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 The Geological Society of America
Special Paper 468
2010

Introduction: Late Paleozoic glacial events and

postglacial transgressions in Gondwana

Oscar R. López-Gamundí
Hess Corporation, 500 Dallas Street, Houston, Texas 77002, USA

Luis A. Buatois
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, 114 Science Place, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5E2, Canada

The stratigraphic record suggests that glaciations have
occurred episodically at different time intervals in Earth’s his-
tory (Crowell, 1982, 1999). One of those glaciations affected
the Gondwanan Supercontinent during the late Paleozoic and
constituted the longest period of continuous glaciation in the
Phanerozoic (Eyles, 1993). Carboniferous to Early Permian gla-
ciogenic successions have been known on all the subcontinents
of Gondwana, most notably South America, Africa, India, and
Australia, and later work expanded to Antarctica and the Middle
East (Fig. 1). This glacial age can be subdivided into three dis-
tinct episodes (López-Gamundí, 1997). Glacial episodes II and
III occurred during the early Late Carboniferous and the Late
Carboniferous–Early Permian, respectively. An earlier, short-
lived glacial episode in the Late Devonian–earliest Carbonifer-
ous (glacial episode I) identified in central and northern South
America (Fig. 1) extended even further the duration of this ice
age (Veevers and Powell, 1987). In general, the locus of ice cover,
and its stratigraphic record, progressively moved across Gond-
wana from South America to Australia (Crowell, 1999), tracking
the transpolar trajectory across Gondwana. This polar wander
across the Gondwanan Supercontinent controlled paleolatitudes
and accounts for the diachroneity of glacial episodes I, II, and
III; however, the exact timing of waxing and waning of ice cen-
ters during each glacial episode (particularly for the longest-lived
episode III) seemed to have been influenced by basin dynamics,
topographic barriers, glaciation styles, and other local factors.
The recognition of ancient glacial deposits of similar late
Paleozoic age in South Africa and South America (Du Toit, 1927)
helped, in conjunction with other lines of evidence, to argue in
favor of the principles of seafloor spreading and indirectly to
build the theory of plate tectonics (Wegener, 1915). The pio-
neering work during the first half of the last century was solidi-
López-Gamundí, O.R., and Buatois, L.A., 2010, Introduction: Late Paleozoic glacial events and postglacial transgressions in Gondwana, in López-Gamundí, O.R.,
and Buatois, L.A., eds., Late Paleozoic Glacial Events and Postglacial Transgressions in Gondwana: Geological Society of America Special Paper 468, p. v–viii,
doi: 10.1130/2010.2468(00). For permission to copy, contact editing@geosociety.org. ©2010 The Geological Society of America. All rights reserved.
fied subsequently by the seminal work led by John Crowell and
Lawrence Frakes (Frakes and Crowell, 1967, 1969; Frakes et al.,
1969; Frakes and Crowell, 1970; Crowell and Frakes, 1971a,
1971b, 1972; Frakes et al., 1971; Crowell, 1978). With the addi-
tional help of later contributions, the body of evidence about the
duration, areal extent, and influence of the Late Paleozoic Ice
Age (LPIA) on the biota has significantly grown.
However, uncertainty remains over the exact timing of onset
and demise of each glacial episode of the LPIA, particularly
when attempts are made to link these glacial episodes in Gond-
wana with cyclothems in the Northern Hemisphere (particularly
the United States and Europe), following Wanless and Shepard’s
(1936) hypothesis. The picture becomes particularly blurred if,
as exemplified by Wright and Vanstone (2001) for the Viséan car-
bonate successions in the Northern Hemisphere (UK), glacioeu-
static sea-level oscillations invoked to account for high-frequency
cyclicity had an approximate 100 ka periodicity, which may cor-
respond to Milankovitch eccentricity. Thus, far field studies can
sometimes be based on shaky grounds, particularly owing to the
difficulty of estimating the magnitude and hierarchy of the near
field glacioeustatic fluctuations (Rygel et al., 2008) and the less
than optimal chronostratigraphic resolution of the Gondwanan
faunas and floras associated with the LPIA.
Maximum expansion of Gondwanan continental ice sheets
occurred during earliest Permian time (glacial episode IV) under
paleoatmospheric CO2 levels as low as the present ones to values
of up to 12 times higher by the late Early Permian (Montañez
et al., 2007). Widespread Early Permian (Sakmarian) collapse of
ice sheets coincided with the onset of rising atmospheric CO2 lev-
els, after which time surface temperatures and atmospheric partial
pressure of carbon dioxide (pCO2) rose. The more detailed and
deeper our knowledge about the LPIA gets, the better positioned

