Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995

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Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

The impact of resistant starch on characteristics of gluten-free dough

and bread
Jaros1aw Korus a, *, Mariusz Witczak b, Rafa1 Ziobro a, Les1aw Juszczak c
a
Department of Carbohydrates Technology, Agricultural University, Balicka 122 Street, 30-149 Krakow, Poland
b
Department of Engineering and Machinery for Food Industry, Agricultural University, Balicka 122 Street, 30-149 Krakow, Poland
c
Department of Analysis and Evaluation of Food Quality, Agricultural University, Balicka 122 Street, 30-149 Krakow, Poland

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The study focused on partial replacement in gluten-free breads of corn starch with tapioca and corn
Received 15 January 2008 resistant starch preparations. The use of resistant starch resulted in the increase of storage and loss
Accepted 15 July 2008 moduli of the dough, and the lowering of loss tangent, which indicates its more elastic character. The
incorporation of resistant starch reduced creep and recovery compliance and elevated zero shear
Keywords: viscosity. Modified doughs displayed higher starch gelatinization temperatures and lower viscosities that
Gluten-free bread
were proportional to the share of RS. It was found that the loaves baked with the share of resistant starch
Resistant starch
had less hard crumb than bread without RS addition. The crumb hardness diminished with the
Fibre
Dough rheology increasing amount of applied RS preparation. The addition of resistant starch raised total dietary fibre, by
up to 89%, as compared to control (bread without RS addition). The most pronounced change was
observed for insoluble dietary fibre (increase 137%), while only slight increase was found for its soluble
fraction (18%).
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Celiac disease (gluten sensitive enteropathy) is a disorder of
digestive functions of the small intestine caused by the intake of
gluten. People with celiac disease after consumption of gluten
containing food exhibit symptoms typical for digestive disorders. In
a longer period of time it results in a damage of small intestine villi
(Fasano & Catassi, 2001; Holtmeier & Caspary, 2006; Kagnoff, 2007;
Magalotti et al., 2003). In Europe the disease affects 1 of 200
persons, and in USA 1 of 250 (Neuhausen et al., 2002; Stern et al.,
2001). It is assumed that because of variable, often atypical forms,
the diagnosed and treated cases are only the small part of all its
occurrences (approximately 10%) (Fasano & Catassi, 2001; Holt-
meier & Caspary, 2006). The search to decrease gluten toxicity by
the structural modification of allergenic proteins has not yet been
useful for food technology (Day, Augustin, Batey, & Wrigley, 2006).
Until now, the only effective method of celiac treatment has been
the strict adherence to the diet free of these allergens that are toxic
to the small intestine (Dahinden, Büren, & Lüthy, 2001; Fasano &
Catassi, 2001; Feighery, 1999; Holtmeier & Caspary, 2006; Ribotta
et al., 2004). Products for this group of people are based mainly on
* Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ48 12 6624747.
E-mail address: rrkorus@cyf-kr.edu.pl (J. Korus).
starch of various botanical origin, corn, rice, soy and buckwheat
flours. They are mostly characterised by much lower dietary value
than their gluten containing counterparts, because they lack many
important nutrients, such as proteins, vitamins, minerals and last
but not least dietary fibre, which is necessary for proper func-
tioning of digestive tract (buckwheat, although it contains many
valuable vitamins, proteins and antioxidants, may cause severe
allergies for some people, which considerably restricts its use)
(Anton & Artfield, 2007; Handoyo, Maeda, Urisu, Adachi, & Morita,
2006; Lazaridou, Duta, Papageorgiou, Belc, & Biliaderis, 2007;
Morita et al, 2006; Thompson, 2000). The supplementation of
gluten-free bread dough with additives is difficult, because its
structure is weaker than normal wheat bread dough that contains
gluten network. Supplements may easily destroy it, although
earlier studies proved the possibility to introduce dietary fibre
preparations from apples, tomatoes and Psyllium at the level up to
7.5% (Korus & Achremowicz, 2004). It seems, however, that the
easiest way to increase the content of dietary fibre in gluten-free
bakery products is to introduce it as usually used ingredients or to
replace standard ingredients with analogues rich in fibre. For
example Lazaridou et al. (2007) used the b-glucan, which is
a hydrocolloid. These compounds are the components of all gluten-
free bakery formulations.
Starch is the main component of gluten-free dough. It may exist
in forms that are not susceptible to human digestive enzymes, and

