1.

Coral Castle:-
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Coral Castle
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
U.S. Historic district
Coral Castle (also known as Rock Gate)

Nearest city Homestead, Florida

25°30′1.227″N 80°26′41.9028″
W / 25.50034083°N
Coordinates 80.444973000°WCoordinates: 
25°30′1.227″N 80°26′41.9028″W
/ 25.50034083°N
80.444973000°W
Built 1920
Governing body Private
NRHP Reference # 84000840

Coral Castle is a stone structure created by the Latvian American eccentric Edward

Leedskalnin (1887–1951) north of the city of Homestead, Florida in Miami-Dade
County at the intersection of South Dixie Highway(U.S. 1) and SW 157th Avenue.
The structure comprises numerous megalithic stones (mostly limestone formed
from coral), each weighing several tons.[2] It currently serves as a privately
operated tourist attraction. Coral Castle is noted for legends surrounding its creation
that claim it was built single-handedly by Leedskalnin using reverse
magnetism and/or supernatural abilities to move and carve numerous stones weighing
many tons.

History:-
According to the Coral Castle's own promotional material, Edward Leedskalnin was
jilted by his 16-year-old fiancée Agnes Skuvst in Latvia, just one day before the
wedding. Leaving for America, he came down with allegedly terminal tuberculosis,
but spontaneously healed, stating that magnets had some effect on his disease.

Edward spent over 28 years building the Coral Castle, refusing to allow anyone to
view him while he worked. A few teenagers claimed to have witnessed his work,
reporting that he had caused the blocks of coral to move like hydrogen balloons. The
only tool that Leedskalnin spoke of using was a "perpetual motion holder."

Leedskalnin originally built the castle, which he named Rock Gate Park, in Florida
City, Florida around 1923. He purchased the land from Ruben Moser whose wife
assisted him when he had a very bad bout with tuberculosis.Florida City, which
borders the Everglades, is the southernmost city in the United States that is not on an
island. It was an extremely remote location with very little development at the time.
The castle remained in Florida City until about 1936 when Leedskalnin decided to
move and take the castle with him to its final location on 28655 South Dixie Highway
Miami, FL 33033. The Coral Castle website states that he chose to move in order to
protect his privacy when discussion about developing land in the area of the castle
started. He spent three years moving the Coral Castle structures 10 miles (16 km)
north from Florida City to its current location in Homestead, Florida.

Leedskalnin continued to work on the castle up until his death in 1951. The coral
pieces that are part of the newer castle, not among those transported from the original
location, were quarried on the property only a few feet away from the southern wall.

Leedskalnin charged visitors ten cents a head to tour the castle grounds. There are
signs carved into rocks at the front gate to "Ring Bell Twice" and a second sign just
inside the property that says "Adm. 10c Drop Below". He would come down from his
living quarters in the second story of the castle tower close to the gate and conduct the
tour. Leedskalnin never told anyone who asked him how he made the castle. He
would simply answer "It's not difficult if you know how."

When asked why he had built the castle, Leedskalnin would vaguely answer it was for
his "Sweet Sixteen." This is widely believed to be a reference to Agnes Skuvst (whose
oft-misspelled surname "Scuffs" is not even a legitimately formed Latvian word). In
Leedskalnin's own publication A Book in Every Home he implies his "Sweet Sixteen"
was more an ideal than a reality. According to a Latvian account, the girl existed, but
her name was actually Hermīne Lūsis.

When Leedskalnin became ill in November 1951, he put a sign on the door of the
front gate "Going to the Hospital" and took the bus to Jackson Memorial
Hospital in Miami. Leedskalnin suffered a stroke at one point, either before he left for
the hospital or at the hospital. He died twenty-eight days later of Pyelonephritis (a
kidney infection) at the age of 64. His death certificate noted that his death was a
result of "uremia; failure of kidneys, as a result of the infection and abscess."

While the property was being investigated, $3,500 was found among Leedskalnin's
personal belongings. Leedskalnin had made his income from conducting tours, selling
pamphlets about various subjects (including magnetic currents) and the sale of a
portion of his 10-acre (4.0 ha) property for the construction of U.S. Route 1. Having
no will, the castle became the property of his closest living relative in America, a
nephew from Michigan named Harry.

The Coral Castle website reports that the nephew was in poor health and he sold the
castle to an Illinois family in 1953. However, this story differs from the obituary of a
former Coral Castle owner, Julius Levin, a retired jeweler from Chicago, Illinois. The
obituary states Levin had purchased the land from the state of Florida in 1952 and
may not have been aware there was even a castle on the land.

The new owners changed the name of Rock Gate Park to Coral Castle and turned it
into a tourist attraction.

In January 1981, Levin sold the castle to the Coral Castle, Inc. for $175,000. They
remain the owners today.

In 1984, the property was listed on the National Register of Historic Places.[1] It was
added under the name of "Rock Gate," but the name on the list was changed to "Coral
Castle" in 2011.
The Castle:-

A view from within Leedskalnin's Coral Castle.

The grounds of Coral Castle consist of 1,100 short tons (1,000 t) of stones in the form
of walls, carvings, furniture and a castle tower. Commonly referred to as being made
up of coral, it is made of oolite, also known as oolitic limestone. Oolite is
a sedimentary rock composed of small spherical grains of concentrically
layered carbonate that may include localized concentrations of fossil shells and coral.
Oolite is found throughout southeastern Florida from Palm Beach County to
the Florida Keys. Oolite is often found beneath only several inches of topsoil, such as
at the Coral Castle site.

The stones are fastened together without mortar. They are set on top of each other
using their weight to keep them together. The craftsmanship detail is so skillful and
the stones are connected with such precision that no light passes through the joints.
The 8-foot (2.4 m) tall vertical stones that make up the perimeter wall have a uniform
height. Even with the passage of decades and a direct hit on August 24, 1992, by
the Category 5 Hurricane Andrew, the stones have not shifted.

Many of the features and carvings of the castle are notable. Among them are a two-
story castle tower that served as Leedskalnin's living quarters (walls consisting of 8-
foot high pieces of stone), an accurate sundial, aPolaris telescope, an obelisk, a
barbecue, a water well, a fountain, celestial stars and planets, and numerous pieces of
furniture. The furniture pieces include a heart-shaped table, a table in the shape of
Florida, twenty-fiverocking chairs, chairs resembling crescent moons, a bathtub, beds
and a throne.

The Thirty Ton Stone.

With few exceptions, the objects are made from single pieces of stone that weigh on
average 15 short tons (14 t) each. The largest stone weighs 30 short tons (27 t) and the
tallest are two monoliths standing 25 ft (7.6 m) each.

A 9-short-ton (8.2 t) revolving 8-foot tall gate is a famous structure of the castle,
documented on the television programs In Search of... and That's Incredible! The gate
is carved so that it fits within a quarter of an inch of the walls. It was well-balanced,
reportedly so that a child could open it with the push of a finger. The mystery of the
gate's perfectly balanced axis and the ease with which it revolved lasted for decades
until it stopped working in 1986. In order to remove it, six men and a 50-short-ton
(45 t) crane were used. Once the gate was removed, the engineers discovered how
Leedskalnin had centered and balanced it. He had drilled a hole from top to bottom
and inserted a metal shaft. The rock rested on an old truck bearing. It was
the rusting out of this bearing that resulted in the gate's failure to revolve. Complete
with new bearings and shaft, it was set back into place on July 23, 1986.It failed in
2005 and was again repaired, however it does not rotate with the same ease it once
did.

The Coral Castle remains a popular tourist attraction with various pop

culture speculations regarding how Leedskalnin was able to construct the structure
and move stones that weighed many tons. The Coral Castle site states that "if anyone
ever questioned Ed about how he moved the blocks of coral, Ed would only reply that
he understood the laws of weight and leverage well." He also stated that he had
"discovered the secrets of the pyramids", which of course could be interpreted in
either esoteric or engineering terms.

In popular culture:-
There are numerous references to the Coral Castle in culture, they include:

 Billy Idol wrote and recorded the song "Sweet Sixteen" and filmed the video in
the Coral Castle. The song was inspired by the story of Leedskalnin's former
love, Agnes Scuffs, who purportedly was the main reason Leedskalnin built the
structure.
 Scott Mitchell Putesky, former guitarist for Marilyn Manson (as Daisy
Berkowitz), named his first solo project Three Ton Gate as a tribute to the
massive coral gate at the park's entrance.
 Contemporary Christian artist Andrew Peterson recorded a song entitled "The
Coral Castle" as an unrequited love song from the point of view of Edward. It
can be found on his album "Carried Along".
 The New York-based band Piñataland wrote a song about Leedskalnin and the
Coral Castle, called "Latvian Bride".
 The Wild Women of Wongo used the Coral Castle for their dragon-god temple
in the eponymous 1958 film.
 The 1961 Doris Wishman film Nude on the Moon used the Coral Castle as the
"moon" scene for the moon people's home.
 Cuban-American author Daína Chaviano has dedicated a whole chapter to
Coral Castle in her novel The Island of Eternal Love (Riverhead
Books/Penguin Group, 2008).
 Coral Castle was the subject of an episode of Leonard Nimoy's program In
Search of.... The episode, "The Castle of Secrets (a.k.a. Coral Castle)" was
episode 16 of season 5; it included a re-enactment of Leedskalnin magically
moving the stones.
 In November 2012, a new book, Coral Castle Construction by John Martin was
released that describes how Ed Leedskalnin built his structure based on
fundamental engineering principles.

 Ferdinand Cheval, a similar self-made stone castle in France

References:-
  "Mark". "Weird US at Florida's Coral Castle". Weird NJ & KPI. YouTube:
excerpt from History Channel show
 "The Secrets of Coral Castle". About.Com. We may never know the answer.
Leedskalnin took his secrets with him to his grave in 1951.
 "Coral Castle Code". Jon and Nina De'Pew. Self-purported derivation
of Edward Leedskalnin's book Magnetic Current
 Leedskalnin, Edward. Magnetic Current (Illustrated). Scrbd.
 "Critical Analysis of Coral Castle". skeptoid.com.

 Coral Castle - The Mystery of Ed Leedskalnin and His American Stonehenge -

McClure and Hefferon

"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coral_Castle&oldid=632231551"
Categories:

 Historic districts in Florida

 Art museums in Florida
 Castles in the United States
 Forteana
 Museums in Miami-Dade County, Florida
 National Register of Historic Places in Miami-Dade County, Florida
 Folly buildings in the United States
 Outdoor sculptures in Florida
 Roadside attractions in Florida
 Visionary environments
 Buildings and structures completed in 1923
 Stone sculptures
 1923 sculptures
 Homestead, Florida

2.Great Wall of China:-

The Great Wall of China at Jinshanling

Map of all the wall constructions

General information

Type Fortification

Country  China

40°40′37″N 117°13′55″E / 40.67693°N
Coordinates 117.23193°ECoordinates:  40°40′37″N 117
°13′55″E / 40.67693°N 117.23193°E

Technical details

Size 21,196 km (13,171 mi)

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name: The Great Wall

Type: Cultural

Criteria: i, ii, iii, iv, vi

Designated: 1987 (11th session)

Reference N
438
o.

State Party: China

Region: Asia-Pacific

The Great Wall of China is a series of fortifications made of stone, brick, tamped

earth, wood, and other materials, generally built along an east-to-west line across the
historical northern borders of China in part to protect the Chinese Empire or its
prototypical states against intrusions by various nomadic groups or military incursions
by various warlike peoples or forces. Several walls were being built as early as the 7th
century BC;these, later joined together and made bigger and stronger, are now
collectively referred to as the Great Wall.Especially famous is the wall built between
220–206 BC by the first Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Little of that wall
remains. Since then, the Great Wall has on and off been rebuilt, maintained, and
enhanced; the majority of the existing wall is from the Ming Dynasty.

Other purposes of the Great Wall have included border controls, allowing the
imposition of duties on goods transported along the Silk Road, regulation or
encouragement of trade and the control of immigration and emigration. Furthermore,
the defensive characteristics of the Great Wall were enhanced by the construction of
watch towers, troop barracks, garrison stations, signaling capabilities through the
means of smoke or fire, and the fact that the path of the Great Wall also served as a
transportation corridor.

The main Great Wall line stretches from Shanhaiguan in the east, to Lop Lake in the
west, along an arc that roughly delineates the southern edge of Inner Mongolia. A
comprehensive archaeological survey, using advanced technologies, has concluded
that the Ming walls measure 8,850 km (5,500 mi). This is made up of 6,259 km
(3,889 mi) sections of actual wall, 359 km (223 mi) of trenches and 2,232 km
(1,387 mi) of natural defensive barriers such as hills and rivers. Another
archaeological survey found that the entire wall with all of its branches measure out to
be 21,196 km (13,171 mi).

Names:-
The collection of walls known today as the Great Wall of China was referred by a
number of different names. The current English name evolved from enthusiastic
accounts of "the Chinese wall" from early European travelers; by the end of the 19th
century "the Great Wall of China" became the name of the walls.In Chinese, they are
most commonly known as changcheng , meaning "long wall". The term can be found
in theRecords of the Grand Historian (1st century BC), where it referred to the walls
built by the Warring States, and most particularly, the walls of Qin Shi Huang.The
notion of it being "ten thousand li" long (figuratively meaning "endless"), as reflected
in the full Chinese name of the Great Wall in modern times , also comes from
the Records, though the words "Wanli Changcheng" were rarely used together in pre-
modern times—a rare example being the Book of Song written in 493, where it quotes
the frontier general Tan Daoji.

Historically, the dynasties after Qin avoided using the term changcheng to refer to
their own "Great Walls", as the term was said to evoke imagery of Qin's
tyranny. Instead, historical records indicate the use of various terms such as
"frontier" , "rampart" , "barrier" , "outer fortresses" , and "border wall" , in addition to
poetic and folk names like "purple frontier"  and "earth dragon.Only in modern times
did changcheng become the catch-all term to refer to the long border walls regardless
of location or dynastic origin, equivalent to the Western term "Great Wall".

History:-
Main article: History of the Great Wall of China

Early walls:-
Great Wall of the Qin Dynasty

Great Wall of the Han Dynasty

The Chinese were already familiar with the techniques of wall-building by the time of
the Spring and Autumn period between the 8th and 5th centuries BC. [15] During this
time and the subsequent Warring States period, the states
of Qin, Wei, Zhao, Qi, Yan and Zhongshan  all constructed extensive fortifications to
defend their own borders. Built to withstand the attack of small arms such as swords
and spears, these walls were made mostly by stamping earth and gravel between board
frames.

Qin Shi Huang conquered all opposing states and unified China in 221 BC,
establishing the Qin Dynasty. Intending to impose centralized rule and prevent the
resurgence of feudal lords, he ordered the destruction of the wall sections that divided
his empire along the former state borders. To position the empire against
the Xiongnu people from the north, he ordered the building of new walls to connect
the remaining fortifications along the empire's northern frontier. Transporting the
large quantity of materials required for construction was difficult, so builders always
tried to use local resources. Stones from the mountains were used over mountain
ranges, whilerammed earth was used for construction in the plains. There are no
surviving historical records indicating the exact length and course of the Qin Dynasty
walls. Most of the ancient walls have eroded away over the centuries, and very few
sections remain today. The human cost of the construction is unknown, but it has been
estimated by some authors that hundreds of thousands, if not up to a million, workers
died building the Qin wall.Later, the Han, Sui, and the Northern dynasties all repaired,
rebuilt, or expanded sections of the Great Wall at great cost to defend themselves
against northern invaders. The Tang and Song Dynasties did not build any walls in the
region substantially. The Liao, Jin, and Yuan dynasties, who ruled Northern China
throughout most of the 10th–13th centuries, constructed defensive walls in the 12th
century, but those were located much to the north of the Great Wall as we know it,
within today's Inner and Outer Mongolia.

Ming era:-

The extent of the Ming Dynasty and its walls

Main article: Ming Great Wall

The Great Wall concept was revived again during the Ming Dynasty in the 14th
century, and following the Ming army's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu.
The Ming had failed to gain a clear upper hand over theMongolian tribes after
successive battles, and the long-drawn conflict was taking a toll on the empire. The
Ming adopted a new strategy to keep the nomadic tribes out by constructing walls
along the northern border of China. Acknowledging the Mongol control established in
the Ordos Desert, the wall followed the desert's southern edge instead of incorporating
the bend of the Yellow River.