v
vi López-Gamundí and Buatois

Glacial Episode III

Arabia
Glacial Episode II
2
Glacial Episode I
A F R I C A
340 Ma
Polar Path
360 Ma
340 Ma
INDIA

1
360 Ma

4
S O U T H AUSTRALIA
320 Ma
5
7 A N T A R C T I C A
A M E R I C A
1
7 8 1 7 280 Ma
250 Ma
7 7
260 Ma 1
265 Ma

1 6 3 7 9
0 2000 km

Figure 1. Gondwana Supercontinent and the Late Paleozoic Ice Age (LPIA) basins with glacial evidence in their strati-
graphic record highlighted. Glacial episodes after López-Gamundí (1997); polar path after Powell and Li (1994). Loca-
tions of contributions in this volume indicated by numbers corresponding to chapters in the volume.

we will be to understand the relationship between shifts in pCO2,
temperature, and ice volume and greenhouse gas forcing of past
and future climates. Additionally, a better understanding of the
mechanisms of postglacial transgressions along basin margins
will allow us to refine our search for fossil fuels through the iden-
tification of potential marine source rocks and coals. We hope
this volume contributes to both ends.
This volume’s contributions constitute a wide range of top-
ics related to this extreme paleoclimatic episode in Earth’s his-
tory. Original presentations were part of the IGCP 471 project
(“Evolution of the western Gondwana during the late Paleo-
zoic: Tectonosedimentary record, paleoclimate and biological
changes”)–sponsored session Late Paleozoic glacial events and
postglacial transgressions in Gondwana during the 32nd Inter-
national Geological Congress (Florence, August 2004). It was
evident at that time that consensus had been reached on some
basic problems about the LPIA, but some new challenges had
emerged. Some of the unanswered questions that this volume
attempts to address revolve around (1) relatively less known
glacial deposits in some regions of Gondwana (Central Africa,
Kreuser and Woldu, Chapter 4; Arabia, Melvin et al., Chapter 2);
(2) the controversy between a single massive ice sheet versus
numerous glacial centers and alpine glaciers (Isbell, Chapter 3);
(3) the chronostratigraphic resolution of paleofaunas (Cisterna
and Sterren, Chapter 6) and paleofloras (Ianuzzi et al., Chapter
5) that coexisted with extreme glacial and relatively milder early
postglacial conditions, and the presence of freshwater and brack-
ish water ichnofaunas related to postglacial marine transgres-
sions (Buatois et al., Chapter 7; Desjardins et al., Chapter 8);
(4) the characterization of high-latitude, postglacial lakes (Miller
and Isbell, Chapter 9); and (5) the search for a unifying sequence-
stratigraphic model for the glacial-postglacial transition (López-
Gamundí, Chapter 1).
The contributions included in this volume cover a broad
geography across Gondwana, but they do not have the objective
of giving a state-of-the-art review of the LPIA, a theme that has
been periodically dealt with since Hambrey and Harland’s (1981)
volume. A recent update can be found in Fielding et al. (2008).
Rather, the present volume is focused on key specific topics related
to the LPIA that, in our opinion, required further study. These top-
ics deal with the two main episodes identified during the LPIA:
the early Late Carboniferous (Namurian–Westphalian) glacial
episode II, mostly confined to the Paleopacific margin of south-
ern South America, and a much more widespread early Permian
glacial episode III, which affected the rest of the supercontinent
(López-Gamundí, 1997; Isbell et al., 2003). Instead of providing
 Introduction
brief summaries of specific areas, the authors were encouraged to
expand their views, providing full documentation.
The book consists of two main parts. The first half deals with
sedimentologic, paleoenvironmental, and paleoclimatic aspects of
the glacial event. The second half explores paleobiologic aspects
of glacial and glacially influenced ecosystems. The first contribu-