0268-005X/$ – see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2008.07.010
 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995 989

thus could be regarded as a fraction of dietary fibre. Resistant starch
positively influences functioning of digestive tract, microbial flora,
blood cholesterol level and assists in the control of diabetes
(Nugent, 2005; Shih, Chen, Hou, & Cheng, 2007). On the other hand
its preparations are less prone to pasting which could influence the
quality of the obtained loaves, because bread structure highly
depends on starch gelatinization (Miyazaki, van Hung, Maeda, &
Morita, 2006).
The aim of the study was to investigate, if starch could be partly
replaced with resistant starch preparations and in this way improve
nutritional quality of gluten-free bread.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
The material used in formulations for gluten-free bread con-
sisted of corn starch (Roquette, France), potato starch, guar gum
(Lotus Gums & Chemicals, India), pectin (Pektowin, Poland), freeze
dried yeast Saf-instant (S.I. Lesaffre, France), sucrose, salt, plant oil
and water. Some of the products were obtained from local super-
markets. Additionally two resistant starches were used: corn,
containing more than 60% RS fraction according to the producer
(Hi-Maize 260, National Starch, USA), and tapioca with the declared
level of RS higher than 50% (ActiStar 11700, Cargill Inc., USA).
2.2. Recipe for the gluten-free bread dough
Dough used in measurements of rheological parameters and
gluten-free bread baking contained the following components:
freeze dried yeast 25 g (with the exception of dough samples used
in rheological measurement), oil 15 g, sucrose 10 g, salt 8.3 g, guar
gum 8.3 g, pectin 8.3 g. All the other components, which were used
in varying amounts, are presented in Table 1. Part of corn starch
(10%, 15% or 20% of total starch, i.e. 50 g, 75 g or 100 g) was replaced
with the preparation of resistant corn starch (Table 1). The same
amounts of potato starch were replaced with tapioca resistant
the obtained dough systems exhibited comparable values of
hardness during extrusion (400 G, at the test speed 0.83 mm/s). All
the constituents were mixed for 8 min (Laboratory Spiral Mixer SP
12, Diosna, Germany).
2.3. Bread baking
Gluten-free dough was fermented for 15 min (35  C, 80%
humidity), remixed for 1 min and portioned (250 g) into oiled
bread pans. Final fermentation continued for 20 min under the
conditions described above. Bread was baked for 30 min at 230  C
(electric oven Meteor, Viva, Italy). Baking was performed in dupli-
cate, each time four loaves were obtained. After the removal the
loaves were cooled at ambient conditions and analysed.
2.4. Rheological properties of the dough
Rheological properties were characterised at 25  C, using the
rheometer RS 150 (Haake, Germany) with parallel plate geometry
(diameter 35 mm, gap 2 mm). The dough was placed between
plates and rested for 15 min to allow relaxation and stabilize
temperature.
The range of linear viscoelasticity was established basing on the
dependence of storage modulus (G0 ) and loss modulus (G00 ) on
stress in the region 0.1 O 100 Pa at constant angular frequency
1 rad/s (Khatkar, Bell, & Schofield, 1995; Piteira, Maia, Raymundo, &
Sousa, 2006).
Mechanical spectra were acquired in a range of linear visco-
elasticity at constant deformation amplitude (0.1%) in the range of
angular frequency 0.1–100 rad/s. Experimental data were described
by power-law equations (Georgopoulos, Larsson, & Eliasson, 2004;
Sivaramakrishnan, Senge, & Chattopadhyay, 2004; Steffe, 1996):
0
G0 ðuÞ ¼ K 0 un
G00 ðuÞ ¼ K 00 un
00

starch. In the further studies 50 g, 75 g or 100 g of total starch

(in half corn and in half potato) was replaced with appropriate where G0 – storage modulus [Pa], G00 – loss modulus [Pa], u –
resistant starches. Due to the important differences in water angular frequency [rad/s], K0 , K00 , and n0 , n00 – experimentally
binding ability of resistant starch preparations, the content of water determined constants.
was adjusted individually for each modified recipe (Table 1), with Creep and recovery tests were performed at constant stress in
the use of texture analyzer TA-XTþ equipped with back extrusion the creep phase s0 ¼ 1 Pa in the range where strain was propor-
rig (A/BE-d 35) (Stable Micro Systems, England), in such a way that tionally dependant on stress. The creep time was 150 s, and the
recovery period was 300 s. The strain values were collected as
a function of time. The final data were expressed in terms of creep
Table 1
compliance (Steffe, 1996):
Components of gluten-free bread used at variable amounts
JðtÞ ¼ gðtÞ=s0
Sample Corn starch Potato starch Corn RS Tapioca RS Water
(g) (g) (g) (g) (ml) where g – strain, J – compliance [1/Pa], and s0 – stress applied
Control 400 100 – – 517 during creep [1/Pa]. Experimental data were described by the four-
parameter Burger model (Lazaridou et al., 2007), which could be
With resistant expressed using the following equations (Osanaiye & Adewale,
starch
2001):
10% corn 350 100 50 – 517
15% corn 325 100 75 – 517 s0 s0 s  
20% corn 300 100 100 – 517 gðtÞ ¼ þ t þ 0 1  expt=lret for creep phase
G0 h0 G1
10% tapioca 400 50 – 50 552
15% tapioca 400 25 – 75 568
20% tapioca 400 – – 100 586
s0 s  
5% corn/5% 375 75 25 25 534 gðtÞ ¼ t  0 1  expt1 =lret expt=lret for recovery phase
tapioca h0 1 G1
7.5% corn/7.5% 362.5 62.5 37.5 37.5 542
tapioca where G0, G1 – elastic moduli [Pa], h0, h1 – viscosities [Pa s], lret ¼
10% corn/10% 350 50 50 50 552 h1 =G1 – retardation time [s], and t1 – time when stress was applied
tapioca
[s].
990 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995