Unlike the earlier fortifications, the Ming construction was stronger and more
elaborate due to the use of bricks and stone instead of rammed earth. Up to 25,000
watchtowers are estimated to have been constructed on the wall. As Mongol
raids continued periodically over the years, the Ming devoted considerable resources
to repair and reinforce the walls. Sections near the Ming capital of Beijing were
especially strong. Qi Jigging between 1567 and 1570 also repaired and reinforced the
wall, faced sections of the ram-earth wall with bricks and constructed 1,200
watchtowers from Shanhaiguan Pass to Changping to warn of approaching Mongol
raiders. During the 1440s–1460s, the Ming also built a so-called "Liaodong Wall".
Similar in function to the Great Wall (whose extension, in a sense, it was), but more
basic in construction, the Liaodong Wall enclosed the agricultural heartland of
the Liaodong province, protecting it against potential incursions by Jurched-Mongol
Oriyanghan from the northwest and the Jianzhou Jurchens from the north. While
stones and tiles were used in some parts of the Liaodong Wall, most of it was in fact
simply an earth dike with moats on both sides.

Towards the end of the Ming Dynasty, the Great Wall helped defend the empire
against the Manchu invasions that began around 1600. Even after the loss of all
of Liaodong, the Ming army held the heavily fortifiedShanhaiguan pass, preventing
the Manchus from conquering the Chinese heartland. The Manchus were finally able
to cross the Great Wall in 1644, after Beijing had already fallen to Li Zicheng's rebels.
Before this time, the Manchus had crossed the Great Wall multiple times to raid, but
this time it was for conquest. The gates at Shanhaiguan were opened on May 25 by
the commanding Ming general, Wu Sangui, who then formed an alliance with the
Manchus, hoping to use the Manchus to expel the rebels from Beijing. The Manchus
quickly seized Beijing, and defeated both the rebel-founded Shun Dynasty and
the remaining Ming resistance, establishing theQing Dynasty rule over all of China.

Under Qing rule, China's borders extended beyond the walls and Mongolia was
annexed into the empire, so constructions on the Great Wall were discontinued. On
the other hand, the so-called Willow Palisade, following a line similar to that of the
Ming Liaodong Wall, was constructed by the Qing rulers in Manchuria. Its purpose,
however, was not defense but rather migration control.

Foreign appreciation of the Wall

The Great Wall in 1907

Arabs had heard about China's Great Wall as early as the 14th century. They
associated it with Dhul-Qarnayn's Gog and Magog wall of the Qur'an, as the North
African traveler Ibn Battuta heard from the local Muslim communities
in Guangzhou around 1346.

Soon after Europeans reached Ming China in the early 16th century, accounts of the
Great Wall started to circulate in Europe, even though no European was to see it with
his own eyes for another century. Possibly one of the earliest descriptions of the wall,
and its significance for the defense of the country against the "Tartars" (i.e. Mongols),
may be the one contained in the Third Década of João de Barros' Asia (published
1563). Other early accounts in Western sources include those of Gaspar da
Cruz, Bento de Goes, Matteo Ricci, and Bishop Juan González de Mendoza.[33] In
1559, in his work "A Treatise of China and the Adjoyning Regions," Gaspar da Cruz
offers an early discussion of the Great Wall. Perhaps the first recorded instance of a
European actually entering China via the Great Wall came in 1605, when the
Portuguese Jesuit brother Bento de Góisreached the northwestern Jiayu Pass from
India. Early European accounts were mostly modest and empirical, closely mirroring
contemporary Chinese understanding of the Wall; although later they slid into
hyperbole, including the erroneous but ubiquitous claim that the Ming Walls were the
same ones that were built by Qin Shi Huang in the 3rd century BC.

When China opened its borders to foreign merchants and visitors after its defeat in
the First and Second Opium Wars, the Great Wall became a main attraction for
tourists. The travelogues of the later 19th century further enhanced the reputation and
the mythology of the Great Wall, such that in the 20th century, a persistent
misconception exists about the Great Wall of China being visible from the Moon or
even Mars.

Course:-

The main Great Wall line that are still standing today

An area of the sections of the Great Wall at Jinshanling

Although a formal definition of what constitutes a "Great Wall" has not been agreed
upon, making the full course of the Great Wall difficult to describe in its entirety, the
course of the main Great Wall line following Ming constructions can be charted.

The Jiayu Pass, located in Gansu province, is the western terminus of the Ming Great
Wall. Although Han fortifications such as Yumen Pass and the Yangguan exist further
west, the extant walls leading to those passes are difficult to trace. From Jiayu Pass
the wall travels discontinuously down the Gansu Corridor and into the deserts
of Ningxia, where it enters the western edge of the Yellow River loop at Yinchuan.
Here the first major walls erected during the Ming dynasty cuts through the Ordos
Desert to the eastern edge of the Yellow River loop. There at Piantou Pass
in Xinzhou city, Shanxi province, the Great Wall splits in two with the "Outer Great
Wall" extending along the Inner Mongolia border with Shanxi into Hebei province,
and the "inner Great Wall" running southeast from Piantou Pass for some 400
kilometres (250 mi), passing through important passes like the Pingxing
Pass and Yanmen Pass before joining the Outer Great Wall at Sihaiye , in Yanqing
County, Beijing.

The sections of the Great Wall around Beijing municipality are especially famous:
they were frequently renovated and are regularly visited by tourists today.
The Badaling Great Wall near Zhangjiakou is the most famous stretch of the Wall, for
this is the first section to be opened to the public in the People's Republic of China, as
well as the showpiece stretch for foreign dignitaries. South of Badaling is the Juyong
Pass; when used by the Chinese to protect their land, this section of the wall had many
guards to defend China’s capital Beijing. Made of stone and bricks from the hills, this
portion of the Great Wall is 7.8 meters (26 ft) high and 5 meters (16 ft) wide.

One of the most striking sections of the Ming Great Wall is where it climbs extremely
steep slopes in Jinshanling. There it runs 11 kilometers (6.8 mi) long, ranges from 5 to
8 meters (16 to 26 ft) in height, and 6 meters (20 ft) across the bottom, narrowing up
to 5 meters (16 ft) across the top. Wangjinglou is one of Jinshanling's
67 watchtowers, 980 meters (3,220 ft) above sea level. Southeast of Jinshanling, is
the MutianyuGreat Wall which winds along lofty, cragged mountains from the
southeast to the northwest for approximately 2.25 kilometers (about 1.3 miles). It is
connected with Juyongguan Pass to the west and Gubeikou to the east. This section
was one of the first to be renovated following the turmoil of the Cultural Revolution.

At the edge of the Bohai Gulf is the Shanhai Pass, the traditional end of the Great
Wall known as the "Number One Pass Under Heaven". The part of the wall that meets
the sea is named the "Old Dragon Head" , within the Shanhai Pass complex. 3 km
north of Shanhaiguan is Jiaoshan Great Wall , the site of the first mountain of the
Great Wall. 15 km northeast from Shanhaiguan, is Jiumenkou , which is the only
portion of the wall that was built as a bridge.

Beyond Shanhai Pass, an offshoot known as the Liaodong Wall continues

through Liaoning province and terminates at the Hushan Great Wall, in the city
of Dandong near the North Korean border.
Characteristics:-

The Great Wall at Mutianyu, near Beijing

Before the use of bricks, the Great Wall was mainly built from rammed earth, stones,
and wood. During the Ming Dynasty, however, bricks were heavily used in many
areas of the wall, as were materials such as tiles, lime, and stone. The size and weight
of the bricks made them easier to work with than earth and stone, so construction
quickened. Additionally, bricks could bear more weight and endure better than
rammed earth. Stone can hold under its own weight better than brick, but is more
difficult to use. Consequently, stones cut in rectangular shapes were used for the
foundation, inner and outer brims, and gateways of the wall. Battlements line the
uppermost portion of the vast majority of the wall, with defensive gaps a little over
30 cm (12 in) tall, and about 23 cm (9.1 in) wide. From the parapets, guards could
survey the surrounding land. Communication between the army units along the length
of the Great Wall, including the ability to call reinforcements and warn garrisons of
enemy movements, was of high importance. Signal towers were built upon hill tops or
other high points along the wall for their visibility. Wooden gates could be used as a
trap against those going through. Barracks, stables, and armories were built near the
wall's inner surface
Condition:-

A more rural portion of the Great Wall that stretches throughout the mountains,
seen in slight disrepair

A section of the Great Wall near Beijing

While some portions north of Beijing and near tourist centers have been preserved and
even extensively renovated, in many locations the Wall is in disrepair. Those parts
might serve as a village playground or a source of stones to rebuild houses and
roads. Sections of the Wall are also prone to graffiti and vandalism. Parts have been
destroyed because the Wall is in the way of construction.

More than 60 km (37 mi) of the wall in Gansu province may disappear in the next 20
years, due to erosion from sandstorms. In places, the height of the wall has been
reduced from more than 5 metres (16 feet) to less than 2 metres (6.6 ft). The square
lookout towers that characterize the most famous images of the wall have disappeared
completely. Many western sections of the wall are constructed from mud, rather than
brick and stone, and thus are more susceptible to erosion. In August 2012, a 30-meter
(98 ft) section of the wall in north China's Hebei province collapsed after days of
continuous heavy rains.

Visibility from space:-

Visibility from the Moon

One of the earliest known references to this myth appears in a letter written in 1754 by
the English antiquary William Stukeley. Stukeley wrote that, "This mighty wall of
four score miles in length (Hadrian's Wall) is only exceeded by the Chinese Wall,
which makes a considerable figure upon the terrestrial globe, and may be discerned at
the Moon." The claim was also mentioned by Henry Norman in 1895 where he states
"besides its age it enjoys the reputation of being the only work of human hands on the
globe visible from the Moon." The issue of "canals" on Mars was prominent in the
late 19th century and may have led to the belief that long, thin objects were visible
from space. The claim that the Great Wall is visible also appears in 1932's Ripley's
Believe It or Not! strip and in Richard Halliburton's 1938 book Second Book of
Marvels.

The claim the Great Wall is visible has been debunked many times, but is still
ingrained in popular culture. The wall is a maximum 9.1 m (30 ft) wide, and is about
the same color as the soil surrounding it. Based on the optics of resolving power
(distance versus the width of the iris: a few millimeters for the human eye, meters for
large telescopes) only an object of reasonable contrast to its surroundings which is
70 mi (110 km) or more in diameter (1 arc-minute) would be visible to the unaided
eye from the Moon, whose average distance from Earth is 384,393 km (238,851 mi).
The apparent width of the Great Wall from the Moon is the same as that of a human
hair viewed from 3.2 kilometres (2 mi) away. To see the wall from the Moon would
require spatial resolution 17,000 times better than normal (20/20)
vision. Unsurprisingly, no lunar astronaut has ever claimed to have seen the Great
Wall from the Moon.
Visibility from low Earth orbit:-

A satellite image of a section of the Great Wall in northern Shanxi, running diagonally
from lower left to upper right (not to be confused with the much more prominent
river running from upper left to lower right). The region pictured is 12 by 12
kilometres (7.5 mi × 7.5 mi)

A more controversial question is whether the Wall is visible from low Earth orbit (an
altitude of as little as 160 kilometres (100 mi)). NASA claims that it is barely visible,
and only under nearly perfect conditions; it is no more conspicuous than many other
man-made objects. Other authors have argued that due to limitations of the optics of
the eye and the spacing of photoreceptors on the retina, it is impossible to see the wall
with the naked eye, even from low orbit, and would require visual acuity of 20/3 (7.7
times better than normal).

Astronaut William Pogue thought he had seen it from Skylab but discovered he was

actually looking at the Grand Canal of China near Beijing. He spotted the Great Wall
with binoculars, but said that "it wasn't visible to the unaided eye." U.S. Senator Jake
Garn claimed to be able to see the Great Wall with the naked eye from a space
shuttle orbit in the early 1980s, but his claim has been disputed by several U.S.
astronauts. Veteran U.S. astronaut Gene Cernan has stated: "At Earth orbit of 100 to
200 miles (160 to 320 km) high, the Great Wall of China is, indeed, visible to the
naked eye." Ed Lu, Expedition 7 Science Officer aboard the International Space
Station, adds that, "it's less visible than a lot of other objects. And you have to know
where to look."

In 2001, Neil Armstrong stated about the view from Apollo 11: "I do not believe that,
at least with my eyes, there would be any man-made object that I could see. I have not
yet found somebody who has told me they've seen the Wall of China from Earth orbit.
...I've asked various people, particularly Shuttle guys, that have been many orbits
around China in the daytime, and the ones I've talked to didn't see it."

In October 2003, Chinese astronaut Yang Liwei stated that he had not been able to see
the Great Wall of China. In response, the European Space Agency (ESA) issued a
press release reporting that from an orbit between 160 and 320 kilometres (99 and
199 mi), the Great Wall is visible to the naked eye. In an attempt to further clarify
things, the ESA published a picture of a part of the “Great Wall” photographed from
low orbit. However, in a press release a week later (no longer available in the ESA’s
website), they acknowledged that the "Great Wall" in the picture was actually a river.

Leroy Chiao, a Chinese-American astronaut, took a photograph from the International

Space Station that shows the wall. It was so indistinct that the photographer was not
certain he had actually captured it. Based on the photograph, the China Daily later
reported that the Great Wall can be seen from 'space' with the naked eye, under
favorable viewing conditions, if one knows exactly where to look. However, the
resolution of a camera can be much higher than the human visual system, and the
optics much better, rendering photographic evidence irrelevant to the issue of whether
it is visible to the naked eye.

Gallery:-

"The First Mound"—atJiayuguan, the western terminus


Great Wall of China nearJinshanling

The Great Wall of China at Badaling

A portion of the Great Wall of China at Simatai, overlooking the gorge

Mutianyu Great Wall, China. This is atop the wall on a section that has not
been restored

The Old Dragon Head, the eastern end of the Great Wall where it meets the sea
in the vicinity of Shanhaiguan
 

Great Wall at Dandong

References:-
 Edmonds, Richard Louis (1985). Northern Frontiers of Qing China and
Tokugawa Japan: A Comparative Study of Frontier Policy. University of
Chicago, Department of Geography; Research Paper No. 213. ISBN 0-89065-
118-3.
 Elliott, Mark C. (2001). The Manchu Way: The Eight Banners and Ethnic
Identity in Late Imperial China. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-
4684-7.
 Evans, Thammy (2006). Great Wall of China: Beijing & Northern China. Bradt
Travel Guide. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 3. ISBN 1-84162-158-7.
 Haw, Stephen G. (2006). Marco Polo's China: a Venetian in the realm of
Khubilai Khan. Volume 3 of Routledge studies in the early history of Asia.
Psychology Press. ISBN 0-415-34850-1.
 Hessler, Peter (2007). "Letter from China: Walking the Wall". The New
Yorker (May 21, 2007): 58–67.
 Karnow, Mooney, Paul and Catherine (2008). National Geographic Traveler:
Beijing. National Geographic Books. p. 192. ISBN 1-4262-0231-8.
 Lindesay, William (2008). The Great Wall Revisited: From the Jade Gate to Old
Dragon's Head. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03149-4.
 López-Gil, Norberto (2008). "Is it Really Possible to See the Great Wall of China
from Space with a Naked Eye?". Journal of Optometry 1 (1): 3–
4. doi:10.3921/joptom.2008.3.
 Lovell, Julia (2006). The Great Wall : China against the world 1000 BC - 2000
AD. Sydney: Picador Pan Macmillan. ISBN 9780330422413.
 Rojas, Carlos (2010). The Great Wall : a cultural history. Cambridge, Mass:
Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674047877.
  Slavicek, Louise Chipley; Mitchell, George J.; Matray, James I. (2005). The
Great Wall of China. Infobase Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 0-7910-8019-6.
 Szabó, József; Dávid, Lóránt; Loczy, Denes, eds. (2010). Anthropogenic
Geomorphology: A Guide to Man-made Landforms. Springer. ISBN 978-9-048-
13057-3.
 Turnbull, Stephen R (January 2007). The Great Wall of China 221 BC-AD 164.
Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84603-004-8.
 Waldron, Arthur (1983). "The Problem of The Great Wall of China". Harvard
Journal of Asiatic Studies (Harvard-Yenching Institute) 43 (2): 643–
663. JSTOR 2719110.
 Waldron, Arthur (1988). "The Great Wall Myth: Its Origins and Role in Modern
China". The Yale Journal of Criticism (Johns Hopkins University Press) 2 (1): 67–
104.
 Waldron, Arthur (1990). The Great Wall of China : from history to myth.
Cambridge England New York: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 9780521427074.
 Yule, Sir Henry, ed. (1866). Cathay and the way thither: being a collection of
medieval notices of China. Issues 36–37 of Works issued by the Hakluyt
Society. Printed for the Hakluyt society.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Great_Wall_of_China&oldid=640228438"
Categories:

 Great Wall of China

 Walls
 World Heritage Sites in China
 Chinese architectural history
 Megastructures
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3. Mausoleum of Taj Mahal, Agra, India

Taj Mahal

Southern view of the Taj Mahal.

