Quantum Mechanics-III

Batch – 47th (PHY-512)

1) Ques.: When particles are indistinguishable?

Ans.: QM treatment of 2 e− system must account for indistinguishability. Writing Hamiltonian for 2
electrons requires us to use labels, H(1, 2) = ⃗p̂ 2 1 2me + ⃗p̂ 2 2 2me + V̂ (⃗r1 , ⃗r2 ). To preserve
indistinguishability Hamiltonian must be invariant to particle exchange, H (1, 2) = H (2, 1) If this
wasn’t true then we would expect measurable differences and that puts us in violation of
uncertainty principle.

2) Ques.: Symmetric and Anti-Symmetric Wave functions

Ans.: If you follow similar procedure for 3 identical particles you find ΦS = 1 √ 6 [Ψ(1, 2, 3) + Ψ(1, 3,
2) + Ψ(2, 3, 1) + Ψ(2, 1, 3) + Ψ(3, 1, 2) + Ψ(3, 2, 1)] and ΦA = 1 √ 6 [Ψ(1, 2, 3) − Ψ(1, 3, 2) + Ψ(2, 3, 1)
− Ψ(2, 1, 3) + Ψ(3, 1, 2) − Ψ(3, 2, 1)] Wave functions for multiple indistinguishable particles must also
be either symmetric or anti-symmetric with respect to exchange of particles. Mathematically,
Schrödinger equation will not allow symmetric wave function to evolve into anti-symmetric wave
function and vice versa. Particles can never change their symmetric or anti-symmetric behavior
under exchange.

3) Ques.: Discuss the difference between Fermions or Bosons.

Ans.: Particles with half-integer spins s = 1∕2, 3∕2, 5∕2,… are always found to have anti-symmetric
wave functions with respect to particle exchange. These particles are classified as fermions. Particles
with integer spins s = 0, 1, 2, … are always found to have symmetric wave functions with respect to
particle exchange. These particles are classified as bosons. When you get to relativistic quantum field
theory you will learn how this rule is derived. For now we accept this as a postulate of quantum
mechanics.

4) Ques.: Define Composite Particles

Ans.: What about identical composite particles, such as a nucleus composed of proton and neutrons,
or an atom composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons? A composite particle consisting of an
even number of fermions and any number of bosons is always a boson. an odd number of fermions
and any number of bosons is always a fermion. Thus, identical hydrogen atoms are bosons. Note, to
be truly identical all hydrogens have to be in the same eigenstate (or same superposition of
eigenstates). In practice you’ll need ultra low temperatures to get them all in the ground state if you
want them to be identical.

5) Ques.: Give the examples of composite particles with solution

Ans.: Example- The abundance of lithium isotopes 7Li and 6Li are 92.41% and 7.59%, respectively.
Are 7Li and 6Li nuclei classified as bosons or fermions?

Solution: Lithium nuclei contain 3 protons, which are spin 1/2 particles. 7Li nucleus additionally
contains 4 neutrons, which are also spin 1/2 particles. Total of 7 spin 1/2 particles tells us that 7Li
nucleus is fermion. In contrast, 6Li nucleus contains 3 neutrons. Total of 6 spin 1/2 particles tells us
that 6Li nucleus is boson. Homework: Classify nuclei of isotopes 10B, 11B, 12C, 13C, 14N, 15N, 16O,
and 17O as boson or fermion. P. J. Grandinetti C.

6) Ques.: What are Fermi holes?

Ans.: Fermi Hole Antisymmetric wave functions (fermions) go to zero if 2 particles have identical
coordinates, x⃗1 = x⃗2 ΦA (x⃗1 , ⃗x1 ) = 1 √ 2 [ Ψ(x⃗1 , ⃗x1 ) − Ψ(x⃗1 , ⃗x1 ) ] = 0 Recall x⃗= (r, 𝜃, 𝜙, 𝜔) or x⃗= (⃗r,
𝜔) where 𝜔 is spin state. Zero probability of 2 fermions having x⃗1 = x⃗2 Identical fermions can occupy
same point in space, ⃗r1 = ⃗r2 , only if spin states are different. Otherwise, wave function goes to zero.
Identical fermions with same spin states avoid each other. This avoidance is sometimes described as
an exchange force, but technically it is not a force. It’s just a property of indistinguishable particles
with anti-symmetric wave functions, i.e., identical fermions. Region around each e− that is excluded
to another e− with same spin is called a Fermi hole.

7) Ques.: What is Pauli Exclusion Principle?

Ans.: Pauli exclusion principle states that in a single atom no two electrons will have an identical set
or the same quantum numbers (n, l, m l, and ms). To put it in simple terms, every electron should
have or be in its own unique state (singlet state). There are two salient rules that the Pauli Exclusion
Principle follows:

 Only two electrons can occupy the same orbital.

 The two electrons that are present in the same orbital must have opposite spins or it should
be antiparallel.
However, Pauli Exclusion Principle does not only apply to electrons. It applies to other particles of
half-integer spin such as fermions. It is not relevant for particles with an integer spin such as bosons
which have symmetric wave functions. Moreover, bosons can share or have the same quantum
states, unlike fermions. As far as the nomenclature goes, fermions are named after the Fermi–Dirac
statistical distribution that they follow. Bosons, on the other hand, get their name from the Bose-
Einstein distribution function.

8) Ques.: Formulation of the Principle

Ans.: An Austrian physicist named Wolfgang Pauli formulated the principle in the year 1925. With
this principle, he basically described the behaviour of the electrons. Later in the year 1940, he
expanded on the principle to cover all fermions under his spin-statistics theorem. Meanwhile,
fermions that are described by the principle include elementary particles such as quarks, electrons,
neutrinos, and baryons.
Wolfgang Pauli was also awarded the Nobel prize in the year 1945 for the discovery of the Pauli
exclusion principle and his overall contribution in the field of quantum mechanics. He was even
nominated by Albert Einstein for the award.

9) Ques.: Introduction to Quantum Numbers

Ans.: Every electron in an atom can be defined completely by quantum numbers. Quantum numbers
are values that describe the state of an electron, such as the electron shell, the  shape of the orbital,
orientation and number of orbitals and the electronic spin. There are four quantum numbers that
are used.

 n is the principal quantum number. It talks about the position of the electron in the
innermost shell.
  l is said to be the orbital angular momentum quantum number and helps us determine the
shape of an orbital.
 ml is expressed as magnetic quantum number and it reveals the number of orbitals and their
orientation.
 ms denotes the spin quantum number and it identifies the direction of the electron spin.

10) Ques.: What is Variational Method?

Ans.:The variational method is the other main approximate method used in quantum mechanics.
Compared to perturbation theory, the variational method can be more robust in situations where it's
hard to determine a good unperturbed Hamiltonian (i.e., one which makes the perturbation small
but is still solvable). On the other hand, in cases where there is a good unperturbed Hamiltonian,
perturbation theory can be more efficient than the variational method.

The basic idea of the variational method is to guess a ``trial'' wavefunction for the problem, which
consists of some adjustable parameters called ``variational parameters.'' These parameters are
adjusted until the energy of the trial wavefunction is minimized. The resulting trial wavefunction and
its corresponding energy are variational method approximations to the exact wavefunction and
energy.