Dividing the equations by the constant value of stress results in: significance level 0.05). Because there were only one control
  sample (zero level), while three samples were considered for each
t level of the factor (different types of resistant starch or levels of
JðtÞ ¼ J0 þ þ J1 1  expt=lret for creep phase
h0 supplementation), two LSD values were reported. One to compare
the mean values at selected levels of each factor (the same number
of samples), and one to compare them with zero level of the factor
t1   (different number of samples). Calculations were performed with
JðtÞ ¼  J1 1  expt1 =lret expt=lret for recovery phase
h0 statistical software package Statistica 8.0 (StatSoft Inc., USA).

where J0 – instantaneous compliance [1/Pa] and J1 – retardation

compliance [1/Pa].
J0 for recovery phase was calculated as a difference between
maximum value of the compliance for creep phase (experimental
J(t1)) and compliance J(t1) for recovery phase calculated from the
model. The calculations were done by the method of Marquardt–
Levenberg.
The impact of resistant starch addition on gelatinization char-
acteristics of the studied formulations was checked by Micro Visco-
Amylo-Graph type 803202 (Brabender, Germany) equipped with
a 250 cmg measuring cartridge, run at 75 rpm and operating under
Brabender Viscograph ver. 2.4.6 software. Dry mixes of appropriate
constituents (without yeast and oil) suspended in water (5%) were
heated/cooled at a rate 6  C/min according to the following pro-
gramme: rising temperature in the range 25–96  C, constant
temperature 96  C (10 min), cooling in the range 96–40  C. Pasting
temperature, peak viscosity, and viscosity after 10 min at 96  C and
after cooling were read from Brabender Viscograph – data corre-
lation ver. 2.1.6 software.
2.5. Bread analysis
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Rheological properties of the dough
Fig. 1 shows mechanical spectra of analysed dough samples.
Storage and loss moduli increased with angular frequency. In all
cases G0 was higher than G00 (tan d < 1), implying the prevalence of
elastic features over viscous. Because G0 depended on angular
frequency, and tan d > 0.1, the observed rheological properties were
typical for weak gels. Similar results were reported by Lazaridou
et al. (2007) in the gluten-free dough formulations with hydro-
colloids. Partial replacement of starch with RS preparations resul-
ted in a slight change of tan d by 6–12%, 29–56%, and 14–29% for
corn RS, tapioca RS and mixture of both starches, respectively. The
characteristics of modified dough samples were then more elastic.
10000
a
G', G" [Pa]

Bread volume was assessed by rapeseed replacement. Dietary 1000

fibre was evaluated by enzymatic method (AOAC, 991.43). Sensory
analysis was performed by the trained panel of eight persons with
checked sensory sensitivity (according to PN-ISO 8586-1:1996).
Analyses were done in a laboratory equipped according to the 100
standard PN-ISO 8589:1998. Two methods were applied. The first 1 10 100
was based on the analysis of encoded bread samples, by comparing Angular frequency [rad/s]
their quality attributes (appearance, crust colour, other properties
of crust, crumb characteristics, smell, taste) with the descriptions 100000
included in the table. Five-point scale was used for the quantitative b
expression of the data. The tables were prepared according to
G', G" [Pa]

standard PN-A-74108:1996. Because selected attributes do not have 10000

the same impact on the overall acceptance of the product, the
following weights were used: appearance 0.2, crust colour 0.1,
other properties of crust 0.1, crumb characteristics 0.3, smell 0.15, 1000
taste 0.15. The second method was based on texture profile analysis
of bread crumb. Hardness, springiness, adhesiveness and gummi-
ness were chosen as the characteristics for this product type. They 100
1 10 100
were measured on the seven-point scale, according to the standard
Angular frequency [rad/s]
PN-ISO 11036:1999.
Bread samples were packed in plastic bags and stored for 48 h at 10000
22  2  C (humidity 64%). After 2 h, 24 h and 48 h after baking c
texture profile analysis of bread crumb was performed (TA-XTþ
Stable Micro Systems, England), according to the standard method
G', G" [Pa]

(test speed 5 mm/s). Hardness, springiness and cohesiveness of the

bread were used as an indicator of staling. The calculations were 1000
done using Texture Exponent software.

