tests can be scaled up to
compare with larger airfoils.
Fig. 4: The Airfoil with Tappings

Description
A clear-sided duct contains the airfoil in ‘closed ends’ arrangement, so
airflow is only across the curved surfaces of the airfoil, and not around its
ends (or wing-tips).
This stops any wing-tip vortices or drag caused by the wing tips.
Therefore, the airfoil shows two-dimensional flow. This arrangement also
gives the airfoil a theoretical unlimited span or ‘infinite span’. The duct
holds the airfoil in a vertical position, relative to the ground.
Page 4 of 9

Pressure tappings are along the top and bottom surfaces of the airfoil.
They connect to a set of numbered, small pipe connectors on a plate next
to the airfoil. A set of larger bore pipes connects the numbered pipe
connectors to the Inclinable Multi-tube Manometer. Just above the airfoil at
the inlet to the duct is an extra pressure tapping for measurement of the
static pressure upstream of the airfoil, and for use with the tapping on the
Air Flow Bench to calculate air velocity upstream of the airfoil.
A control on the front of the unit allows the user to adjust the airfoil’s ‘angle
of incidence’ (also known as the ‘angle of attack’). A scale shows the
angle, relative to the airflow from the Air Flow Bench.
Fig. 5: The Airfoil
Fig. 6: Angle of Incidence
Page 5 of 9
Tapping Tapping Position Tapping Tapping Position

Number From the leading Number From the leading
edge (mm) edge (mm)
1 1.0 7 20.0
2 2.0 8 26.0
3 4.5 9 32.1
4 7.5 10 38.0
5 11.0 11 44.0
6 14.5 12 50.0
Table 1: Tapping Positions
Table 1 shows the positions of the tappings along the surface of the airfoil.
Note that tappings 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 are all on one side of the airfoil.
Tappings 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 are all on the other. Table 2 shows the
details of the airfoil.
Aerofoil Type NACA0020 (symmetrical)
Aerofoil Chord 63 mm
Aerofoil Wing Span 49 mm
Effective surface area 0.0031 m2
Table 2: Airfoil Details

Note: A symmetrical airfoil in airflow produces no lift when its angle of
incidence is zero, as the pressures above and below the airfoil is equal.
Fig. 7: Pressure around a symmetrical Aerofoil
Page 6 of 9

As the angle of incidence increases positively from 0, the airfoil starts to
produce lift. Pressure decreases above the main part of the airfoil as the
incidence angle increases. The airfoil shape and the airflow velocity
determine the pressure distribution above and below the airfoil.
You can measure the performance of a wing by measurement of the
pressures on the surface of the airfoil, relative to local air pressure.
The results can be shown as readings of pressures against and tapping
positions.
Experiment Procedure
1. Fit the Airfoil to the Air Flow Bench
as shown in the Fig. 8. It has
locating holes, so you cannot make
a mistake.
2. Use the pipes to connect the airfoil
tappings and the static pressure
tapping to a multi-tube manometer.
So that you will understand and
clearly see what is happening,
connect tappings 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11
to the first set of manometer tubes,
and tappings 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 to
the next set of tubes.
3. Leave one manometer tube and the
common manometer connection
open to atmosphere, so that all Fig. 8: Connecting the Airfoil to
pressures are shown with respect to the Multi-tube manometer
atmosphere.
4. A small locking screw at the back of the Airfoil holds it in position.
Loosen the locking screw and set the airfoil to 0 (zero) angle. Tighten
the locking screw.
5. Connect the static pressure tapping at the top of the wind tunnel to the
last manometer tube and measure the pressure (with respect to the
manometer tube that measures atmospheric pressure). The fig. 8
shows this as a dotted line.
6. Move this manometer connection down to the inlet static pressure
tapping just above the aerofoil and measure the pressure (with
respect to the manometer tube that measures atmospheric pressure).
7. Record all the manometer readings for the tappings of the airfoil (with
respect to atmosphere).
Page 7 of 9

8. Increase the angle of incidence to be more positive in steps of 5
degrees (clockwise), up to 25 degrees. At every five degree angle,
repeat steps 5, 6 and 7. Also, take extra measurements at 17.5 and
22.5 degrees. Convert all your pressure readings into Pascals (Pa).
9. Fill the table below.
10. Draw pressure distribution diagram on the airfoil model for each angle
of attack using the same scale. The vacuum pressure has to be
illustrated as a vector directs away from the airfoil surface and the
positive pressure has to be directed to the opposite direction.
11. Compare the diagrams and define the preferable angle of attack.
Angle
Pressure value
of
attack 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
0°
5°
10°
15°
17°
20°
22.5°
25°
Table 3: Pressure Values
Page 8 of 9
Angle of attack: ------------
Page 9 of 9

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Laboratory Fluid Mechanics Lab -MENG 370L

Experiment F1 Unit: H30, H3a

Calibration of a Pressure gage, Pressure Measurement

1- Demonstration of the pressure measurement methods, and

Pressure Measurement Bench

Figure 1: Pressure Measurement Bench

The apparatus consists of a steel framework/bench construction with vertical

Experiment F1 Unit: H30, H3a

Calibration of a Pressure gage, Pressure Measurement

 Calibration of a Pressure Gage:

1. Record the cross-sectional area

Experiment F1 Unit: H30, H3a

Calibration of a Pressure gage, Pressure Measurement

Increasing Pressure Decreasing Pressure

Mass Total mass Actual

kg kg kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2 kN/m2

Table 1: Calibration of a pressure gage

 Pressure and Vacuum Measurement

Note; never apply pressure to the Vacuum Gauge. It will be damaged.

1. Create a blank results table, similar to Table 2.

Experiment F1 Unit: H30, H3a

Calibration of a Pressure gage, Pressure Measurement

Figure 3: The Syringe Nozzle Fits into a Pressure Sockets

Table 2: Pressure Measurement

Experiment F1 Unit: H30, H3a

Calibration of a Pressure gage, Pressure Measurement

Table 3: Vacuum Measurement

Experiment F2 Unit: H410

Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement

PRINCIPLE OF VISCOSITY MEASUREMENT

This force is written as follows:

Experiment F2 Unit: H410

Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement

This formula is applicable if:

This formula should be used if:

The kinematic viscosity is the solution of the incomplete third-order equation:

Experiment F2 Unit: H410

Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement

This is an equation of the form:

The solutions for which are in the form:

Experiment F2 Unit: H410

Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement

If this viscosity is unknown, spheres which

Experiment F2 Unit: H410

Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement

a) Degree Engler (°E)

1. Calculate the flow speed in an infinite environment

Experiment F2 Unit: H410

Particle Drag Coefficient – Viscosity measurement

From supply To measuring tank

Figure 1: Layout of the Venturi meter

Figure 2: Ideal conditions in a venturi meter

in which Q denotes the volume-flow or discharge rate.

and solving this equation for u2 leads to:

For the purpose of calculation and of comparison of experimental results with

Figure 3: Dimensions of Venturi meter and positions of piezometer tubes

The rate of flow is measured by a weighing technique. While this is in progress,