Locatio Agra, Uttar Pradesh,

n India

Coordi 27°10′30″N 78°02′3
nates 1″ECoordinates:  27°
10′30″N 78°02′31″E
Height 73 m (240 ft)
Built 1632–1653
Archite Ustad Ahmad Lahauri
ct
Archite Mughal architecture
ctural
style(s)
Visitati More than 3 million
on (in 2003)
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type Cultural
Criteri I
 a
Design 1983
ated
Refere 252
nce no.
State India
Party
Region Asia-Pacific

Location in western Uttar

Pradesh, India

The Taj Mahal (/ˌtɑːdʒ məˈhɑːl/, more often from Persian and Arabic "crown of

palaces", is a white marble mausoleum located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It
was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz
Mahal. The Taj Mahal is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India
and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage".
Taj Mahal is regarded by many as the finest example of Mughal architecture, a
style that combines elements from Islamic, Persian,Ottoman
Turkish and Indian architectural styles.
In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the
white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal,
it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began around
1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and
craftsmen. The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects
under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat
Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the
principal designer.

Origin and inspiration:-

Main article: Origins and architecture of the Taj Mahal

In 1631, Shah Jahan, emperor during the Mughal empire's period of greatest
prosperity, was grief-stricken when his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal,
a Persian princess, died during the birth of their 14th child, Gauhara Begum.
Construction of the Taj Mahal began in 1632. The court chronicles of Shah Jahan's
grief illustrate the love story traditionally held as an inspiration for Taj Mahal. The
principal mausoleum was completed in 1648 and the surrounding buildings and
garden were finished five years later. Emperor Shah Jahan himself described the
Taj in these words:

Shah Jahan, who commissioned the Taj Mahal -"Shah jahan on a globe" from
theSmithsonian Institution
Artistic depiction of Mumtaz Mahal
The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Persian
architecture and earlier Mughal architecture. Specific inspiration came from
successful Timurid and Mughal buildings including; the Gur-e Amir (the tomb of
Timur, progenitor of the Mughal dynasty, in Samarkand), Humayun's
Tomb, Itmad-Ud-Daulah's Tomb (sometimes called theBaby Taj), and Shah
Jahan's own Jama Masjid in Delhi. While earlier Mughal buildings were primarily
constructed of redsandstone, Shah Jahan promoted the use of white marble inlaid
with semi-precious stones, and buildings under his patronage reached new levels of
refinement.

Tomb:-

Taj Mahal site plan.

1. The Moonlight Garden to the north of

the Yamuna.
2. Terrace area: Tomb, Mosque and Jawab.
3. Charbagh (gardens).
 4. Gateway, attendant accommodations, and other
tombs.
5. Taj Ganji (bazaar)
The tomb is the central focus of the entire complex of the Taj Mahal. This large,
white marble structure stands on a square plinth and consists of a symmetrical
building with an iwan (an arch-shaped doorway) topped by a large dome and finial.
Like most Mughal tombs, the basic elements are Persian in origin.
The base structure is essentially a large, multi-chambered cube
with chamfered corners, forming an unequal octagon that is approximately 55
metres (180 ft) on each of the four long sides. On each of these sides, a
hugepishtaq, or vaulted archway, frames the iwan with two similarly shaped,
arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of stacked pishtaqs is replicated
on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical on all
sides of the building. Four minarets frame the tomb, one at each corner of the
plinth facing the chamfered corners. The main chamber houses the
false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan; the actual graves are at a lower
level.
The marble dome that surmounts the tomb is the most spectacular feature. Its
height of around 35 metres (115 ft) is about the same as the length of the base, and
is accentuated as it sits on a cylindrical "drum" which is roughly 7 metres (23 ft)
high. Because of its shape, the dome is often called an onion
dome or amrud (guava dome). The top is decorated with a lotus design, which also
serves to accentuate its height. The shape of the dome is emphasised by four
smaller domed chattris (kiosks) placed at its corners, which replicate the onion
shape of the main dome. Their columned bases open through the roof of the tomb
and provide light to the interior. Tall decorative spires (guldastas) extend from
edges of base walls, and provide visual emphasis to the height of the dome.
The lotus motif is repeated on both the chattris and guldastas. The dome and
chattris are topped by a gilded finial, which mixes traditional Persian and
Hindustani decorative elements.
The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of
gilded bronze in the early 19th century. This feature provides a clear example of
integration of traditional Persian and Hindu decorative elements. The finial is
topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif whose horns point heavenward.
The minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, display the
designer's penchant for symmetry. They were designed as working minarets—a
traditional element of mosques, used by the muezzin to call the Islamic faithful to
prayer. Each minaret is effectively divided into three equal parts by two working
balconies that ring the tower. At the top of the tower is a final balcony surmounted
by a chattri that mirrors the design of those on the tomb. The chattris all share the
same decorative elements of a lotus design topped by a gilded finial. The minarets
were constructed slightly outside of the plinth so that, in the event of collapse, (a
typical occurrence with many tall constructions of the period) the material from the
towers would tend to fall away from the tomb.

General views:-

Northern view, from across the river Yamuna

Eastern view, early in the day

Western viewed, late in the day

View from Mosque

Base, dome, andminaret

Finial

Main iwan and side pishtaqs

Simplified diagram of the Taj Mahal floor plan

 Minaret

Minaret

Exterior decoration:-
The exterior decorations of the Taj Mahal are among the finest in Mughal
architecture. As the surface area changes the decorations are refined
proportionally. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco,
stone inlays, or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of
anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into
either calligraphy, abstract forms or vegetative motifs.

Calligraphy on large pishtaq

The calligraphy on the Great Gate reads "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the
Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you.’’
The calligraphy was created by a calligrapher named Abd ul-Haq, in 1609. Shah
Jahan conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" upon him as a reward for his "dazzling
virtuosity".Near the lines from the Qur'an at the base of the interior dome is the
inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi.’’ Much of
the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script, made of jasper or black
marble,[11] inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written in slightly larger
script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy
found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate.
Abstract forms are used throughout, especially in the plinth, minarets, gateway,
mosque, jawab and, to a lesser extent, on the surfaces of the tomb. The domes and
vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to
create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between
many of the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and
dark or black inlays on the white marbles. Mortared areas of the marble buildings
have been stained or painted in a contrasting colour, creating geometric patterns of
considerable complexity. Floors and walkways use contrasting tiles or blocks
in tessellation patterns.
On the lower walls of the tomb there are white marble dados that have been
sculpted with realistic bas relief depictions of flowers and vines. The marble has
been polished to emphasise the exquisite detailing of the carvings and the dado
frames and archway spandrels have been decorated with pietra dura inlays of
highly stylised, almost geometric vines, flowers and fruits. The inlay stones are of
yellow marble, jasper and jade, polished and levelled to the surface of the walls.

Plant motifs

Incised painting


Reflective tiles normal exposure

Calligraphy of Persianpoems

Finial Floor Tiling

Marble Design Below the Iwans

 

Marble lattice

Interior decoration:-

Jali screen surrounding the cenotaphs

The interior chamber of the Taj Mahal steps far beyond traditional decorative
elements. Here, the inlay work is not pietra dura, but alapidary of precious and
semiprecious gemstones. The inner chamber is an octagon with the design
allowing for entry from each face, although only the door facing the garden to the
south is used.
The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false"
interior dome decorated with a sun motif. Eight pishtaq arches define the space at
ground level and, as with the exterior, each lower pishtaq is crowned by a second
pishtaq about midway up the wall. The four central upper arches form balconies or
viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate screen
or jali cut from marble. In addition to the light from the balcony screens, light
enters through roof openings covered by chattris at the corners. Each chamber wall
has been highly decorated with dado bas-relief, intricate lapidary inlay and refined
calligraphy panels, reflecting in miniature detail the design elements seen
throughout the exterior of the complex.
Cenotaphs, interior of Taj Mahal in ground level
The octagonal marble screen or jali which borders the cenotaphs is made from
eight marble panels which have been carved through with intricate pierce work.
The remaining surfaces have been inlaid in extremely delicate detail with semi-
precious stones forming twining vines, fruits and flowers.

Tombs of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal at underground level

Muslim tradition forbids elaborate decoration of graves. Hence, the bodies of
Mumtaz and Shah Jahan were put in a relatively plain crypt beneath the inner
chamber with their faces turned right and towards Mecca. Mumtaz
Mahal's cenotaph is placed at the precise centre of the inner chamber on a
rectangular marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres (4 ft 11 in by 8 ft 2 in).
Both the base and casket are elaborately inlaid with precious and semiprecious
gems. Calligraphic inscriptions on the casket identify and praise Mumtaz. On the
lid of the casket is a raised rectangular lozenge meant to suggest a writing tablet.
Shah Jahan's cenotaph is beside Mumtaz's to the western side, and is the only
visible asymmetric element in the entire complex. His cenotaph is bigger than his
wife's, but reflects the same elements: a larger casket on a slightly taller base, again
decorated with astonishing precision with lapidary and calligraphy that identifies
him. On the lid of this casket is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box.
The pen box and writing tablet were traditional Mughal funerary icons decorating
the caskets of men and women respectively. The Ninety Nine Names of God are
found as calligraphic inscriptions on the sides of the actual tomb of Mumtaz
Mahal, in the crypt including "O Noble, O Magnificent, O Majestic, O Unique, O
Eternal, O Glorious... ". The tomb of Shah Jahan bears a calligraphic inscription
that reads; "He travelled from this world to the banquet-hall of Eternity on the
night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year 1076 Hijri."

Calligraphy on the walls of Taj Mahal

Arch of Jali

Delicate pierce work

 

Detail of Jali

Detail ofPietra durajali inlay

Garden:-

Walkways beside reflecting pool

The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal
garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of
the garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at
the center of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a reflecting
pool on a north-south axis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble
water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance"
promised to Muhammad.
Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains. The charbagh
garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the first
Mughal emperor, Babur. It symbolises the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise)
and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning
'walled garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as
an ideal garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or
mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east.
Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The
Taj Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the
end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on
the other side of the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of
India is that the Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and
was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise. The similarity in layout of
the garden and its architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggest that
they may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of
the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils,
and fruit trees. As the Mughal Empire declined, the tending of the garden also
declined, and when the British took over the management of Taj Mahal during the
time of the British Empire, they changed the landscaping to resemble that
of lawns of London.

Outlying buildings:-
The Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza)—gateway to the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal complex is bounded on three sides by crenellated red sandstone
walls, with the river-facing side left open. Outside the walls are several additional
mausoleums, including those of Shah Jahan's other wives, and a larger tomb for
Mumtaz's favourite servant. These structures, composed primarily of red
sandstone, are typical of the smaller Mughal tombs of the era. The garden-facing
inner sides of the wall are fronted by columned arcades, a feature typical of Hindu
temples which was later incorporated into Mughal mosques. The wall is
interspersed with domed chattris, and small buildings that may have been viewing
areas or watch towers like the Music House, which is now used as a museum.

Interior of the Taj Mahal mosque

The main gateway (darwaza) is a monumental structure built primarily of marble
which is reminiscent of Mughal architecture of earlier emperors. Its archways
mirror the shape of tomb's archways, and its pishtaq arches incorporate the
calligraphy that decorates the tomb. It utilises bas-relief and pietra dura inlaid
decorations with floral motifs. The vaulted ceilings and walls have elaborate
geometric designs, like those found in the other sandstone buildings of the
complex.

Taj Mahal mosque.

At the far end of the complex, there are two grand red sandstone buildings that face
the sides of the tomb. Their backs parallel the western and eastern walls, and the
two buildings are precise mirror images of each other. The western building is a
mosque and the other is the jawab (answer), whose primary purpose was
architectural balance, although it may have been used as a guesthouse. The
distinctions between these two buildings include the lack of mihrab (a niche in a
mosque's wall facing Mecca) in the jawab and that the floors of jawab have a
geometric design, while the mosque floor was laid with outlines of 569 prayer rugs
in black marble. The mosque's basic design of a long hall surmounted by three
domes is similar to others built by Shah Jahan, particularly to his Masjid-Jahan
Numa, or Jama Masjid, Delhi. The Mughal mosques of this period divide
the sanctuary hall into three areas, with a main sanctuary and slightly smaller
sanctuaries on either side. At the Taj Mahal, each sanctuary opens onto an
enormous vaulting dome. These outlying buildings were completed in 1643.

A panoramic view looking 360 degrees around the Taj

Mahal taken in 2005.

Construction:-
Ground layout of the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal was built on a parcel of land to the south of the walled city of Agra.
Shah Jahan presented Maharajah Jai Singh with a large palace in the center of Agra
in exchange for the land. An area of roughly three acres was excavated, filled with
dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above riverbank. In the
tomb area, wells were dug and filled with stone and rubble to form the footings of
the tomb. Instead of lashed bamboo, workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold
that mirrored the tomb. The scaffold was so enormous that foremen estimated it
would take years to dismantle.
According to the legend, Shah Jahan decreed that anyone could keep the bricks
taken from the scaffold, and thus it was dismantled by peasants overnight. A
fifteen kilometre (9.3 mi) tamped-earth ramp was built to transport marble and
materials to the construction site and teams of twenty or thirty oxen pulled the
blocks on specially constructed wagons. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley
system was used to raise the blocks into desired position. Water was drawn from
the river by a series of purs, an animal-powered rope and bucket mechanism, into a
large storage tank and raised to a large distribution tank. It was passed into three
subsidiary tanks, from which it was piped to the complex.
The plinth and tomb took roughly 12 years to complete. The remaining parts of the
complex took an additional 10 years and were completed in order of minarets,
mosque and jawab, and gateway. Since the complex was built in stages,
discrepancies exist in completion dates due to differing opinions on "completion".
For example, the mausoleum itself was essentially complete by 1643, but work
continued on the rest of the complex. Estimates of the cost of construction vary due
to difficulties in estimating costs across time. The total cost has been estimated to
be about 32 million Rupees at that time.
Artist's impression of the Taj Mahal, from theSmithsonian Institution
The Taj Mahal was constructed using materials from all over India and Asia and
over 1,000 elephants were used to transport building materials. The translucent
white marble was brought from Makrana, Rajasthan, the jasper
from Punjab, jade and crystal from China. The turquoise was fromTibet and
the Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, while the sapphire came from Sri Lanka and
the carnelian from Arabia. In all, twenty eight types of precious and semi-precious
stones were inlaid into the white marble.
The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under
imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan,
and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal
designer.
A labour force of twenty thousand workers was recruited across northern India.
Sculptors from Bukhara, calligraphers from Syria and Persia, inlayers from
southern India, stonecutters from Baluchistan, a specialist in building turrets,
another who carved only marble flowers were part of the thirty-seven men who
formed the creative unit. Some of the builders involved in construction of Taj
Mahal are:

 Ismail Afandi (a.k.a. Ismail Khan) - had previously

worked for the Ottoman Sultan and is regarded by some
as the designer of the main dome.
 Ustad Isa, born either in Shiraz, Ottoman Empire or
Agra – credited with a key role in the architectural
design and main dome.
  'Puru' from Benarus, Persia – has been mentioned as a
supervising architect.
 Qazim Khan, a native of Lahore – cast the solid gold
finial.
 Chiranjilal, a lapidary from Delhi – the chief sculptor
and mosaicist.
 Amanat Khan from Shiraz, Iran – the chief calligrapher.
 Muhammad Hanif – a supervisor of masons.
 Mir Abdul Karim and Mukkarimat Khan of Shiraz –
handled finances and management of daily production.