2.6. Statistical analysis

100
1 10 100
Statistical analysis of the data was performed by means of two-
factor analysis of variance. Control sample was used as the zero Angular frequency [rad/s]
level of each factor. In the cases where ANOVA proved significance Fig. 1. Mechanical spectra of dough samples with a share of RS: (a) corn, (b) tapioca, (c)
of differences at the significance level 0.05, mean values were mixture of corn and tapioca (presented data are mean values from three replications);
compared by the least significant difference test (also calculated at G0 : A control, - 10%, : 15%, C 20%; G00 : > control, , 10%, 6 15%, B 20%.
 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995 991

The increase of RS content resulted in the rise of both moduli, with 0,009
the exception of RS mixture, where the highest dosage slightly a
diminished both moduli. This drop was, however, statistically
insignificant. Similar results were earlier obtained for various 0,006

J [Pa-1]
gluten-free dough systems with the addition of hydrocolloids
(Lazaridou et al., 2007), rice dough with HPMC (Sivaramakrishnan
et al., 2004), and wheat flour doughs (Baltsavias, Jurgens, & van 0,003
Vliet, 1997; Georgopoulos et al., 2004; Khatkar et al., 1995; Lefebvre,
Pruska-Kedzior, Kedzior, & Lavenant, 2003).
Table 2 represents parameters of power-law equation describing 0
the dependence of moduli on oscillation frequency. The lowest 0 75 150 225 300 375 450
values of K0 and K00 parameters were obtained for control sample time [s]
(without RS addition), while the highest for the dough with tapioca
0,009
RS. The differences between control sample and formulations with
the lowest addition of corn RS or mixture of two RS starches were
b
statistically insignificant (p ¼ 0.05). No significant differences were
0,006
also observed between the recipes with the highest amounts of

J [Pa-1]
corn RS and the lowest content of tapioca RS. No further rise of K0
and K00 was observed when the highest dosage of RS mix was
applied. The values of n0 and n00 were the highest in case of control 0,003
sample and formulation with the lowest level of tapioca RS. In other
cases there was a drop of these values with the increasing amounts
of resistant starch preparations. Georgopoulos et al. (2004) 0
0 75 150 225 300 375 450
obtained similar n0 parameters (0.2–0.29) for wheat flour dough, time [s]
while Schluentz, Steffe, and Ng (2000) reported n0 ¼ 0.28 for soft
white winter wheat and n0 ¼ 0.23 for hard red winter wheat. 0,009
Insignificant changes in n00 were observed between control sample c
and formulations with two lowest addition of corn RS. At the
highest dosage of tapioca RS and the lowest level of mixed prepa- 0,006
ration n00 was significantly different as compared to other concen-
J [Pa-1]

trations. No changes were observed between dough with lower

amounts of corn and higher amount of RS mixture. Values of n00 0,003
were on the same level or lower than n0 .
Fig. 2 displays creep and recovery curves of the examined dough
samples. In all cases the replacement of starch with RS preparations 0
and mixes diminished their deformation compliance. The lowest 0 75 150 225 300 375 450
deformation compliance was exhibited by formulations with time [s]
addition of tapioca RS. Despite the highest dosage of RS mixture Fig. 2. Creep and recovery curves of dough samples with a share of RS: (a) corn, (b)
growing additions of resistant starch reduced maximum tapioca, (c) mixture of corn and tapioca (presented data are mean values from three
replications); > control, , 10%, 6 15%, B 20%.

Table 2
deformation values obtained during creep test. Similar decrease of
Parameters of power low functions describing dependence of storage and loss
moduli on angular frequency creep compliance with the addition of polysaccharides to gluten-
0 00
free bread was observed by Lazaridou et al. (2007).
Sample G0 ¼ K0 un G00 ¼ Kun
Parameters of Burger model, which was applied to describe the
n0 n00
K0 [Pa s ] n0 K00 [Pa s ] n00 experimental data, are collected in Table 3. The highest instanta-
Control 809.0 0.272 416.7 0.259 neous compliance was observed for control sample. The addition of
corn RS, tapioca RS and mixture of both reduced J0 values by 27–
With resistant starch 55%, 64–91%, and 41–70%, respectively. In a similar way partial
10% corn 1185.1 0.257 553.7 0.254
replacement of starch with corn RS, tapioca RS and their mixture
15% corn 1606.4 0.241 707.7 0.251
20% corn 1834.7 0.236 777.4 0.245 reduced J1 by 30–67%, 82–99%, and 52–81%, respectively. Different
values of J0 and J1 for gluten-free formulations with various
10% tapioca 2153.4 0.203 765.4 0.204
15% tapioca 3552.3 0.177 1010.2 0.192
hydrocolloids were reported by Lazaridou et al. (2007). Zero shear
20% tapioca 9037.7 0.132 1836.4 0.161 viscosity h0 increased from the lowest value obtained for control
sample, after addition of corn RS, mixture of both resistant starch
5% corn/5% tapioca 1418.4 0.237 601.1 0.231
7.5% corn/7.5% tapioca 2414.0 0.201 860.4 0.212 preparations and tapioca RS, 1.6–3.4, 3.4–9.9, and 11.6–136.6 times,
10% corn/10% tapioca 2357.0 0.202 827.8 0.205 respectively. No significant changes were recorded for retardation
times calculated for the recovery and creep phase. Zero shear
Two-way ANOVA – LSD0.05 viscosity and retardation time were higher than those reported by
Factor I (type of RS) 218.3a 0.008a 53.7a 0.008a
Lazaridou et al. (2007).
308.7b 0.012b 76.0b 0.011b
The influence of different factors on rheological properties of
Factor II (quantity of RS addition) 218.3a 0.008a 53.7a 0.008a gluten-free bread has been already studied by several authors.
308.7b 0.012b 76.0b 0.011b
Lazaridou et al. (2007) studied the impact of various hydrocolloids
Factor I  Factor II 378.1 0.015 93.1 0.013 on viscoelastic properties of gluten-free dough and stated that the
a
Between factor levels. highest rise of storage modulus is caused by xanthan gum. The
b
Between factor levels and control sample. response of G0 is, however, not proportional to gum concentration,
992 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995