tion, which is by López-Gamundí, focuses on the sequence stra-
tigraphy of the late Paleozoic glacial event and the subsequent
postglacial phase, setting the stage for the rest of the volume. He
notes that, irrespective of the age, there is a common stratigraphic
stacking pattern in each of the transgressive events. As a result
of the combined effect of fast glacioeustatic sea-level rise and
subsidence along basin margins, a drastic landward facies shift
took place in the transition from glacially dominated to glacially
influenced early postglacial environments. Available information
allows recognition of two basic types of transgressive systems
tracts (TSTs): (1) a complete TST, with a basal diamictite unit,
followed by shale with ice-rafted debris (IRD) and IRD-free
shales, culminating in a maximum flooding surface; and (2) a
base-cut TST in which the TST is dominated by open-marine
shales, generally devoid of IRD.
The other three contributions are case studies based on
specific areas of Gondwana but bearing implications at a more
global scale. Melvin et al. (Chapter 2) provide a detailed charac-
terization of the Upper Carboniferous–Lower Permian Unayzah
Formation of subsurface Saudi Arabia. This unit (subdivided
into four members) is particularly relevant, because it provides
a full picture of the paleoclimatic evolution in this region of
Gondwana, from glacial through postglacial to semiarid and arid
conditions. The wide spectrum of facies documented includes
tillite, reworked diamictite, glaciolacustrine fines and turbi-
dites, fluvial deposits, paleosoils, and eolianites. These authors
differentiate between climatically and tectonically controlled
transgressions and provide correlations across the Arabian Pen-
insula. In Chapter 3, Isbell explores the paleoenvironmental
and paleoclimatic implications of glaciomarine deposits in the
Permian Metschel Tillite of the Transantarctic Mountains. In
contrast to previous interpretations, he proposes that ice entered
the area from at least two different ice centers on opposite sides
of the basin. Abundant evidence of glaciotectonic structures is
documented, including sheared diamictites and thrust sheets.
The global significance of this study resides in that multiple gla-
ciers contain less ice volume than a single massive ice sheet,
impacting on global climate and eustatic sea level in a different
way than would have a single massive ice sheet. Kreuser and
Woldu (Chapter 4) provide a detailed characterization of Perm-
ian euxinic lake deposits preserved in the Idusi Formation of
the Ruhuhu Basin in Tanzania. The succession reflects a tran-
sition from glacial to postglacial deposits, culminating in the
development of distal alluvial fans during climatic amelioration.
These extensive anaerobic stratified lakes provided appropriate
conditions for deposition of black shales with abundant organic
matter (up to 11% total organic carbon [TOC]). These authors
underscore the importance of these deposits as source rocks and
vii
outline the regional extent of these anoxic lakes in various late
Paleozoic basins of eastern and southern Africa.
The nature of continental and shallow-marine ecosystems
during glacial and postglacial times is still poorly understood. The
last five contributions of this book focus on this topic, touching
also on biostratigraphic implications. In Chapter 5, Iannuzzi et al.
provide for the first time a sequence-stratigraphic and paleoen-
vironmental framework for palynozones and plant zones in the
Rio Grande do Sul portion of the Paraná Basin. These authors
find that the boundaries of palynozones lie near the maximum
flooding surfaces. In addition, they note that the plant zones pre-
viously defined correspond to distinct ecofacies and are better
regarded as ecozones rather than as biozones. Based on this anal-