History:-

Taj Mahal by Samuel Bourne, 1860.

Abdul Hamid Lahauri, the author of the Badshahnama, the official history of Shah
Jahan's reign, calls Taj Mahal rauza-i munawwara, which means the illumined or
illustrious tomb.
Soon after the Taj Mahal's completion, Shah Jahan was deposed by his
son Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at nearby Agra Fort. Upon Shah Jahan's
death, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife.
In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur invaded Agra and attacked the Taj
Mahal, the two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which were hung
over the main cenotaph, were taken away by them, also the gold and silver screen.
According to Mughal historian Kanbo, the 15-foot high finial at the top of the main
dome of the Taj Mahal was covered with a gold shield and this was also removed
during the Jat despoliation.
By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen badly into disrepair.
During the time of the Indian rebellion of 1857, the Taj Mahal was defaced by
British soldiers and government officials, who chiselled out precious stones
and lapis lazuli from its walls. At the end of the 19th century, British viceroy Lord
Curzon ordered a sweeping restoration project, which was completed in 1908. [41]
[42]
 He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber, modelled after
one in a Cairo mosque. During this time the garden was remodelled with British-
style lawns that are still in place today.

Threats:-

Protective wartime scaffolding

In 1942, the government erected a scaffolding in anticipation of an air attack
by Japanese Air Force. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and
1971, scaffoldings were again erected to mislead bomber pilots.
More recent threats have come from environmental pollution on the banks
of Yamuna River including acid rain due to the Mathura Oil Refinery, which was
opposed by Supreme Court of India directives. The pollution has been turning the
Taj Mahal yellow. To help control the pollution, the Indian government has set up
the Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ), a 10,400-square-kilometre (4,000 sq mi) area
around the monument where strict emissions standards are in place.
Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a
decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna riverbasin which is falling at a rate
of around 5 feet a year. In 2010, cracks appeared in parts of the tomb, and the
minarets which surround the monument were showing signs of tilting, as the
wooden foundation of the tomb may be rotting due to lack of water. In 2011 it was
reported that some predictions indicated that the tomb could collapse within 5
years.

Tourism:-
a Tourist at the Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal attracts a large number of tourists. UNESCO documented more
than 2 million visitors in 2001, including more than 200,000 from overseas. A two
tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian
citizens and a more expensive one for foreigners. Most tourists visit in the cooler
months of October, November and February. Polluting traffic is not allowed near
the complex and tourists must either walk from parking lots or catch an electric
bus. The Khawasspuras (northern courtyards) are currently being restored for use
as a new visitor center.
The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was
originally constructed with caravanserais, bazaars and markets to serve the needs
of visitors and workmen. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature
the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the
modern world, including the recently announced New Seven Wonders of the
World, a recent poll with 100 million votes.
The grounds are open from 06:00 to 19:00 weekdays, except for Friday when the
complex is open for prayers at the mosque between 12:00 and 14:00. The complex
is open for night viewing on the day of the full moon and two days before and
after, excluding Fridays and the month of Ramadan. For security reasons only five
items—water in transparent bottles, small video cameras, still cameras, mobile
phones and small ladies' purses—are allowed inside the Taj Mahal.
2008-2011

Gallery:-

Taj Mahal Gallery

The tomb framed by the gateway entrance

Great gate (Darwaza-i rauza), the main entrance to the

tomb.

Typical postcard image

View from the river Yamuna

 The Taj Mahal at dusk turns yellow

Taj Mahal.

Tamga of the Mughal Empire on top of the Taj Mahal.

Depiction of Taj Mahal by orientalist painter Edwin Lord

Weeks. The Walters Art Museum.

Sources:-
 Asher, Catherine B. Architecture of Mughal India New
Cambridge History of India I.4, Cambridge University
Press 1992 ISBN 0-521-26728-5.
 Bernier, Françoi' Travels in the Moghul Empire A.D.
1657–1668 (Westminster: Archibald Constable & Co.)
1891.
 Carroll, David (1971). The Taj Mahal, Newsweek
Books ISBN 0-88225-024-8.
 Chaghtai, Muhammad Abdullah Le Tadj Mahal d'Agra
(Inde). Histoire et description (Brussels: Editions de la
Connaissance) 1938.
 Copplestone, Trewin. (ed). (1963). World
architecture — An illustrated history. Hamlyn, London.
 Gascoigne, Bamber (1971). The Great Moguls, Harper
& Row.
 Havel, E.B. (1913). Indian Architecture: Its
Psychology, Structure and History, John Murray.
 Kambo, Muhammad Salih Amal-i-Salih or Shah Jahan
Namah Ed. Ghulam Yazdani (Calcutta: Baptist Mission
Press) Vol.I 1923. Vol. II 1927.
 Koch, Ebba (2006) [Aug 2006]. The Complete Taj
Mahal: And the Riverfront Gardens of Agra (First ed.).
Thames & Hudson Ltd., 288 pages. ISBN 0-500-34209-
1.
 Lahawri, 'Abd al-Hamid Badshah Namah Ed. Maulawis
Kabir al-Din Ahmad and 'Abd al-Rahim under the
superintendence of Major W.N. Lees. (Calcutta:
College Press) Vol. I 1867 Vol. II 1868.
 Lall, John (1992). Taj Mahal, Tiger International Press.
 Preston, Diana & Michael (2007) [2007]. A Teardrop
on the Cheek of Time (First ed.). London: Doubleday,
354 pages. ISBN 978-0-385-60947-0.
 Rothfarb, Ed (1998). In the Land of the Taj Mahal,
Henry Holt ISBN 0-8050-5299-2.
 Saksena, Banarsi Prasad History of Shahjahan of
Dihli (Allahabad: The Indian Press Ltd.) 1932.
 Spiller, R (1994). "Agricultural Sites of the Taj Mahal",
Chronicle Books.
  Stall, B (1995). Agra and Fathepur Sikri, Millennium.
 Stierlin, Henri [editor] & Volwahsen, Andreas
(1990). Architecture of the World: Islamic India,
Taschen.
 Tillitson, G.H.R. (1990). Architectural Guide to
Mughal India, Chronicle Books.

External links:-

 Archeological Survey of India description

 Government of India – Description
 Information from the Department of Tourism, Uttar
Pradesh
 The shocking secret of Taj Mahal that no one knows!

4.Leaning Tower of Pisa:-

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Leaning Tower of Pisa

Torre pendente di Pisa
Basic information

Location Italy

43°43′23″N 10°23′47.1
0″E / 43.72306°N
Geographic 10.3964167°ECoordinates
coordinates :  43°43′23″N 10°23′47.
10″E / 43.72306°N
10.3964167°E

Affiliation Roman Catholic

Province Pisa

District Tuscany

Ecclesiastical
or
Open
organizational
status

Website www.opapisa.it

Architect(s) Bonanno Pisano

Groundbreaki
1173
ng

Completed 1372

Specifications

Height (max) 55.86 metres (183.3 ft)

 marble
Materials
 stone

The Leaning Tower of Pisa (Italian: Torre pendente di Pisa) or simply the Tower of

Pisa (Torre di Pisa) is the campanile, or freestanding bell tower, of the cathedral of
the Italian city of Pisa, known worldwide for its unintended tilt to one side. It is
situated behind the Cathedral and is the third oldest structure in Pisa's Cathedral
Square (Piazza del Duomo) after the Cathedral and the Baptistry. The tower's tilt
began during construction, caused by an inadequate foundation on ground too soft on
one side to properly support the structure's weight. The tilt increased in the decades
before the structure was completed, and gradually increased until the structure was
stabilized (and the tilt partially corrected) by efforts in the late 20th and early 21st
centuries.

The height of the tower is 55.86 metres (183.27 feet) from the ground on the low side
and 56.67 metres (185.93 feet) on the high side. The width of the walls at the base is
2.44 m (8 ft 0.06 in). Its weight is estimated at 14,500 metric tons (16,000 short tons).
The tower has 296 or 294 steps; the seventh floor has two fewer steps on the north-
facing staircase. Prior to restoration work performed between 1990 and 2001, the
tower leaned at an angle of 5.5 degrees, but the tower now leans at about 3.99
degrees. This means that the top of the tower is displaced horizontally 3.9 metres
(12 ft 10 in) from where it would be if the structure were perfectly vertical.

Architect:-
There has been controversy about the real identity of the architect of the Leaning
Tower of Pisa. For many years, the design was attributed to Guglielmo and Bonanno
Pisano, a well-known 12th-century resident artist of Pisa, famous for
his bronze casting, particularly in the Pisa Duomo. Bonanno Pisano left Pisa in 1185
for Monreale, Sicily, only to come back and die in his home town. A piece of cast
with his name was discovered at the foot of the tower in 1820, but this may be related
to the bronze door in the façade of the cathedral that was destroyed in 1595. However,
recent studies seem to indicate Diotisalvi as the original architect due to the time of
construction and affinity with other Diotisalvi works, notably the bell tower of San
Nicola and the Baptistery, both in Pisa. However, he usually signed his works and
there is no signature by him in the bell tower which leads to further speculation.

Construction:-

Leaning Tower of Pisa before cleaning work had taken place

Construction of the tower occurred in three stages across 199 years. Work on the
ground floor of the white marble campanile began on August 14, 1173, during a
period of military success and prosperity. This ground floor is a blind
arcade articulated by engaged columns with classical Corinthian capitals.

The tower began to sink after construction had progressed to the second floor in 1178.
This was due to a mere three-metre foundation, set in weak, unstable subsoil, a design
that was flawed from the beginning. Construction was subsequently halted for almost
a century, because the Republic of Pisa was almost continually engaged in battles
with Genoa, Lucca, and Florence. This allowed time for the underlying soil to settle.
Otherwise, the tower would almost certainly have toppled. In 1198 clocks were
temporarily installed on the third floor of the unfinished construction.
In 1272 construction resumed under Giovanni di Simone, architect of
the Camposanto. In an effort to compensate for the tilt, the engineers built upper
floors with one side taller than the other. Because of this, the tower is actually
curved. Construction was halted again in 1284, when the Pisans were defeated by the
Genoans in the Battle of Meloria.

The seventh floor was completed in 1319. It was built by Tommaso di Andrea Pisano,
who succeeded in harmonizing the Gothic elements of the bell-chamber with
the Romanesque style of the tower. There are seven bells, one for each note of the
musical major scale. The largest one was installed in 1655. The bell-chamber was
finally added in 1372.

After a phase (1990–2001) of structural strengthening, the tower is currently

undergoing gradual surface restoration, in order to repair visible damage, mostly
corrosion and blackening. These are particularly pronounced due to the tower's age
and its exposure to wind and rain.

Timeline:-

 On January 5, 1172, Donna Berta di Bernardo, a widow and resident of the

house of dell'Opera di Santa Maria, bequeathed sixty soldi to the Opera
Campanilis petrarum Sancte Marie. The sum was then used toward the
purchase of a few stones which still form the base of the bell tower.
 On August 9, 1173, the foundations of the Tower were laid.
 Nearly four centuries later Giorgio Vasari wrote: "Guglielmo, according to
what is being said, in [this] year 1174 with Bonanno as sculptor, laid the
foundations of the bell tower of the cathedral in Pisa."
 Giorgio Vasari indicates that Tommaso di Andrea Pisano was the designer of
the belfry between 1360 and 1370.
 On December 27, 1233, the worker Benenato, son of Gerardo Bottici, oversaw
the continuation of the construction of the bell tower.
 On February 23, 1260, Guido Speziale, son of Giovanni, a worker on the
cathedral Santa Maria Maggiore, was elected to oversee the building of the
Tower.
 On April 12, 1264, the master builder Giovanni di Simone and 23 workers went
to the mountains close to Pisa to cut marble. The cut stones were given to
Rainaldo Speziale, worker of St. Francesco.

Builders:-
  One possible builder is Gerardo di Gerardo. His name appears as a witness to
the above legacy of Berta di Bernardo as "Master Gerardo", and as a worker
whose name was Gerardo.
 A more probable builder is Diotisalvi, because of the construction period and
the structure's affinities with other buildings in Pisa, but he usually signed his
works, and there is no signature by him in the bell tower.
 Giovanni di Simone was heavily involved in the completion of the tower,
under the direction of Giovanni Pisano, who at the time was master builder of
the Opera di Santa Maria Maggiore. He could be the same Giovanni Pisano
who completed the belfry tower.

History following construction:-

Galileo Galilei is said to have dropped two cannonballs of different masses from the
tower to demonstrate that their speed of descent was independent of their mass.
However, this is considered an apocryphal tale, its only source being Galileo's
secretary.

During World War II, the Allies discovered that the Germans were using the tower as
an observation post. A U.S. Army sergeant sent to confirm the presence of German
troops in the tower was impressed by the beauty of the cathedral and its campanile,
and thus refrained from ordering an artillery strike, sparing it from destruction.

Lead counterweights

On February 27, 1964, the government of Italy requested aid in preventing the tower
from toppling. It was, however, considered important to retain the current tilt, due to
the role that this element played in promoting the tourism industry of Pisa.

A multinational task force of engineers, mathematicians, and historians gathered on

the Azores islands to discuss stabilisation methods. It was found that the tilt was
increasing in combination with the softer foundations on the lower side. Many
methods were proposed to stabilise the tower, including the addition of 800 tonnes of
lead counterweights to the raised end of the base.

In 1987 the tower was declared as part of the Piazza del Duomo UNESCO World
Heritage Site along with the neighbouring cathedral, baptistery and cemetery.

On January 7, 1990, after over two decades of stabilisation studies, and spurred by the
abrupt collapse of the Civic Tower of Pavia in 1989, the tower was closed to the
public. The bells were removed to relieve some weight, and cables were cinched
around the third level and anchored several hundred meters away. Apartments and
houses in the path of the tower were vacated for safety. The final solution to prevent
the collapse of the tower was to slightly straighten the tower to a safer angle, by
removing 38 cubic metres (1,342 cubic feet) of soil from underneath the raised end.
The tower was straightened by 45 centimetres (17.7 inches), returning to its 1838
position. After a decade of corrective reconstruction and stabilization efforts, the
tower was reopened to the public on December 15, 2001, and was declared stable for
at least another 300 years.

In May 2008, after the removal of another 70 metric tons (77 short tons) of ground,
engineers announced that the Tower had been stabilized such that it had stopped
moving for the first time in its history. They stated it would be stable for at least 200
years.