Table 3
Parameters of Burger’s model

Sample Creep phase Recovery phase

J0 (103) [Pa1] J1 (103) [Pa1] l1 [s] h0 (105) [Pa s] J0 (103) [Pa1] J1 (103) [Pa1] l1 [s] h0 (105) [Pa s]
Control 1.07 2.23 23.8 0.29 1.36 3.06 62.1 0.35

With resistant starch

10% corn 0.78 1.55 23.5 0.48 0.89 1.96 55.0 0.56
15% corn 0.61 0.95 14.8 0.75 0.73 1.19 52.3 0.90
20% corn 0.49 0.83 20.4 0.99 0.58 0.98 51.2 1.15

10% tapioca 0.38 0.38 16.1 3.36 0.35 0.44 58.9 3.42
15% tapioca 0.28 0.21 13.8 7.09 0.25 0.24 50.8 6.96
20% tapioca 0.09 0.03 13.7 39.01 0.07 0.04 56.7 28.16

5% corn/5% tapioca 0.63 1.07 18.5 0.98 0.72 1.16 54.7 1.08
7.5% corn/7.5% tapioca 0.32 0.41 17.9 2.35 0.39 0.47 51.8 2.84
10% corn/10% tapioca 0.34 0.41 15.6 2.86 0.36 0.47 53.7 3.32

Two-way ANOVA – LSD0.05

Factor I (type of RS) 0.10a 0.23a ns 2.89a 0.05a 0.30a ns 0.28a
0.15b 0.32b 4.08b 0.08b 0.43b 0.40b

Factor II (quantity of RS addition) 0.10a 0.23a ns 2.89a 0.05a 0.30a ns 0.28a

0.15b 0.32b 4.08b 0.08b 0.43b 0.40b

Factor I  Factor II ns ns ns 4.99 0.09 ns ns 0.49

ns – Not significant.
a
Between factor levels.
b
Between factor levels and control sample.

because of the varying amounts of added water. With the rising
level of xanthan, water absorption of the dough is increased, and
the addition of water has to be adjusted in order to obtain proper
consistency of the dough. The authors observed also, that the
addition of xanthan resulted in a decrease of tan d, which made the
dough stiffer. Sivaramakrishnan et al. (2004) found, that the dough
prepared from rice flour with HPMC at the level 1.5–3.0% had the
same rheological properties as wheat flour dough. Dough rheology
is also substantially influenced by additives, such as dietary fibre.
Hung, Maeda, and Morita (2007) observed that the addition of
wheat wholemeal, which is rich in dietary fibre, increased water
absorption and decreased dough elasticity. Also Gómez, Ronda,
Blanco, Caballero, and Apesteguia (2003) stated, that the addition
of various fibres significantly increased water absorption and
tenacity of the dough, while reducing its extensibility. Micro-
structural observation of such a dough with the use of SEM reveals
that fibre present in the dough combines with gluten proteins,
forming discontinuous, irregular matrix around starch granules,
while in doughs based on regular wheat flours gluten matrix is
regular and firmly envelops starch granules (Hung et al., 2007). The
same authors in earlier studies observed weakening of dough
structure and increase of water absorption after addition of high
amylose wheat flour (Hung, Yamamori, & Morita, 2005). Modified
starches can also play the role of dietary fibre in bread dough. Hung
and Morita (2004) found that the addition of cross-linked waxy
maize starch significantly influenced rheological properties of the
dough and increased its softening.
Among many starch features, pasting characteristics and retro-
gradation susceptibility have the highest impact on bread structure
and quality (Miyazaki et al., 2006). The first plays a role in stabili-
zation of porous crumb structure, obtained during baking, the
second determines crumb ageing (Goesaert et al., 2005). Partial
replacement of starch with RS preparations shifted gelatinization to
higher temperatures (Table 4). In case of corn RS the influence was
statistically insignificant (in comparison to control), except the
highest dosage. The addition of tapioca RS caused statistically
significant changes of gelatinization temperature in comparison to
control, and the same was observed for RS mixture (except the
lowest dosage). Viscosity decreased with the increasing amounts of
RS. This change in maximum viscosity equalled 26–42%, 28–48% and
26–48% for corn, tapioca and RS mixture. After 10 min at 96  C it was
lower in comparison to control by 22–32%, 25–45% and 22–41% for
corn, tapioca and RS mixture, respectively. After cooling to 40  C the
impact of all preparations was comparable, and the viscosity
decreased in the range 21–37%, 18–40% and 18–39% when corn RS,
tapioca RS and their combination were used, respectively. Similar
dependence was observed by Hung et al. (2005, 2007) in case of
wheat flour supplemented with flours rich in dietary fibre – high
amylose, and waxy wheat, which contained approximately 2 and
4.5 times more dietary fibre as compared to normal wheat flour,
respectively. With the increasing share of both flours, the gelatini-
zation temperature increased, and the final viscosity of the pastes
dropped down. The authors attribute these changes to the rising
amounts of dietary fibre, which acts as a neutral filler and dilutes
starch, thus lowering the viscosity of its pastes.
3.2. Bread characteristics
Fig. 3 represents the impact of applied additives on the volume
of bread. The use of resistant starch caused a decrease in gluten-free
bread volume, and its extent depended on the amounts of RS
preparation. Two-way ANOVA exhibited statistically significant
influence of selected factors on bread volume (starch type
p ¼ 0.035, LSD0.05 ¼ 7.66; addition level p ¼ 0.001, LSD0.05 ¼ 7.66)
and between factors and control sample (LSD0.05 ¼ 10.83). The
interactions between type and level of RS addition were not
statistically significant (p > 0.08) because all preparation applied in
adequate amounts influenced bread volume in the similar range.
The application of fibre from apples, tomatoes and Psyllium
resulted in slight changes of bread volume, which varied from þ2.2%
to 5.0% (Korus & Achremowicz, 2004). During baking starch
undergoes gelatinization and takes part in structure formation of
bread crumb (Miyazaki et al., 2006). Resistant starch behaves only as
a filler and couldn’t be gelatinized, nor decomposed by amylolytic
enzymes (present in wheat or rye dough). Retaining its form, it
couldn’t be used by yeast, which slows down fermentation. Addi-
tionally the presence of relatively large, undamaged starch granules
could induce instability in cell walls (Liu & Scanlon, 2003). Both
 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995 993