ysis, a link is suggested between the increase in floral diversity of
the Glossopteris-Rhodeopteridium Zone and the appearance of
more complex coastal ecosystems as recorded in the Rio Bonito
Formation. Cisterna and Sterren (Chapter 6) evaluate taphonomic
and paleoecologic aspects of the Levipustula Fauna. This fauna
is typical of lower Upper Carboniferous glacially related deposits
in the Andean basins of Argentina. Based on studies in differ-
ent stratigraphic units of the Calingasta-Uspallata Basin, these
authors are able to distinguish two associations: intraglacial and
postglacial. They also note that the postglacial association is
more diverse and displays more abundance than the intraglacial
association. This increase in diversity and abundance is explained
as a result of less stressful conditions resulting from climatic
amelioration.
The last three contributions deal with ichnology. In particu-
lar, trace fossils are ideally suited for ecosystem studies because
they provide in situ evidence of organism-substrate interactions.
In Chapter 7, Buatois et al. summarize ichnologic data from
eight different Gondwanan basins (Paganzo, San Rafael, Tarija,
Paraná, Karoo, Falkland, Transantarctic, and Sydney) and note
the presence of fresh-water ichnofaunas in direct association
with glacially influenced coasts affected by strong discharges of
meltwater as a recurrent theme. These authors suggest that fresh-
water conditions prevailed in coastal areas during most of the
postglacial times because of a strong discharge of fresh water
from melting of the ice masses. They conclude that the classic
marine-nonmarine dichotomy used in ichnologic studies may be
misleading in this type of setting. Desjardins et al. (Chapter 8)
document the ichnofauna present in transgressive deposits of the
uppermost Carboniferous and lowermost Permian Tupe Forma-
tion of the Paganzo Basin in western Argentina. These authors
discuss ichnologic aspects of the transition from postglacial flu-
vial deposits to bay deposits formed during a rise in sea level.
The recognized trace-fossil assemblages reflect the changing
environmental conditions that result from a base-level rise. This
study underscores the interplay of ecology, sea-level rise, and
paleogeography as controlling factors for trace-fossil distribu-
tion. In Chapter 9, Miller and Isbell focus on the paleoecologic
implications of an ichnofauna formed in a large and deep turbid-
itic Permian lake, recorded in the Mackellar Formation of the
Transantarctic Mountains. The Mackellar ichnofauna is of low
viii López-Gamundí and Buatois
diversity, and the degree of bioturbation is generally low, sug-
gesting oxic conditions and restriction of the benthos to areas
with low rates of sedimentation. They compare this Permian
lake with modern Lake Agassiz, and conclude that in spite of its
high paleolatitude (~80°S), the lake was dynamic and biologi-
cally active.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Finally the editors want to thank the following colleagues
for dedicating their time to reviewing this volume’s contribu-
tions: Lucia Angiolini (Università degli Studi di Milano, Italy),
Christoph Breitkreuz (Institut für Geologie, Freiberg, Germany),
Roberto d’Avila (Petrobras, Brazil), Jim Collinson (USA), Alme-
rio Barros França (Petrobras, Brazil), Dirk Knaust (StatoilHydro,
Norway), Ricardo Melchor (Universidad de La Pampa, Argen-
tina), Marcello Guimarães Simões (Sao Paulo State University
at Botucatu, Brazil), Lynn Soreghan (University of Oklahoma,
USA), Luis A. Spalletti (Universidad de La Plata, Argentina),
Antonio Rocha-Campos (University of Sao Paulo, Brazil), Alfred
Uchman (Jagiellonian University, Poland), John Veevers (Mac-
Quarie University, Australia), and Joonas Virtasalo (University
of Turku, Finland).
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