Alternative candidates:-
Two German churches have challenged the tower's status as the world's most lop-
sided building: the 15th-century square Leaning Tower of Suurhusen and the 14th-
century bell tower in the town of Bad Frankenhausen.[22]Guinness World
Records measured the Pisa and Suurhusen towers, finding the former's tilt to be 3.97
degrees.[23] In June 2010, Guinness World Records certified the Capital Gate building
in Abu Dhabi, UAE as the "World's Furthest Leaning Man-made Tower". [24] The
Capital Gate tower has an 18-degree slope, almost five times more than the Pisa
Tower; however the Capital Gate tower has been deliberately engineered to slant.
The Leaning Tower of Wanaka in New Zealand, also deliberately built, leans at 53
degrees to the ground.[25]

Technical information:-
An elevation image of the Leaning Tower of Pisa cut with laser scandata from
a University of Ferrara/CyArk research partnership, with source image accurate
down to 5 mm (0.2 in). This elevation shows the interesting quandary facing the
campanile. The circular shape and great height (currently 55.86 m (183 ft 3.21 in) on
the lowest side and 56.67 m (185 ft 11.10 in) m on the highest) of the campanile
were unusual for their time, and the crowning belfry is stylistically distinct from the
rest of the construction. This belfry incorporates a 14 cm (5.5 in) correction for the
inclined axis below. The siting of the campanile within the Piazza del Duomo diverges
from the axial alignment of the cathedral and baptistery of the Piazza del Duomo

 Elevation of Piazza del Duomo: about 2 metres (6 feet, DMS)

 Height from the ground floor: 55.863 metres (183 ft 3 in), 8 stories
 Height from the foundation floor: 58.36 m (191 ft 5.64 in)
 Outer diameter of base: 15.484 metres (50 ft 9.6 in)
 Inner diameter of base: 7.368 metres (24 ft 2.1 in)
 Angle of slant: 3.97 degrees or 3.9 metres (12 ft 10 in) from the vertical[26]
 Weight: 14,700 metric tons (16,200 short tons)
 Thickness of walls at the base: 2.44 metres (8 ft 0 in)
 Total number of bells: 7, tuned to musical scale, clockwise
o 1st bell: L'Assunta, cast in 1654 by Giovanni Pietro Orlandi, weight
3,620 kg S(7,981 lb)
o 2nd bell: Il Crocifisso, cast in 1572 by Vincenzo Possenti, weight
2,462 kg (5,428 lb)
o 3rd bell: San Ranieri, cast in 1719–1721 by Giovanni Andrea Moreni,
weight 1,448 kg (3,192 lb)
o 4th bell: La Terza (1st small one), cast in 1473, weight 300 kg (661 lb)
 o 5th bell: La Pasquereccia or La Giustizia, cast in 1262 by Lotteringo,
weight 1,014 kg (2,235 lb)
o 6th bell: Il Vespruccio (2nd small one), cast in the 14th century and
again in 1501 by Nicola di Jacopo, weight 1,000 kg (2,205 lb)
o 7th bell: Dal Pozzo, cast in 1606 and again in 2004, weight 652 kg
(1,437 lb)
 Number of steps to the top: 296

About the 5th bell: The name Pasquareccia comes from Easter, because it used to

ring on Easter day. However, this bell is older than the bell-chamber itself, and comes
from the tower Vergata in Palazzo Pretorio in Pisa, where it was called La
Giustizia (The Justice). The bell was tolled to announce executions of criminals and
traitors, including Count Ugolino in 1289.[29] A new bell was installed in the bell
tower at the end of the 18th century to replace the broken Pasquareccia.

Gallery:-

View looking up
 

Entrance door to the bell tower

Plaque in memory of Galileo Galilei's experiments

 

External loggia

Inner staircase from sixth to seventh floor

 

Inner staircase from seventh to eighth (the top) floor

View from the top


 Assunta bell

Pasquareccia bell

View, looking down from the top

 Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Leaning_Tower_of_Pisa&oldid=631532960"

Categories:

 Buildings and structures completed in 1372

 Towers completed in the 14th century
 Bell towers in Italy
 Inclined towers
 Romanesque architecture in Tuscany
  World Heritage Sites in Italy
 1170s architecture
 Visitor attractions in Pisa
 Towers in Pisa

5.Egyptian pyramids:-

A view of the pyramids at Giza from the plateau to the south of the complex. From
left to right, the three largest are: the Pyramid of Menkaure, the Pyramid of
Khafre and the Great Pyramid of Khufu. The three smaller pyramids in the
foreground are subsidiary structures associated with Menkaure's pyramid.
A view of the Pyramid of Khafre from the Sphinx.

The Egyptian pyramids are ancient pyramid-shaped masonry structures located

in Egypt.

There are 138 pyramids discovered in Egypt as of 2008. Most were built as tombs for

the country's Pharaohs and their consorts during the Old and Middle
Kingdom periods.

The earliest known Egyptian pyramids are found at Saqqara, northwest of Memphis.
The earliest among these is the Pyramid of Djoser (constructed 2630 BC–2611 BC)
which was built during the third dynasty. This pyramid and its surrounding complex
were designed by the architect Imhotep, and are generally considered to be the world's
oldest monumental structures constructed of dressed masonry. The estimate of the
number of workers to build the pyramids range from a few thousand, twenty
thousand, and up to 100,000.

The most famous Egyptian pyramids are those found at Giza, on the outskirts
of Cairo. Several of the Giza pyramids are counted among the largest structures ever
built. The Pyramid of Khufu at Giza is the largest Egyptian pyramid. It is the only one
of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World still in existence.

Historical development:-

The Mastaba of Faraoun, at Saqqara

By the time of the early dynastic period of Egyptian history, those with sufficient

means were buried in bench-like structures known as mastabas.

The second historically documented Egyptian pyramid is attributed to the

architect Imhotep, who planned what Egyptologists believe to be a tomb for the
pharaoh Djoser. Imhotep is credited with being the first to conceive the notion of
stacking mastabas on top of each other – creating an edifice composed of a number of
"steps" that decreased in size towards its apex. The result was the Step Pyramid of
Djoser – which was designed to serve as a gigantic stairway by which the soul of the
deceased pharaoh could ascend to the heavens. Such was the importance of Imhotep's
achievement that he was deified by later Egyptians.

The most prolific pyramid-building phase coincided with the greatest degree of
absolutist pharaonic rule. It was during this time that the most famous pyramids, those
near Giza, were built. Over time, as authority became less centralized, the ability and
willingness to harness the resources required for construction on a massive
scale decreased, and later pyramids were smaller, less well-built and often hastily
constructed.

Long after the end of Egypt's own pyramid-building period, a burst of pyramid-
building occurred in what is present-day Sudan, after much of Egypt came under the
rule of the Kings of Napata. While Napatan rule was brief and ceased in 661 BC, the
Egyptian influence made an indelible impression, and during the later Sudanese
Kingdom of Meroe (approximately in the period between 300 BC–300 AD) this
flowered into a full-blownpyramid-building revival, which saw more than two
hundred indigenous, but Egyptian-inspired royal pyramid-tombs constructed in the
vicinity of the kingdom's capital cities.

Al-Aziz Uthman (1171–1198) tried to destroy the pyramids at Giza. He gave up after

damaging the Pyramid of Menkaure, as the task proved too huge.

Pyramid symbolism:-
Diagram of the interior structures of the Great Pyramid. The inner line indicates the
pyramid's present profile, the outer line indicates the original profile.

The shape of Egyptian pyramids is thought to represent the primordial mound from

which the Egyptians believed the earth was created. The shape of a pyramid is thought
to be representative of the descending rays of the sun, and most pyramids were faced
with polished, highly reflective white limestone, in order to give them a brilliant
appearance when viewed from a distance. Pyramids were often also named in ways
that referred to solar luminescence. For example, the formal name of the Bent
Pyramid at Dahshur The Southern Shining Pyramid, and that of Senwosret at el-Lahun
was Senwosret is Shining.

While it is generally agreed that pyramids were burial monuments, there is continued
disagreement on the particular theological principles that might have given rise to
them. One suggestion is that they were designed as a type of "resurrection machine."

The Egyptians believed the dark area of the night sky around which the stars appear to
revolve was the physical gateway into the heavens. One of the narrow shafts that
extends from the main burial chamber through the entire body of the Great Pyramid
points directly towards the center of this part of the sky. This suggests the pyramid
may have been designed to serve as a means to magically launch the deceased
pharaoh's soul directly into the abode of the gods.

All Egyptian pyramids were built on the west bank of the Nile, which as the site of
the setting sun was associated with the realm of the dead in Egyptian mythology. [15]

Number and location of pyramids:-

In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius produced the first modern list of pyramids – see Lepsius
list of pyramids – in which he counted 67. A great many more have since been
discovered. As of November 2008, 118 Egyptian pyramids have been identified.

The location of Pyramid 29, which Lepsius called the "Headless Pyramid", was lost
for a second time when the structure was buried by desert sands subsequent to
Lepsius' survey. It was only found again during an archaeological dig conducted in
2008.

Many pyramids are in a poor state of preservation or buried by desert sands. If visible
at all they may appear as little more than mounds of rubble. As a consequence
archaeologists are continuing to identify and study previously unknown pyramid
structures.
The most recent pyramid to be discovered is that of Queen Sesheshet, mother of 6th
Dynasty Pharaoh Teti, located at Saqqara. The discovery was announced by Zahi
Hawass, Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, on 11
November 2008.

All of Egypt's pyramids, except the small Third Dynasty pyramid of Zawyet el-
Amwat (or Zawyet el-Mayitin), are sited on the west bank of the Nile, and most are
grouped together in a number of pyramid fields. The most important of these are listed
geographically, from north to south, below.

Abu Rawash:-

Main article: Abu Rawash

The largely destroyed Pyramid of Djedefre

Abu Rawash is the site of Egypt's most northerly pyramid (other than the ruins of
Lepsius pyramid number one)— the mostly ruined Pyramid of Djedefre, son and
successor of Khufu. Originally it was thought that this pyramid had never been
completed, but the current archaeological consensus is that not only was it completed,
but that it was originally about the same size as the Pyramid of Menkaure, which
would have placed it among the half-dozen or so largest pyramids in Egypt.

Its location adjacent to a major crossroads made it an easy source of stone. Quarrying
– which began in Roman times – has left little apart from about 15 courses of stone
superimposed upon the natural hillock that formed part of the pyramid's core. A small
adjacent satellite pyramid is in a better state of preservation.

Giza:-

Main article: Giza pyramid complex

Map of Giza pyramid complex.

Aerial view of Giza pyramid complex

Giza is the location of the Pyramid of Khufu (also known as the "Great Pyramid" and
the "Pyramid of Cheops"); the somewhat smaller Pyramid of Khafre (or Kephren); the
relatively modest-sized Pyramid of Menkaure (or Mykerinus), along with a number of
smaller satellite edifices known as "Queen's pyramids"; and the Great Sphinx.

Of the three, only Khafre's pyramid retains part of its original polished limestone
casing, near its apex. This pyramid appears larger than the adjacent Khufu pyramid by
virtue of its more elevated location, and the steeper angle of inclination of its
construction – it is, in fact, smaller in both height and volume.

The Giza Necropolis has been a popular tourist destination since antiquity, and was
popularized in Hellenistic times when the Great Pyramid was listed by Antipater of
Sidon as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Today it is the only one of those
wonders still in existence.

Meidum:-

Main article: Meidum

The pyramid at Meidum

The pyramid at Meidum is one of three constructed during the reign of Sneferu, and is
believed by some to have been started by that pharaoh's father and predecessor, Huni.
However, that attribution is uncertain, as no record of Huni's name has been found at
the site.

It was constructed as a step pyramid, and then later converted into the first "true"
smooth-sided pyramid when the steps were filled in, and an outer casing added.

The pyramid suffered several catastrophic collapses in ancient and medieval times;
medieval Arab writers described it as having 7 steps – although today only the three
uppermost of these remain, giving the structure its odd, tower-like appearance. The
hill on which the pyramid is situated is not a natural landscape feature – it is the small
mountain of debris created when the lower courses and outer casing of the pyramid
gave way.

Hawara:-

Main article: Hawara
The Pyramid of Amenemhet III at Hawarra

Amenemhet III was the last powerful ruler of the 12th Dynasty, and the pyramid he
built at Hawarra, near Faiyum, is believed to post-date the so-called "Black Pyramid"
built by the same ruler at Dahshur. It is the Hawarra pyramid that is believed to have
been Amenemhet's final resting place.

el-Lahun

Main article: el-Lahun

The Pyramid of Senusret II. The pyramid's natural limestone core is clearly visible as
the yellow stratum at its base.

The pyramid of Senusret II at el-Lahun is the southernmost royal-tomb pyramid

structure in Egypt. Its builders reduced the amount of work necessary to construct it
by ingeniously using as its foundation and core a 12-meter-high natural limestone hill.

El-Kurru:-

Main article: El-Kurru

Piye, the first ruler of the Egyptian 25th dynasty, built a pyramid at El-Kurru. He was
the first Egyptian pharaoh to be buried in a pyramid in centuries.
Pharaoh Piye's pyramid at El-Kurru

Nuri:-

Main article: Nuri

Taharqa, a legitimate ruler and Pharaoh of Egypt, built his pyramid at Nuri. It was the
largest in the area (North Sudan).

Egyptian Pharaoh Taharqa's pyramid at Nuri

Construction techniques:-
Main article: Egyptian pyramid construction techniques

Constructing the pyramids involved moving huge quantities of stone. The quarried
blocks were likely transported to the construction site by wooden sleds, with sand in
front of the sled wetted to reduce friction. Droplets of water created bridges between
the grains of sand, which helped them stick together. 
Schematic drawing of the transportion scene of the colossus showing water being
poured in the path of the sledge, long dismissed by Egyptologists as ritual, but now
confirmed as feasible, served to increase the stiffness of the sand and likely, reduced
the force needed to move the statue by 50% 

List:-

 List of Egyptian pyramids

 List of megalithic sites
 Timeline of three tallest structures in the world

Coordinates:  29°58′34″N 31°07′52″E / 29.97611°N 31.13111°E

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Egyptian_pyramids&oldid=635503630"

Categories:

 Ancient Egyptian pyramids

 African architecture
6.Sultan Ahmed Mosque:-

The Blue Mosque

Basic information

Location Istanbul, Turkey

41°00′20″N28°58′39″
Geographic
E / 41.005483°N
coordinates
28.977385°E
Affiliation Islam

Architectural description

Architect(s) Sedefkâr Mehmed Ağa

Architectural
Mosque
type

Architectural Islamic, Late Classical

style Ottoman

Completed 1616

Specifications

Capacity 10,000

Length 73 m (240 ft)

Width 65 m (213 ft)

Dome height
43 m (141 ft)
(outer)

Dome dia.
23.50 m (77.1 ft)[1]
(inner)

Minaret(s) 6

Minaret height 64 m (210 ft)

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Turkish: Sultan Ahmet Camii) is a

historic mosque in Istanbul. The mosque is popularly known as the Blue Mosque for
the blue tiles adorning the walls of its interior.

It was built from 1609 to 1616, during the rule of Ahmed I. Its Külliye contains a
tomb of the founder, a madrasah and a hospice. The Sultan Ahmed Mosque is still
popularly used as a mosque.

History:-
Sultan Ahmed Mosque (Blue Mosque) was constructed bySedefkâr Mehmed Ağa on
the orders of the son of "HāndānVālida Sultânā," The Ottoman Sultan Ahmed I.

After the Peace of Zsitvatorok and the unfavorable result of the war with Persia,
Sultan Ahmet I, decided to build a big mosque in Istanbul to reassert Ottoman power.
It would be the first imperial mosque for more than forty years. While his
predecessors had paid for their mosques with their spoil of war, Ahmet the First had to
remove the funds of the Treasury, because he had not gained remarkable victories. It
caused the anger of theulema, the Muslim jurists. The mosque was built on the site of
the palace of the Byzantine emperors, in front of the basilica Ayasofya (at that time,
the primary imperial mosque in Istanbul) and the hippodrome, a site of significant
symbolic meaning as it dominated the city skyline from the south. Big parts of the
south shore of the mosque rest on the foundations, the vaults of the old Grand Palace.

Architecture:-
The Sultan Ahmed Mosque has one main dome, six minarets, and eight secondary
domes. The design is the culmination of two centuries of Ottoman mosque
development. It incorporates some Byzantine Christian elements of the
neighboring Hagia Sophia with traditional Islamic architecture and is considered to be
the last great mosque of the classical period. The architect, Sedefkâr Mehmed Ağa,
synthesized the ideas of his master Sinan, aiming for overwhelming size, majesty and
splendour.

Interior:-
Interior view, featuring the prayer area and the main dome.

At its lower levels and at every pier, the interior of the mosque is lined with more than
20,000 handmade İznik style ceramic tiles, made at Iznik (the ancient Nicaea) in more
than fifty different tulip designs. The tiles at lower levels are traditional in design,
while at gallery level their design becomes flamboyant with representations of
flowers, fruit and cypresses. The tiles were made under the supervision of the Iznik
master. The price to be paid for each tile was fixed by the sultan's decree, while tile
prices in general increased over time. As a result, the quality of the tiles used in the
building decreased gradually.

The upper levels of the interior are dominated by blue paint. More than 200 stained
glass windows with intricate designs admit natural light, today assisted
by chandeliers. On the chandeliers, ostrich eggs are found that were meant to avoid
cobwebs inside the mosque by repelling spiders. The decorations include verses from
the Qur'an, many of them made by Seyyid Kasim Gubari, regarded as the greatest
calligrapher of his time. The floors are covered with carpets, which are donated by the
faithful and are regularly replaced as they wear out. The many spacious windows
confer a spacious impression. The casements at floor level are decorated with opus
sectile. Each exedra has five windows, some of which are blind. Each semi-dome has
14 windows and the central dome 28 (four of which are blind). The coloured glass for
the windows was a gift of the Signoria of Veniceto the sultan. Most of these coloured
windows have by now been replaced by modern versions with little or no artistic
merit.