Table 4
Pasting characteristics of the formulations

Sample Pasting temperature ( C) Maximum viscosity (BU) Viscosity after 10 min at 96  C (BU) Viscosity at 40  C (BU)
Control 76.8 81.5 67.7 126.0

With resistant starch

10% corn 77.1 60.3 52.5 100.0
15% corn 78.3 55.5 49.5 90.7
20% corn 79.5 47.5 46.0 79.0

10% tapioca 79.3 59.0 50.5 103.0

15% tapioca 81.6 50.7 43.7 87.7
20% tapioca 83.8 42.5 37.0 76.0

5% corn/5% tapioca 77.3 60.3 53.0 103.7

7.5% corn/7.5% tapioca 79.6 50.5 45.0 89.0
10% corn/10% tapioca 84.4 42.5 40.0 76.3

Two-way ANOVA – LSD0.05

Factor I (type of RS) 1.1a 0.7a 2.5a ns
1.6b 0.9b 3.5b

Factor II (quantity of RS addition) 1.1a 0.7a 2.5a 1.3a

1.6b 0.9b 3.5b 1.8b

Factor I  Factor II 1.9 1.1 ns 2.2

ns – Not significant.
a
Between factor levels.
b
Between factor levels and control sample.

these factors can negatively impact bread volume, and cause uneven significantly. According to Nugent (2005) it ranges from 3 g/day to
distribution of gas cells, which probably is reflected by high stan- 6 g/day in EU, and 5 g/day to 7 g/day in Australia up to 10 g/day to
dard deviation. The addition of RS preparations caused in all cases 18 g/day in India and China. According to the recently published
a significant rise of dietary fibre fractions IDF and TDF (the change in data (Murphy, Douglass, & Birkett, 2008), the consumption of
SDF was significant only at the highest level of RS and 15% of corn resistant starch in US is 3–8 g/day. The authors report also that the
RS). Control bread (without RS addition) contained 2.11 g/100 g of bakery products are the main source of RS, and supply 21% of the
IDF, 1.23 g SDF and 3.34 g TDF (Table 5). Thompson (2000) reports total daily value. When we compare these data with the values
that the content of dietary fibre in gluten-free bread varies from obtained in the current study, it seems obvious that the maximum
0.0 g to 9.6 g in the enriched bread, while in the white wheat bread supplementation level – 6.30 g TDF/100 g that was observed for
equals 2.3 g/100 g. The author was using data from gluten-free bread with 20% corn RS – is absolutely safe, and there is no risk to
companies, and the applied methods of dietary fibre assessment exceed daily value suggested by Nugent (2005).
were not described. The use of corn RS increased the content of Partial replacement of starch with RS preparations had no
insoluble dietary fibre by 114% in comparison to control (bread negative influence on individual values or total quality score. The
without RS addition), while such changes for tapioca RS and mixture observed, statistically insignificant changes may be caused by the
of both were 32% and 58%, respectively. Lower difference was
observed in case of soluble fraction, where the increase equalled,
Table 5
respectively, 6%, 3% and 7%. The change in total dietary fibre was Total dietary fibre (TDF) and its soluble (SDF) and insoluble (IDF) fractions in gluten-
most pronounced in case of corn RS (70%), and much lower for free bread
tapioca RS (18%), while the use of RS mixture resulted in an inter-
Sample IDF (g/100 g) SDF (g/100 g) TDF (g/100 g)
mediate value (40%). Nugent (2005) reports that the consumption of
Control 2.11 1.23 3.34
resistant starch should not exceed 30 g/day, because larger amounts
could cause flatulence, gastric problems and laxative effects. With resistant starch
Consumption of resistant starch in different countries varies 10% corn 3.86 1.23 4.97
15% corn 4.65 1.29 5.76
20% corn 4.99 1.40 6.30

600 10% tapioca 2.52 1.22 3.61

Bread volume (cm3)

15% tapioca 2.81 1.25 3.91

580 20% tapioca 3.02 1.33 4.31

560 5% corn/5% tapioca 2.77 1.23 4.01

7.5% corn/7.5% tapioca 3.57 1.27 4.84
540 10% corn/10% tapioca 3.65 1.45 5.20

520
Two-way ANOVA – LSD0.05
Factor I (type of RS) 0.09a 0.04a 0.09a
500
0.12b 0.06b 0.12b
l

rn

rn

rn

..

..
ro

oc

oc

oc

oc

0%
co

co

co
nt

.5
pi

pi

pi

pi

0.09a 0.04a 0.09a

/1
co

/7

Factor II (quantity of RS addition)

ta

ta

ta

ta
10

15

20

rn
%

rn

0.12b 0.06b 0.12b

co
10

15

20

/5

co

%
rn

5%

10
co

Factor I  Factor II 0.15 ns 0.15

7.
5%

ns – Not significant.
a
Fig. 3. The impact of resistant starch incorporation on bread volume (presented data Between factor levels.
b
are mean values from six replications). Between factor levels and control sample.
994 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995

additives, and the changed proportions between dry ingredients
and added water. Water absorption of corn RS was similar to corn
starch, so the change of water addition was not necessary. In case of
tapioca RS and RS mixture, the supplementation was accompanied
with the increase of water content. Also sensory texture analysis
did not reveal any statistically important trends. The loaves
exhibited high springiness, which was not affected by the supple-
mentation with resistant starch. Adhesiveness was low, which is
important for consumer acceptance. No significant differences
were also observed for hardness and gumminess of crumb. Taking
into account the overall texture quality, as measured by sensory
analysis, it could be stated that the involvement of resistant starch
in the recipe did not influence organoleptic quality of bread to
a significant extent. There was, however, a need to correct water
absorption of the dough, when starch was replaced with RS prep-
arations of increased water absorption.
Amylose, that is leaching out of starch granules during gelatini-
zation could quickly retrograde and cause crumb firming in the first
hours after baking. Longer storage of bread is accompanied by
retrogradation of amylopectin, which is the main cause of bread
ageing (Goesaert et al., 2005). The obtained TPA data (Texture Profile
Analysis) support this view (Fig. 4). TPA parameters changed
significantly on time (p < 0.001, LSD0.05 ¼ 57.4 for hardness,
2000
a was 190%, while for other loaves in the range from 45% (15% corn RS)
1600
Hardness (kG)
LSD0.05 ¼ 0.01 for springiness i LSD0.05 ¼ 0.03 for cohesiveness).
Hardness and springiness of bread crumb were also influenced by
the type of added RS preparation (p < 0.002, LSD0.05 ¼ 66.2 for
hardness and LSD0.05 ¼ 0.01 for springiness). Cohesiveness of the
crumb wasn’t influenced by the type of RS (p ¼ 0.13). Application of
tapioca RS at all doses, RS mixtures at intermediate and high
amounts and corn RS at highest level caused the decrease of gela-
tinization, which was manifested by the increase of pasting
temperature, and the decrease of viscosity (Table 4). These changes
were accompanied with the reduction of the initial crumb hardness
and slower ageing during 48 h after baking (Fig. 4). The most obvious
traits of bread ageing are crumb hardening and changes of taste and
smell. Hardness of analysed bread was 2 h after baking in the range
between 51% and 36% as compared to control, which was assumed
as 100%. It was lowest for 10% tapioca RS and RS mixture (43%).
Increased hardness was observed only in three cases – when 15% or
20% corn RS was added (þ36% and þ10%, respectively) or when the
RS mixture was added at the lowest dosage (þ10%). In the research
on fibre preparations (apple, tomato and Psyllium) added at the level
5–10% the reduction of crumb hardness was in the range 30.5–68.5%
(Korus & Achremowicz, 2004). On the other hand the addition of
chicory flour at a level 8% significantly increased the hardness of
gluten-free bread (on average by 20% as compared to standard),
while at a level 3% decreased it (Korus, Grzelak, Achremowicz, &
Sabat, 2006). The dynamics of bread ageing (hardness after 48 h
compared to the value obtained 2 h after baking) for control bread
to 305% (10% tapioca RS). Despite such a dynamics, the loaves with