The most important element in the interior of the mosque is the mihrab, which is made
of finely carved and sculptured marble, with a stalactite niche and a double inscriptive
panel above it. It is surrounded by many windows. The adjacent walls are sheathed in
ceramic tiles. To the right of the mihrab is the richly decorated minber, or pulpit,
where the imam stands when he is delivering his sermon at the time of noon prayer on
Fridays or on holy days. The mosque has been designed so that even when it is at its
most crowded, everyone in the mosque can see and hear the imam.
The royal kiosk is situated at the south-east corner. It comprises a platform,
a loggia and two small retiring rooms. It gives access to the royal loge in the south-
east upper gallery of the mosque. These retiring rooms became the headquarters of
the Grand Vizier during the suppression of the rebellious Janissary Corps in 1826. The
royal loge (hünkâr mahfil) is supported by ten marble columns. It has its own mihrab,
which used to be decorated with a jade rose and gilt and with one hundred Qurans on
an inlaid and gilded lecterns.

The many lamps inside the mosque were once covered with gold and gems. Among
the glass bowls one could find ostrich eggs and crystal balls. All these decorations
have been removed or pillaged for museums.

The great tablets on the walls are inscribed with the names of the caliphs and verses
from the Quran. They were originally by the great 17th-century calligrapher Seyyid
Kasim Gubari of Diyarbakır but have been repeatedly restored.

Interior view

Exterior:-

The facade of the spacious forecourt was built in the same manner as the facade of
the Süleymaniye Mosque, except for the addition of the turrets on the corner domes.
The court is about as large as the mosque itself and is surrounded by a continuous
vaulted arcade (revak). It has ablution facilities on both sides. The central hexagonal
fountain is small relative to the courtyard. The monumental but narrow gateway to the
courtyard stands out architecturally from the arcade. Its semi-dome has a
fine stalactite structure, crowned by a small ribbed dome on a tall tholobate. Its
historical elementary school (Sıbyan Mektebi) is used as "Mosque Information
Center" which is adjacent to its outer wall on the side of Hagia Sophia. This is where
they provide visitors with a free orientational presentation on the Blue Mosque and
Islam in general.
Courtyard of the mosque, at dusk.

A heavy iron chain hangs in the upper part of the court entrance on the western side.
Only the sultan was allowed to enter the court of the mosque on horseback. The chain
was put there, so that the sultan had to lower his head every time he entered the court
to avoid being hit. This was a symbolic gesture, to ensure the humility of the ruler in
the face of the divine.[11]

Minarets:-

The Sultan Ahmed Mosque is first one of the two mosques in Turkey that has six
minarets, the second one being the Sabancı Mosque in Adana. When the number of
minarets was revealed, the Sultan was criticized for being presumptuous, since this
was the same minarets number as at the mosque of the Ka'aba in Mecca. He overcame
this problem by ordering a seventh minaret to be built at the Mecca mosque. [12]

Minarets of the mosque.

Four minarets stand at the corners of the Blue Mosque. Each of these fluted, pencil-
shaped minarets has three balconies (Called Şerefe) with stalactite corbels, while the
two others at the end of the forecourt only have two balconies. Before the muezzin or
prayer caller had to climb a narrow spiral staircase five times a day to announce the
call to prayer.
Today, a public announce system is being used, and the call can be heard across the
old part of the city, echoed by other mosques in the vicinity. Large crowds of both
Turks and tourists gather at sunset in the park facing the mosque to hear the call to
evening prayers, as the sun sets and the mosque is brilliantly illuminated by colored
floodlights.[12]

Pope Benedict XVI's visit and silent meditation:-

Pope Benedict XVI visited the Sultan Ahmed Mosque on 30 November 2006 during
his visit to Turkey. It marks as only the second papal visit in history to a Muslim place
of worship. Having removed his shoes, the Pope paused for a full two minutes, eyes
closed in silent meditation, standing side by side with Mustafa Çağrıcı, the Mufti of
Istanbul, and Emrullah Hatipoğlu, the Imam of the Blue Mosque.

The pope “thanked divine Providence for this” and said, “May all believers identify
themselves with the one God and bear witness to true brotherhood.” The pontiff noted
that Turkey “will be a bridge of friendship and collaboration between East and West”,
and he thanked the Turkish people “for the cordiality and sympathy” they showed him
throughout his stay, saying, “he felt love and understood.” [15]

Gallery:-

A short movie showing details of the Blue Mosque.

The Blue Mosque.

 

Seen from Sultanahmet Square, close to the Hagia Sophia.

Arcaded forecourt with one of the entrance gates.

Prayers inside.

Blue tiles.

Gateway to the courtyard.

 

View of the inner courtyard.

Prayer area.

Main dome and its blue tiles.

Arcades in the inner courtyard.

The blue mosque.


 The Blue Mosque.

One of the minarets of the Blue Mosque.

7.Leshan Giant Buddha:-

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Mount Emei Scenic Area, including

Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List
Type Mixed

Criteria iv, vi, x

Reference 779

UNESCO region Asia-Pacific

Inscription history
Inscription 1996 (20th Session)

The Leshan Giant Buddha (simplified Chinese: ; traditional Chinese: is a 71-metre

(233 ft) tall stone statue, built during the Tang Dynasty. It is carved out of a cliff face
that lies at the confluence of the Minjiang, Dadu and Qingyi rivers in the southern part
of Sichuan province in China, near the city of Leshan. The stone sculpture
faces Mount Emei, with the rivers flowing below his feet. It is the largest stone
Buddha in the world[1] and it is by far the tallest pre-modern statue in the world.

The Mount Emei Scenic Area, including Leshan Giant Buddha Scenic Area has been
listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1996.

History:-
Detailed close-up shot of the statue's face

Construction was started in 713, led by a Chinese monk named Haitong. He hoped
that the Buddha would calm the turbulent waters that plagued the shipping vessels
traveling down the river. When funding for the project was threatened, he is said to
have gouged out his own eyes to show his piety and sincerity. After his death,
however, the construction was stuck due to insufficient funding. About 70 years later,
a jiedushi decided to sponsor the project and the construction was completed by
Haitong's disciples in 803.

Apparently the massive construction resulted in so much stone being removed from
the cliff face and deposited into the river below that the currents were indeed altered
by the statue, making the water safe for passing ships.

A sophisticated drainage system was incorporated into the Leshan Giant Buddha
when it was built. It is still in working order. It includes drainage pipes carved into
various places on the body, to carry away the water after the rains so as to reduce
weathering.

When the Giant Buddha was carved, a huge thirteen storey stone structure was built to
shelter it from rain and sunshine. This structure was destroyed and sacked by the
Mongols during the wars at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. From then on, the stone
statue was exposed to the elements.

Degradation:-
The Leshan Buddha has been affected by the pollution emanating from the unbridled
development in the region. According to Xinhua news agency, the Leshan Giant
Buddha and many Chinese natural and cultural heritage sites in the region have seen
degradations from weathering, air pollution, and swarms of tourists. The government
has promised restoration work.

Dimensions:-

The size of a man at one of the statue's feet

At 71 metres (233 ft) tall, the statue depicts a seated Maitreya Buddha with his hands
resting on his knees. His shoulders are 28 metres wide and his smallest toenail is large
enough to easily accommodate a seated person. There is a local saying: "The
mountain is a Buddha and the Buddha is a mountain". This is partially because the
mountain range in which the Leshan Giant Buddha is located is thought to be shaped
like a slumbering Buddha when seen from the river, with the Leshan Giant Buddha as
its heart.

Gallery:-

The statue seen from the water

 

The cliff

Leshan Buddha seen from ground level

The statue seen from above

Coordinates:  29°32′50″N 103°46′09″E / 29.54722°N 103.76917°E

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Leshan_Giant_Buddha&oldid=638549549"

Categories:

 Outdoor sculptures in China

 Colossal Buddha statues
 Mountain monuments and memorials
 World Heritage Sites in China
 Rock art in China
 Buildings and structures in Sichuan
 Visitor attractions in Sichuan
8.Lighthouse of Alexandria:-
Lighthouse of Alexandria

Drawing by archaeologist Hermann Thiersch (1909).

Location Pharos, Alexandria, Egypt

31°12′50″N 29°53′08″E / 31.21389°N
Coordinates 29.88556°ECoordinates:  31°12′50″N 29°
53′08″E / 31.21389°N 29.88556°E

Year first
c. 280 BC
constructed

Deactivated 1303/1323

Foundation Stone

Construction Masonry

Height 393–450 ft (120–137 m)

Range 47 km (29 mi)

The Lighthouse of Alexandria, sometimes called the Pharos of Alexandria , was a

lofty tower built by the Ptolemaic Kingdom between 280 and 247 BC and between
393 and 450 ft (120 and 137 m) tall. It was one of the tallest man-made structures on
Earth for many centuries, and was regarded as one of the Seven Wonders of the
Ancient World. Badly damaged by three earthquakes between 956 and 1323, it then
became an abandoned ruin. It was the third longest surviving ancient wonder (after
the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus and the still existent Great Pyramid of Giza) until in
1480 the last of its remnant stones were used to build the Citadel of Qaitbay on the
site. In 1994, French archaeologists discovered some remains of the lighthouse on the
floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour.

Origin:-

Three-dimensional reconstruction based on a comprehensive 2006 study

Pharos was a small island just off the coast of the Nile Delta's western edge. In 332
BC when Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria on an isthmus opposite
to Pharos, he caused the island to be united to the coast by a mole more than three-
quarters of a mile long (1260 m/4,100+ feet) called the Heptastadion ("seven
stadia"—a stadium was a Greek unit of length measuring approximately 180 m). The
east side of the mole became the Great Harbour, now an open bay; on the west side
lay the port of Eunostos, with its inner basin Kibotos, now vastly enlarged to form the
modern harbour. Today's city development lying between the present Grand Square
and the modern Ras al-Tiin quarter is built on the silt which gradually widened and
obliterated this mole, and Ras al-Tiin represents all that is left of the island of Pharos,
the site of the lighthouse at its eastern point having been weathered away by the sea.

Construction:-
The Lighthouse on coins minted in Alexandria in the second century (1: reverse of a
coin of Antoninus Pius, and 2: reverse of a coin ofCommodus).

The lighthouse was constructed in the 3rd century BC. After Alexander the Great died
of a fever at age 32, the first Ptolemy (Ptolemy I Soter) announced himself king in
305 BC, and commissioned its construction shortly thereafter. The building was
finished during the reign of his son, the second Ptolemy (Ptolemy II Philadelphus). It
took 12 years to complete, at a total cost of 800 talents, and served as a prototype for
all later lighthouses in the world. The light was produced by a furnace at the top and
the tower was said to have been built mostly with solid blocks of
limestone. Strabo reported that Sostratus had a dedication inscribed in metal letters to
the "Saviour Gods". Later Pliny the Elder wrote that Sostratus was the architect,
which is disputed. In the second century AD the satirist Lucian wrote that Sostratus
inscribed his name under plaster bearing the name of Ptolemy. This was so that when
the plaster with Ptolemy's name fell off, Sostratus's name would be visible in the
stone.

Height and description:-

Judith McKenzie writes that "The Arab descriptions of the lighthouse are remarkably
consistent, although it was repaired a number of times especially after earthquake
damage. The height they give varies only fifteen per cent from c 103 to 118m [338' to
387'], on a base c. 30 by 30m [98' by 98'] square... the Arab authors indicate a tower
with three tapering tiers, which they describe as square, octagonal and circular, with a
substantial ramp".

The fullest description of the lighthouse comes "from the Arab traveler Abou Haggag
Youssef Ibn Mohammed el-Balawi el-Andaloussi, who visited the Pharos as a tourist
in AH 561 (A.D. 1166)."

Constructed from large blocks of light-coloured stone, the tower was made up of three
stages: a lower square section with a central core, a middle octagonal section, and, at
the top, a circular section. At its apex was positioned a mirror which reflected sunlight
during the day; a fire was lit at night. Extant Roman coins struck by the Alexandrian
mint show that a statue of a Triton was positioned on each of the building's four
corners. A statue of Poseidon or Zeus stood atop the lighthouse.[7] The Pharos'
masonry blocks were interlocked, sealed together using molten lead, to withstand the
pounding of the waves.[8]
A mosaic depicting the Pharos of Alexandria, from Olbia, Libya c. 4th century AD

Destruction:-
In 796, the lighthouse may have lost its upper tier, which apparently went without
repair for about a century. There are reports that Sultan Ahmad ibn Tulun (868–884)
then built a mosque with a dome in place of the upper tier, but this seems to conflict
with travelling geographer Muhammad al-Idrisi's report that the structure still
operated as a lighthouse on his visit in 1115.

The lighthouse was badly damaged in the earthquake of 956, and then again in 1303
and 1323. The two earthquakes in 1303 and 1323 damaged the lighthouse to the
extent that the Moroccan traveller Ibn Battuta reported no longer being able to enter
the ruin (when he visited it in 1349). Finally the stubby remnant disappeared in 1480,
when the then-Sultan of Egypt, Qaitbay, built a medieval fort on the larger platform of
the lighthouse site using some of the fallen stone.

Recent archaeological research:-

French archaeologists led by Jean-Yves Empereur discovered remains of the
lighthouse in late 1994 on the floor of Alexandria's Eastern Harbour. Some of these
remains were brought up and were lying at the harbour on public view at the end of
1995. A Nova (TV series) program chronicled the discovery. Subsequent satellite
imaging has revealed further remains. It is possible to go diving and see the ruins. The
secretariat of theUNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural
Heritage are currently working with the Government of Egypt on an initiative to add
the bay of Alexandria (to include remains of the lighthouse) on a World Heritage List
of submerged cultural sites.
Significance:-
Pharos became the etymological origin of the word 'lighthouse' in Greek (φάρος),
Persian (Fānūs – ‫)فانوس‬, many Romance languages such as French (phare), Italian and
Spanish (faro), Romanian (far) and Portuguese (farol), and even some Slavic
languages like Bulgarian (far). In Russian, a derived word means "headlight" (fara –
фара).

In 2008 it was suggested that the Pharos was the vertical yardstick used in the first
precise measurement of the size of the earth.

Pharos in culture:-

The Pharos of Abusir, an ancient funerary monument thought to be modelled after

the Pharos at Alexandria, with which it is approximately contemporaneous

The lighthouse remains a civic symbol of the city of Alexandria and of the Alexandria

Governorate with which the city is more or less coterminous. A stylised representation
of the Lighthouse appears on the flag and seal of the Governorate and on many public
services of the city, including the seal of Alexandria University.

In architecture:-

 A well-preserved ancient tomb in the town of Abusir, 48 kilometres (30 mi)

southwest of Alexandria, is thought to be a scaled-down model of the
 Alexandria Pharos. Known colloquially under various names – thePharos of
Abusir, the Abusir funerary monument and Burg al-Arab (Arab's Tower) – it
consists of a 3-story tower, approximately 20 metres (66 ft) in height, with a
square base, an octagonal midsection and cylindrical upper section, like the
building upon which it was apparently modelled. It dates to the reign
of Ptolemy II (285–246 BC), and is therefore likely to have been built at about
the same time as the Alexandria Pharos.
 The design of minarets in many early Egyptian Islamic mosques followed a
similar three-stage design to that of the Pharos, attesting to the building's
broader architectural influence.
 The George Washington Masonic National Memorial is fashioned after the
ancient Lighthouse of Alexandria in Egypt.

In books:-

A size comparison of PHAROS between two studies (1909 & 2006) of the building.

 Julius Caesar, in his Civil Wars (Part III, Sections 111–112, esp. Section 112),
describes the Pharos and how it was a key landmark to his subduing Ptolemy
XIV's armies (48 BC), describing its strategic importance in his sentences "Now
because of the narrowness of the strait there can be no access by ship to the
harbour without the consent of those who hold the Pharos. In view of this,
Caesar took the precaution of landing his troops while the enemy was
preoccupied with fighting, seized the Pharos and posted a garrison there. The
result was that safe access was secured for his corn supplies and
 reinforcements." [It was common for Caesar in his writings to refer to himself
in the third person.]
 The Romano-Jewish historian Josephus (A.D. 37 – c.100) describes it in his
book The Jewish War (4.10.5) when he gives a geographical overview of Egypt.
 It was described at length in the Zhufan Zhi , "Records of Foreign Peoples")
by Zhao Rugua (1170–1228), a Chinese customs inspector for the port city
of Quanzhou during the Song Dynasty.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?

title=Lighthouse_of_Alexandria&oldid=639638361"
Categories:

 3rd-century BC architecture
 Buildings and structures in Alexandria
 Destroyed landmarks
 Hellenistic architecture
 Lighthouses in Egypt
 Lighthouses
 Ptolemaic Alexandria
 Transport in Alexandria
 Defunct towers

Hidden categories:

 Use mdy dates from March 2012

 Coordinates on Wikidata
 All articles with unsourced statements
 Articles with unsourced statements from September 2013
 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2014

9.Badshahi Mosque
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Badshahi Mosque

Basic information

Location Iqbal Park, Lahore, Pakistan

31°35′17.07″N 74°18′36.
45″E / 31.5880750°N
Geographic 74.3101250°ECoordinates: 
coordinates 31°35′17.07″N 74°18′36.
45″E / 31.5880750°N
74.3101250°E

Affiliation Sunni Islam

Province Punjab

District Lahore

Year
1671
consecrated

Ecclesiastical
or
Mosque
organization
al status

Leadership Aurangzeb

Architectural description
Architectural
Mosque
type

Architectural
Islamic, Mughal
style

Completed 1673

Specifications

Capacity 100,000

Dome(s) 3

Minaret(s) 8 (4 major, 4 minor)

Minaret
176 ft 4 in (53.75 m)
height

Badshahi Mosque (Front)

The Badshahi Mosque (Urdu: ‫مسج د‬
‫ش‬
‫ب اد اہ ی‬, Imperial Mosque) in Lahore,
commissioned by the sixth Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671 and completed in
1673, is the second largest mosque in Pakistan and South Asiaand the fifth largest
mosque in the world. Epitomising the beauty, passion and grandeur of the Mughal era,
it is Lahore's most famous landmark and a major tourist attraction. [1] It is located
in Iqbal Park in Lahore, Pakistanwhich is one of the largest urban parks in Pakistan.

Capable of accommodating 55,000 worshippers in its main prayer hall and a further
95,000 in its courtyard and porticoes, it remained the largest mosque in the
world from 1673 to 1986 (a period of 313 years), when overtaken in size by the
completion of the Faisal Mosque in Islamabad. Today, it remains the second
largest mosque in Pakistan and South Asia and the fifth largest mosque in the world
after the Masjid al-Haram (Grand Mosque) of Mecca, the Al-Masjid al-
Nabawi (Prophet's Mosque) in Medina, the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca and
the Faisal Mosque in Islamabad.[citation needed]
To appreciate its large size, the four minarets of the Badshahi Mosque are 13.9 ft
(4.2 m) taller than those of the Taj Mahal and the main platform of the Taj Mahal can
fit inside the 278,784 sq ft (25,899.9 m2) courtyard of the Badshahi Mosque, which is
the largest mosque courtyard in the world.

In 1993, the Government of Pakistan recommended the inclusion of the Badshahi

Mosque as a World Heritage Site in UNESCO's World Heritage List, where it has
been included in Pakistan's Tentative List for possible nomination to the World
Heritage List by UNESCO.[2]

History:-
Construction (1671–1673)

Night View of Badshahi Mosque

Construction of the Badshahi Mosque was ordered in May 1671 by the sixth Mughal
Emperor, Aurangzeb, who assumed the title Alamgir (meaning "Conqueror of the
World"). Construction took about two years and was completed in April 1673.

The Badshahi Mosque was built opposite the Lahore Fort, emphasising its stature in
the Mughal Empire. It was constructed on a raised platform to avoid inundation from
the nearby Ravi River during flooding. The mosque's foundation and structure was
constructed using bricks and compacted clay. The structure was then clad with red
sandstone tiles brought from a stone quarry near Jaipur in Rajasthan and its domes
were clad with white marble.

The construction work was carried out under the supervision of Aurangzeb's foster
brother, Muzaffar Hussain (also known as Fidai Khan Koka), who was appointed
Governor of Lahore by Aurangzeb in May 1671 to specifically oversee the
construction of the mosque and held that post until 1675. He was also Master of
Ordnance to Aurangzeb. In conjunction with the building of the Badshahi Mosque, a
new gate was built at the Lahore Fort opening into the Hazuri Bagh and facing the
main entrance of the Badshahi Mosque, which was named Alamgiri Gate after
Aurangzeb.

Inscribed in a marble tablet on the entrance of the Badshahi Mosque are the following
words in Persian:

“The Mosque of Abul Muzaffar Muhy-ud-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb Alamgir,

Victorious King, constructed and completed under the superintendence of the
Humblest Servant of the Royal Household, Fidai Khan Koka, in 1084 A.H.”

Mosque under Mughal rule (1673–1752)

Badshahi Masjid at night

When it was completed in 1673, the Badshahi Mosque was not only the largest
mosque in the Mughal Empire, but also the largest mosque in the world – a record it
would hold for 313 years until 1986. It was also one of the largest buildings in the
Mughal Empire and the world. On a clear day, it could be seen from a distance of
15 km. The Badshahi Mosque elevated Lahore to greater political, economic and
cultural importance in the Mughal Empire.

Mosque converted to Horse Stable under Sikh rule (1799–1849)

Badshahi Mosque with damaged minarets during Sikh rule

On 7 July 1799, the Sikh army of the Sukerchakia chief, Maharaja Ranjit Singh, took

control of Lahore. After the capture of the city, the Badshahi Mosque was severely
damaged when Maharaja Ranjit Singhdesecrated and used its vast courtyard as a
stable for his armies horses and its 80 hujras (small study rooms surrounding the
courtyard) as quarters for his soldiers and as magazines for military
stores. Maharaja Ranjit Singh used the Hazuri Bagh, the enclosed garden next to the
Mosque as his official royal court of audience.

In 1841, during the Sikh civil war, Maharaja Ranjit Singh's son, Maharaja Sher Singh,

used the Mosque's large minarets for placement of zamburahs or light guns, which
were placed atop the minarets to bombard the supporters of the Sikh Maharani Chand
Kaur taking refuge in the besieged Lahore Fort, inflicting great damage to the Fort
itself. In one of these bombardments, the Fort's Diwan-e-Aam (Hall of Public
Audience) was destroyed (it was subsequently rebuilt by the British but never
regained its original architectural splendour). [1] During this time, Henri De la Rouche,
a French cavalry officer employed in the army of Maharaja Sher Singh,[7]used a tunnel
connecting the Badshahi Mosque to the Lahore Fort to temporarily store gunpowder.

Mosque used as Garrison under British rule (1858–1947)

When the British took control of Lahore in 1846, they continued the Sikh practice of
using the Mosque and the adjoining Fort as a military garrison. The 80 cells ( hujras)
built into the walls surrounding the Mosque's vast courtyard on three sides were
originally study rooms, which were used by the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh to house
troops and military stores. The British demolished them so as to prevent them from
being used for anti-British activities and rebuilt them to form open arcades or dalans,
which continue to this day.

Mosque's return to Muslims and restoration

Layout of the mosque

Sensing increasing Muslim resentment against the use of the Mosque as a military
garrison, which was continuing since Sikh Rule, the British set up the Badshahi
Mosque Authority in 1852 to oversee the restoration and return of the Mosque to
Muslims as a place of religious worship. From 1852 onwards, piecemeal repairs were
carried out under the supervision of the Badshahi Mosque Authority. Extensive
repairs commenced from 1939 onwards, when the Punjab Premier Sir Sikandar Hayat
Khan took on the task of raising funds for this purpose. The blueprint for the repairs
was prepared by Nawab Zain Yar Jang Bahadur, the Chief Architect ofHyderabad
Deccan.

It was not until 1852 that the British established the Badshahi Mosque Authority to
oversee the restoration of the mosque so that it could be returned to Muslims as a
place of worship. Although repairs were carried out, it was not until 1939 that
extensive repairs began under the oversight of architect Nawab Zen Yar Jang
Bahadur. The repairs continued until 1960 and were completed at a cost of 4.8 million
rupees.

Mosque under Pakistan (1947–present)

A view of Badshahi Mosque from the streets of Lahore.

Restoration work at the Mosque continued after Lahore became part of the new
Muslim State of Pakistan on 14 August 1947, the mosque was returned to its original
purpose, and extensive repairs were undertaken. By 1960, the Badshahi Mosque stood
restored to its original condition at a total cost of 5 million rupees (1939–1960).

The Government of Pakistan established a small museum inside the Main Gateway
Entrance of the Mosque. It contains relics of the Prophet Muhammad, his cousin Ali,
and his daughter, Fatimah, donated by the Fakir family of Lahore who occupied high
posts during Maharaja Ranjit Singh's rule.

On the occasion of the 2nd Islamic Summit held at Lahore on February 22, 1974,
thirty-nine heads of Muslim states offered their Friday prayers in the Badshahi
Mosque, including, among others, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan, King Faisal of
Saudi Arabia, Muammar Gaddafi of Libya, Yasser Arafat of the Palestine Liberation
Organization and Sabah III Al-Salim Al-Sabah of Kuwait. The prayers were led
by Mawlānā Abdul Qadir Azad, the then Khatib of the Mosque.

In 1993, the Government of Pakistan recommended the inclusion of the Badshahi

Mosque as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, where it has been included in Pakistan's
Tentative List for possible nomination to the World Heritage List.

In 2000, the marble inlay in the Main Prayer Hall was repaired. In 2008, replacement
work on the red sandstone tiles on the Mosque's large courtyard commenced, using
red sandstone especially imported from the original source near Jaipur, Rajasthan,
India and the Mosque is now almost restored to its original 17th century condition.

Architecture and design:-

Gate of the mosque

The architecture and design of the Badshahi Mosque closely resembles that of the
smaller Jama Mosque in Delhi, India, which was built in 1648 by Aurangzeb's father
and predecessor, Emperor Shah Jahan. Its design was inspired by Islamic, Persian,
Central Asian and Indian influences. Like the character of its founder, the Mosque is
bold, vast and majestic in its expression.

The steps leading to the Main Prayer Hall and its floor are in Sang-e-Alvi (variegated
marble). The Main Prayer Hall is divided into seven sections by means of multi-foil
arches supported on heavy piers, three of which bear the double domes finished
externally in white marble. The remaining four sections are roofed with flat domes.

The interior of the Main Prayer Hall is richly embellished with stucco tracery

(Manbatkari), fresco work, and inlaid marble.

The exterior is decorated with stone carving as well as marble inlay on red sandstone,
specially of lotiform motifs in bold relief. The embellishment has Indo-Greek, Central
Asian and Indian architectural influence both in technique and motifs.

Badshahi Mosque at night

The skyline is furnished by beautiful ornamental merlons inlaid with marble lining

adding grace to the perimeter of the mosque. In its various architectural features like
the vast square courtyard, the side aisles (dalans), the four corner minarets (minars),
the projecting central transept of the prayer chamber and the grand entrance gate, is
summed up the history of development of mosque architecture of the Muslim world
over the thousand years prior to its construction in 1673.

The north enclosure wall of the Mosque was laid close to the Ravi River bank, so a
majestic gateway could not be provided on that side and, to keep the symmetry the
gate had to be omitted on the south wall as well. Thus, a four Aiwan plan like the
earlier Jama Mosque in Delhi, could not be replicated at the Badshahi Mosque.
The walls were built with small kiln-burnt bricks laid in kankar, lime mortar (a kind
of hydraulic lime) but have a veneer of red sandstone. The steps leading to the prayer
chamber and its plinth are in variegated marble.

The main prayer chamber is very deep and is divided into seven compartments by rich
engraved arches carried on very heavy piers. Out of the 7 compartments, three double
domes finished in marble have superb curvature, whilst the rest have curvilinear
domes with a central rib in their interior and flat roof above. In the eastern front aisle,
the ceiling of the compartment is flat (qalamdani) with a curved border (ghalatan) at
the cornice level.

The original floor of the courtyard was laid with small kiln-burnt bricks laid in
the Mussalah pattern. The present red sandstone flooring was laid during the last
major refurbishhment (1939 – 1960). Similarly, the original floor of the main prayer
chamber was in cut and dressed bricks with marble and Sang-i-Abri lining
forming Mussalah and was also replaced by marble Mussalah during the last major
repairs.

There are only two inscriptions in the Mosque:

 one on the main gateway entrance

 the other of Kalimah in the prayer chamber under the main high vault.

Badshahi Mosque in 1860s

Architectural influence:-
The Badshahi Mosque has architecturally influenced the design of the following
mosques:

 Sheikh Zayed Mosque, Abu Dhabi, U.A.E.

 Sir Syed Masjid, Aligarh, India
 Taj-ul-Masajid, Bhopal, India
Gallery:-

Badshahi Mosque in 1870s

Badshahi Mosque in 1870s

Badshahi Mosque in 1880s

View from Lahore Fort in 1880s

View Iqbal Park
 

Badshahi Mosque in 1895

Badshahi Mosque in 1976

Badshahi Mosque's main gateway entrance

Badshahi Mosque's main prayer hall

Gateway to the Mosque


Hazuri Bagh Baradari in foreground

All architectural elements in symmetrical harmony

Beautifully embellished main archway

One of the Mosque's four small minarates

Cusped arch frames a minaret


Pietre dure trellis in the Mosque's mihrab

Detail of white marble inlay in red sandstone

White marble inlay in red sandstone

Another beautiful view

Minar-e-Pakistan richly framed by an aisle arch

Samadhi of Ranjit Singhbehind one of the main minarets

 

Iqbal's mausoleumadjacent to the Mosque's gateway

Beautiful view

Badshahi Mosque interior

Entrance of Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Minaret of Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

 

Petal shapped Base of the Pillar of the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore

Prayer Courtyard of Badshahi Mosque

Badshahi Mosque in evening Aasil Atif

10.Alhambra:-
Native name
Arabic: ‫الحمراء‬

Location Granada, Andalusia, Spain

37°10′0″N 3°35′24″W /
37.16667°N
Coordinates 3.59000°WCoordinates: 
37°10′0″N 3°35′24″W /
37.16667°N 3.59000°W

Built 9th century

Governing
Ministry of Culture
body

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name: Alhambra, Generalife and

Albayzín, Granada

Type Cultural

Criteria i, iii, iv

1984 (8th session)
Designated 1994 (18th session –
Extension)

Reference no
314
.

State Party Spain

Region Europe

Spanish Property of Cultural Interest

Official name: La Alhambra

Type Real property

Currently listed as
Criteria a monumento (Bien de
Interés Cultural)

Designated 10 February 1870

Reference no (R.I.) – 51 – 0000009 –

. 00000

Location of Alhambra within Spain

ْ
Alhambra (/ælˈhæmbrə/; Spanish: [aˈlambɾa]; Arabic: ‫ال َح ْم}}}}}}}}}} َراء‬, [ʔælħæmˈɾˠɑːʔ], Al-
Ḥamrā', lit. "the red one"), the complete form of which was Calat Alhambra, is a
palace and fortress complex located in Granada,Andalusia, Spain. It was originally
constructed as a small fortress in 889 and then largely ignored until its ruins were
renovated and rebuilt in the mid-11th century by the Moorish emir Mohammed ben
Al-Ahmar of the Emirate of Granada, who built its current palace and walls. It was
converted into a royal palace in 1333 by Yusuf I, Sultan of Granada.

Alhambra's Islamic palaces, as we know them today, were built for the last
Muslim emirs in Spain and the court of the Nasrid dynasty. After the conquest of
Granada by the Reyes Católicos ("Catholic Monarchs") in 1492, some portions were
used by Christian rulers. The Palace of Charles V, built by Charles V, Holy Roman
Emperor in 1527, was inserted in the Alhambra within the Nasrid fortifications. After
being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, the buildings being occupied
by squatters, Alhambra was rediscovered in the 19th century by European scholars
and travelers, with restorations commencing. It is now one of Spain's major tourist
attractions, exhibiting the country's most significant and well known Islamic
architecture, together with 16th-century and later Christian building and garden
interventions. Alhambra is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the inspiration for
many songs and stories.