1200 tapioca RS displayed lowest hardness, especially when the addition

was greater. After 48 h control bread exhibited highest hardness,
800 while other loaves were described by lower values that ranged from
22% (20% corn RS) to 52% (15% tapioca RS). Earlier studies also
400
revealed that the addition of fibre diminished crumb hardness after
0
storage (Korus & Achremowicz, 2004; Korus et al., 2006). Gluten-
2 24 48 free bread stales faster than wheat bread, because in the absence of
Storage time (hours) gluten the migration of water from crumb to crust is easier, so the
loss of water bound by starch is enhanced (Gallagher, Gormley, &
Arendt, 2003). Moisture redistribution is considered by many
1,02 authors as one of the most important factors for bread staling (Gray
b & Bemiller, 2003). Crumb hardening is, however, complicated
1,00 process, which depends not only on the content of amylose and
Springiness

amylopectin freed during gelatinization, but also on the volume of

0,98 the loaves and structure of crumb (Goesaert et al., 2005). Hung et al.
(2007) notice that the rate of crumb hardening is influenced by
0,96 water content. Both in their study and in current research the
addition of flour or starch rich in dietary fibre required to increase
the amounts of water. Hung et al. (2007) observed that the crumb of
0,94
2 24 48 waxy wheat bread, which contained more water than control bread,
Storage time (hours) exhibited lower firmness during 3 days of storage, than standard
wheat bread, retardation of staling was also observed for loaves with
30% and 50% of waxy wheat flour. Gluten-free loaves enriched in RS,
1,0
which were evaluated in this study, also contained more water than
c control, which additionally restricted bread staling during the first 2
0,8
days after baking.
Cohesiveness

0,6 All the analysed gluten-free breads were initially characterised

by similar crumb springiness (0.99–1.02, i.e. 1.2% to 4.6% as
0,4 compared to control bread), and the same was observed after 48 h
(0.94–0.99, i.e. 3.5% to 2.2% as compared to control bread). Greater
0,2
changes were observed in the dynamics of this parameter, which
0,0 was changing from 0.99% to 6.17%.
2 24 48 Crumb cohesiveness 2 h after baking ranged from 6.5% to 2.5%
Storage times (hours) as compared to control bread. Higher cohesiveness was observed
only for 10% tapioca RS (þ2.5%) and RS mixture added in the
Fig. 4. Changes of texture profile during storage of bread with a share of RS: (a)
hardness, (b) springiness, (c) cohesiveness (presented data are mean values from six
quantity 15% (þ1.0%). All the other loaves were less cohesive than
replications); > control, , 20% corn RS, 6 20% tapioca RS, B 10% corn RS/10% tapioca control bread. The impact of individual RS preparations (values
RS. 3.8% to 6.5%) was more pronounced than of RS mixtures at all
 J. Korus et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 988–995
levels (changing with the increasing concentration of RS by 0.01%,
þ1.05% and 0.64% as compared to control bread), however, this
influence was statistically insignificant. On the last day only, the
loaves with corn RS were less cohesive than control bread (by 6.0–
9.2%). The cohesiveness of bread with tapioca RS was in the range
1.8–5.8% in comparison to control bread. Lower values were
obtained for RS mixtures. The dynamics of cohesiveness during
storage was comparable for all breads and in the range 60% to 52%
(56% in control bread). Addition of chicory flour and inulin at the
levels 3–8% reduced both springiness and cohesiveness of gluten-
free bread crumb (Korus et al., 2006).
4. Conclusions
It was observed that the examined gluten-free dough samples
behaved as weak gels (G00 /G0 > 0.1). The partial replacement of
starch with RS preparations resulted in the increase of storage and
loss moduli (G0 , G00 ) and the decrease of phase tangent (tan d),
which could be interpreted as a shift towards elastic properties. The
incorporation of RS in recipes diminished compliance in creep and
recovery test, and enlarged zero shear viscosity. The greatest
impact on rheological properties was observed in case of tapioca RS
preparations. Resistant starch significantly influenced gelatiniza-
tion characteristics of gluten-free mixes. Their rising addition
positively influenced gelatinization temperature and decreased
viscosity. It could be one of the reasons for lower hardness of
resulting bread, as compared to control, which didn’t contain
resistant starch. In most cases the application of resistant starch
had no significant impact on selected texture parameters of crumb.
Also the sensory evaluation was comparable, irrespective of starch
composition, which proves that partial replacement of starch in
recipes for gluten-free bread with RS preparation doesn’t signifi-
cantly influence organoleptic quality of the obtained bread. It
should be noticed, however, that there is a need to re-establish
water absorption and correct dough consistency. Bread with the
use of resistant starch contained much more dietary fibre and its
insoluble and soluble fractions in comparison to control – by 89%,
137% and 18%, respectively. Highest TDF was 6.30 g/100 g, which
significantly improves dietary value of such bread. This improved
nutritional quality is not accompanied with lower scores, so such
a bread could be advised for technological practice.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank Cargill (Poland) and National Starch (Poland)
companies for resistant starch preparations.
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