Moorish poets described it as "a pearl set in emeralds," an allusion to the colour of its
buildings and the woods around them. The palace complex was designed with the
mountainous site in mind and many forms of technology were considered. The park
(Alameda de la Alhambra), which is overgrown with wildflowers and grass in the
spring, was planted by the Moors with roses, oranges, and myrtles; its most
characteristic feature, however, is the dense wood of English elms brought by
the Duke of Wellington in 1812. The park has a multitude of nightingales and is
usually filled with the sound of running water from several fountains and cascades.
These are supplied through a conduit 8 km (5.0 mi) long, which is connected with
the Darro at the monastery of Jesus del Valle above Granada.

Despite long neglect, willful vandalism, and some ill-judged restoration, Alhambra
endures as an atypical example of Muslim art in its final European stages, relatively
uninfluenced by the direct Byzantine influences found in the Mezquita of Córdoba.
The majority of the palace buildings are quadrangular in plan, with all the rooms
opening on to a central court, and the whole reached its present size simply by the
gradual addition of new quadrangles, designed on the same principle, though varying
in dimensions, and connected with each other by smaller rooms and passages.
Alhambra was extended by the different Muslim rulers who lived in the complex.
However, each new section that was added followed the consistent theme of "paradise
on earth". Column arcades, fountains with running water, and reflecting pools were
used to add to the aesthetic and functional complexity. In every case, the exterior was
left plain and austere. Sun and wind were freely admitted. Blue, red, and a golden
yellow, all somewhat faded through lapse of time and exposure, are the colors chiefly
employed.

The decoration consists, as a rule, of Arabic inscriptions that are manipulated into
geometrical patterns wrought into arabesques. Painted tiles are largely used as
panelling for the walls. The palace complex is designed in the Mudéjar style, which is
characteristic of western elements reinterpreted into Islamic forms and widely popular
during the so-called Reconquista, the "reconquest" of the Iberian Peninsula from the
Muslims by the Christian kingdoms.

Layout:-

Plan of the Palacio Arabe 1889

Alhambra did not have a master plan for the total site design, so its overall layout is
not orthogonal nor organized. As a result of the site's many construction phases: from
the original 9th-century citadel, through the 14th-century Muslim palaces, to the 16th-
century palace of Charles V; some buildings are at odd positioning to each other. The
terrace or plateau where the Alhambra sits measures about 740 metres (2,430 ft) in
length by 205 metres (670 ft) at its greatest width. It extends from west-northwest to
east-southeast and covers an area of about 142,000 square metres
(1,530,000 sq ft).The Alhambra's most westerly feature is thealcazaba (citadel), a
strongly fortified position. The rest of the plateau comprises a number of Moorish
palaces, enclosed by a fortified wall, with thirteen towers, some defensive and some
providing vistas for the inhabitants. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the
north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the
Assabica valley, containing the Alhambra Park on the west and south, and, beyond
this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror, separate it from the
Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife.
Panorama of the Alhambra from Mirador de San Nicolas. From left to right:
Generalife, Pico del Veleta (mountain), Palacios Nazaríes, Palace of Charles V,
Alcazaba.

Architectural details:-

Ceiling in Alhambra

The decorations within the palaces typified the remains of Moorish dominion within
Spain and ushered in the last great period of Andalusian art in Granada. With little of
the Byzantine influence of contemporary Abassidarchitecture, artists endlessly
reproduced the same forms and trends, creating a new style that developed over the
course of the Nasrid Dynasty. The Nasrids used freely all the stylistic elements that
had been created and developed during eight centuries of Muslim rule in the
Peninsula, including the Calliphal horseshoe arch, the Almohad sebka (a grid
of rhombuses), the Almoravid palm, and unique combinations of them, as well as
innovations such as stilted arches and muqarnas (stalactite ceiling decorations). The
isolation from the rest of Islam plus the commercial and political relationship with the
Christian kingdoms also influenced building styles.
Arabesques around one of the windows.

One detail of the arabesques.

Columns and muqarnas appear in several chambers, and the interiors of numerous
palaces are decorated with arabesques and calligraphy. The arabesques of the interior
are ascribed to, among other sultans, Yusuf I,Mohammed V, and Ismail I, Sultan of
Granada.

After the Christian conquest of the city in 1492, the conquerors began to alter the
Alhambra. The open work was filled up with whitewash, the painting and gilding
effaced, and the furniture soiled, torn, or removed. [3]Charles I (1516–1556) rebuilt
portions in the Renaissance style of the period and destroyed the greater part of the
winter palace to make room for a Renaissance-style structure which was never
completed. Philip V (1700–1746) Italianised the rooms and completed his palace in
the middle of what had been the Moorish building; he had partitions constructed
which blocked up whole apartments.

Over subsequent centuries the Moorish art was further damaged, and in 1812 some of
the towers were destroyed by the French under Count Sebastiani.  In 1821, an
earthquake caused further damage. Restoration work was undertaken in 1828 by the
architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 by Ferdinand VII. After the death of
Contreras in 1847, it was continued with fair success by his son Rafael (died 1890)
and his grandson.

History:-
Completed towards the end of Muslim rule of Spain by Yusuf I (1333–1353)
and Muhammed V, Sultan of Granada (1353–1391), the Alhambra is a reflection of
the culture of the last centuries of the Moorish rule of Al Andalus, reduced to
the Nasrid Emirate of Granada. It is a place where artists and intellectuals had taken
refuge as the Reconquista by Spanish Christians won victories over Al Andalus. The
Alhambra integrates natural site qualities with constructed structures and gardens, and
is a testament to Moorish culture in Spain and the skills of Muslim, Jewish, and
Christian artisans, craftsmen, and builders of their era. The literal translation of
Alhambra, "the red (female)," reflects the color of the red clay of the surroundings of
which the fort is made. The buildings of the Alhambra were originally whitewashed;
however, the buildings as seen today are reddish. Another possible origin of the name
is the tribal designation of the Nasrid Dynasty, known as the Banu al-Ahmar Arabic:
Sons of the Red (male), a sub-tribe of the Qahtanite Banu Khazraj tribe. One of the
early Nasrid ancestors was nicknamed Yusuf Al Ahmar (Yusuf the Red) and hence the
(Nasrid) fraction of the Banu Khazraj took up the name of Banu al-Ahmar.

Detail of the script of the wall of the Mexuar Hall: "God is the only Victor.".

The first reference to the Qal‘at al-Ḥamra was during the battles between
the Arabs and the Muladies (people of mixed Arab and European descent) during the
rule of the ‘Abdullah ibn Muhammad (r. 888–912). In one particularly fierce and
bloody skirmish, the Muladies soundly defeated the Arabs, who were then forced to
take shelter in a primitive red castle located in the province of Elvira, presently
located in Granada. According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was
quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering.
The castle was then largely ignored until the eleventh century, when its ruins were
renovated and rebuilt by Samuel ibn Naghrela, vizier to the emir Badis ben Habus of
the Zirid Dynasty of Al Andalus, in an attempt to preserve the small Jewish settlement
also located on the natural plateau, Sabikah Hill.
A room of the palace and a view of the Court of the Lions.

Ibn Nasr, the founder of the Nasrid Dynasty, was forced to flee to Jaén to avoid
persecution by King Ferdinand III of Castile and the Reconquista supporters working
to end Spain's Moorish rule. After retreating to Granada, Ibn-Nasr took up residence
at the Palace of Badis ben Habus in the Alhambra. A few months later, he embarked
on the construction of a new Alhambra fit for the residence of a sultan. According to
an Arab manuscript since published as the Anónimo de Granada y Copenhague,

This year, 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra"
inspected it, laid out the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of its
construction...

The design included plans for six palaces, five of which were grouped in the northeast
quadrant forming a royal quarter, two circuit towers, and numerous bathhouses.
During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into
a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of acequias for the
gardens of the Generalife located outside the fortress. Previously, the old Alhambra
structure had been dependent upon rainwater collected from a cistern and from what
could be brought up from the Albaicín. The creation of the Sultan's Canal solidified
the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive
and ascetic structure.

The Muslim ruler Muhammad XII of Granada surrendered the Emirate of Granada in

1492 without the Alhambra itself being attacked when the forces of the Reyes
Católicos, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and QueenIsabella I of Castile, took the
surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers.
Overview:-

The Tower of Justice (Puerta de la Justicia) is the original entrance gate to the
Alhambra, built by Yusuf I in 1348.

The Alhambra resembles many medieval Christian strongholds in its threefold

arrangement as a castle, a palace and a residential annex for subordinates.
The alcazaba or citadel, its oldest part, is built on the isolated and precipitous foreland
which terminates the plateau on the northwest. All that remains are its massive outer
walls, towers and ramparts. On its watchtower, the 25 m (85 ft) high Torre de la Vela,
the flag of Ferdinand andIsabella was first raised as a symbol of the Spanish conquest
of Granada on 2 January 1492. A turret containing a large bell was added in the 18th
century and restored after being damaged by lightning in 1881. Beyond the Alcazaba
is the palace of the Moorish rulers, The Nasrid Palaces or Alhambra proper, and
beyond this is the Alhambra Alta (Upper Alhambra), originally occupied by officials
and courtiers.

Access from the city to the Alhambra Park is afforded by the Puerta de las
Granadas (Gate of Pomegranates), a triumphal arch dating from the 15th century. A
steep ascent leads past the Pillar of Charles V, a fountain erected in 1554, to the main
entrance of the Alhambra. This is the Puerta de la Justicia (Gate of Judgment), a
massive horseshoe archway surmounted by a square tower and used by the Moors as
an informal court of justice. The hand of Fatima, with fingers outstretched as a
talisman against the evil eye, is carved above this gate on the exterior; a key, the
symbol of authority, occupies the corresponding place on the interior. A narrow
passage leads inward to the Plaza de los Aljibes (Place of the Cisterns), a broad open
space which divides the Alcazaba from the Moorish palace. To the left of the passage
rises the Torre del Vino (Wine Tower), built in 1345 and used in the 16th century as a
cellar. On the right is the palace of Charles V, a smaller Renaissance building, to
construct which part of the Alhambra, including the original main entrance, was torn
down.

Royal complex:-

Canopy with stonework

The Royal Complex consists of three main parts: Mexuar, Serallo, and the Harem.
The Mexuar is modest in decor and houses the functional areas for conducting
business and administration. Strapwork is used to decorate the surfaces in Mexuar.
The ceilings, floors, and trim are made of dark wood and are in sharp contrast to
white, plaster walls. Serallo, built during the reign of Yusuf I in the 14th century,
contains the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the Myrtles). Brightly colored interiors
featured dado panels, yesería, azulejo, cedar, and artesonado. Artesonado are highly
decorative ceilings and other woodwork. Lastly, the Harem is also elaborately
decorated and contains the living quarters for the wives and mistresses of the Berber
monarchs. This area contains a bathroom with running water (cold and hot), baths,
and pressurized water for showering. The bathrooms were open to the elements in
order to allow in light and air.
Court of the Myrtles:-

Main article: Court of the Myrtles

Alhambra

The present entrance to the Palacio Árabe, or Casa Real (Moorish palace), is by a

small door from which a corridor connects to the Patio de los Arrayanes (Court of the
Myrtles), also called the Patio de la Alberca(Court of the Blessing or Court of the
Pond), from the Arabic birka, "pool". The birka helped to cool the palace and acted as
a symbol of power. Because water was usually in short supply, the technology
required to keep these pools full was expensive and difficult. This court is 42 m
(140 ft) long by 22 m (74 ft) broad, and in the centre there is a large pond set in the
marble pavement, full of goldfish, and with myrtles growing along its sides. There are
galleries on the north and south sides; the southern gallery is 7 m (23 ft) high and
supported by a marble colonnade. Underneath it, to the right, was the principal
entrance, and over it are three windows with arches and miniature pillars. From this
court, the walls of the Torre de Comares are seen rising over the roof to the north and
reflected in the pond.

Hall of the Ambassadors:-

The Salón de los Embajadores (Hall of the Ambassadors) is the largest in the

Alhambra and occupies all the Torre de Comares. It is a square room, the sides being
12 m (37 ft) in length, while the centre of the dome is 23 m (75 ft) high. This was the
grand reception room, and the throne of the sultan was placed opposite the entrance.
The grand hall projects from the walls of the palace, providing views in three
directions. In this sense, it was a "mirador" from which the palace's inhabitants could
gaze outward to the surrounding landscape. It was in this setting that Christopher
Columbus received Isabel and Ferdinand's support to sail to the New World. The tiles
are nearly 4 ft (1.2 m) high all round, and the colours vary at intervals. Over them is a
series of oval medallions with inscriptions, interwoven with flowers and leaves. There
are nine windows, three on each facade, and the ceiling is decorated with white, blue
and gold inlays in the shape of circles, crowns and stars. The walls are covered with
varied stucco works, surrounding many ancient escutcheons.

The Court of the Lions, a example of IslamicMoorish architecture and garden design

Hall of the Abencerrajes:-

"Honeycomb," "stalactite," or "mocárabe" vaulting in the Hall of the Abencerrajes

The Sala de los Abencerrajes (Hall of the Abencerrages) derives its name from a

legend according to which the father of Boabdil, the last sultan of Granada, having
invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them here.This room is a perfect
square, with a lofty dome and trellised windows at its base. The roof is decorated in
blue, brown, red and gold, and the columns supporting it spring out into the arch form
in a remarkably beautiful manner. Opposite to this hall is the Sala de las dos
Hermanas (Hall of the two Sisters), so-called from two white marble slabs laid as part
of the pavement. These slabs measure 500 by 220 cm (15 by 7½ ft). There is a
fountain in the middle of this hall, and the roof — a dome honeycombed with tiny
cells, all different, and said to number 5000 — is an example of the "stalactite
vaulting" of the Moors.

Portico and pool of the early 14th-century Partal, in the Alta Alhambra of the

complex.

West side of Palace of Charles V in the Alhambra.

Of the outlying buildings connected to the Alhambra, the foremost in interest is

the Palacio de Generalife or Gineralife (the Muslim Jennat al Arif, "Garden of Arif,"
or "Garden of the Architect"). This villa dates from the beginning of the 14th century
but has been restored several times. The Villa de los Martires (Martyrs' Villa), on the
summit of Monte Mauror, commemorates by its name the Christian slaves who were
forced to build the Alhambra and confined here in subterranean cells. [10] The Torres
Bermejas (Vermilion Towers), also on Monte Mauror, are a well-preserved Moorish
fortification, with underground cisterns, stables, and accommodation for a garrison of
200 men. Several Roman tombs were discovered in 1829 and 1857 at the base of
Monte Mauror.

Influence:-
Parts of the following novels are set in the Alhambra:

Whilst fountains and flowing water are a common feature around the Alhambra,
they are particularly prevalent in the Palacio de Generalife.

 Washington Irving's Tales of the Alhambra. This is a collection of essays, verbal

sketches, and stories. Irving lived in the palace while writing the book and was
instrumental in reintroducing the site to Western audiences.
 Salman Rushdie's The Moor's Last Sigh
 Amin Maalouf's Leo Africanus, depicting the reconquest of Granada by
the Catholic Monarchs.
 Philippa Gregory's The Constant Princess, depicting Catalina the Infanta of
Spain as she lived in the Alhambra after her parents took Granada.
 Federico Garcia Lorca's play Doña Rosita the Spinster, mentioned by title
character Dona Rosita in her song/speech to the Manola sisters.
 Paulo Coelho's novel The Alchemist
 Ali Smith's The Accidental
Image:-
Panoramic view, illuminated at night

Mocárabes or honeycomb works

Lions Fontain

Court of the Lions

Court of the Lions

 

Detail looking up wall, Golden Room patio

Alhambra illuminated at night

The pool of the El Partal Palace

Light effects in the Court of Lions

Guests in the Comares Palace

 

Detail of a wall of the palacios nazaries

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Alhambra (2010)