Published March, 2000
Alfalfa Root and Shoot Mulching Effects on Soil Hydraulic Properties and Aggregation
Daniel P. Rasse,* Alvin J. M. Smucker, Djail Santos
ABSTRACT
Although alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) stands have been reported
to improve soil physical properties, little is known about the specific
influences of above- and belowground alfalfa components on soil
physical properties. A 2-yr study was conducted to investigate alfalfa
root and shoot mulch modifications of soil physical properties and
water movement in the root zone of a Kalamazoo loam soil (fine-
loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalf) in southwest Michigan. Four
treatments were considered: bare fallow (BF), bare fallow with alfalfa
shoot mulch (BFSM), alfalfa with shoots removed and roots remaining
(AR), and alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch (ASM). Volumetric soil
water contents were measured by time domain reflectometry (TDR).
Development of fine roots was monitored by minirhizotron technol-
ogy. Alfalfa root systems increased saturated hydraulic conductivity
(Ksat) by 57%, total and macroporosities by 1.7 and 1.8%, respectively,
and water recharge rate of the soil profile by as much as 5.4% per day.
These effects of alfalfa roots on soil porosity were mainly attributed to
increased amplitudes of wetting and drying cycles and high rates of
root turnover in the Ap horizon. Ksat was significantly correlated with
macroporosity (r ⫽ 0.90, P ⱕ 0.01). Mean weight diameter (MWD)
of aggregates from bare fallow soils was 20% higher when alfalfa
shoot mulch was applied. Our results suggest that aggregate stability
was more affected by C sources from shoot mulch and root turnover
than by factors specific to root activities such as physical enmeshment
of aggregates and increased soil wetting and drying cycles.
T he rotation effect of legume crops has been attrib-
uted in part to improved soil physical properties
(Folorunso et al., 1992; McVay et al., 1989). Alfalfa is
the most frequent perennial legume in rotation with
corn (Zea mays L.) in the north-central states (Eberlein
et al., 1992). Improved soil structural stability under
alfalfa stands has been reported by several authors
(Angers, 1992; Perfect et al., 1990; Chantigny et al.,
1997). Alfalfa root systems have been reported to in-
crease the Ksat of soils free of previous root channels
(Li and Ghodrati, 1994). Meek et al. (1992) observed a
sixfold increase of Ksat when compacted sandy loams
were planted with alfalfa. Mitchell et al. (1995) reported
that alfalfa root systems have the ability to increase the
Ksat of swelling soils.
Improvements of soil physical properties by alfalfa
stands appear to result from a combination of effects
from above- and belowground plant materials (Angers
and Caron, 1998). Alfalfa stands have to be destroyed
prior to planting the following crop. This operation is
generally conducted by spray-killing the stands when
substantial amounts of aboveground plant material are
present (Baldock and Musgrave, 1980; Robbins and
Carter, 1980). Both alfalfa roots and shoots contribute
D.P. Rasse, A.J.M. Smucker, and D. Santos, Crop and Soil Sciences
Department, Plant and Soil Sciences Building, Michigan State Univer-
sity, East Lansing MI 48824-1325. Received 22 Dec. 1998. *Corre-
sponding author (rasse@astro.ulg.ac.be).
Published in Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 64:725–731 (2000).
725
to fresh organic matter inputs into the soil profile, which
promotes soil aggregation (Angers and Caron, 1998).
Soil structure and the development of soil cracks is
influenced by shrinking and swelling cycles (Angers and
Caron, 1998; Sissoko and Smucker, 1999, unpublished
data). Amplitude of these cycles is increased by plant
roots, which absorb water from the soil, and decreased
by crop residues, which reduce soil evaporation rates
(Prasad and Power, 1991). Although the separate effects
on soil physical properties of alfalfa roots and shoots
have been suggested in the literature, few studies have
investigated the different contributions of these compo-
nents. A better understanding of the specific influences
of above- and belowground alfalfa components on soil
physical properties is essential before we can determine
the full contribution of alfalfa to the rotation effect. In
this study, the influences of alfalfa roots and shoots on
soil physical properties and water movement in the root
zone were investigated for a loam soil for 2 yr in south-
western Michigan.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Experimental Design and Treatments
A field experiment was conducted at the Long-Term Eco-
logical Research site of the Kellogg Biological Station in south-
western Michigan. Four treatments were evaluated: bare fal-
low soil (BF); bare fallow soil to which alfalfa shoot mulch
was applied following each harvest (BFSM); alfalfa with shoots
removed following each harvest and roots remaining (AR);
alfalfa with shoot mulch applied to the soil surface following
each harvest (ASM). Each treatment was replicated four times
in a randomized complete block design. Experimental plots,
6 by 10 m, were installed in a Kalamazoo loam soil (fine-
loamy, mixed, mesic Typic Hapludalf) in late August 1994.
The preceding crop was corn, fertilized at 123 kg N ha⫺1. Corn
residues were moldboard plowed to a depth of 23 cm. All
plots were tilled and trafficked equally. Alfalfa (Pioneer 5246)
was planted in one-half of the plots at a rate of 22 kg seed
ha⫺1 on 30 Aug. 1994. The bare soil plots (BF and BFSM)
were also drilled without seeds. The bare soil plots were kept
free of weeds by applications of glyphosate [n-(phosphono-
methyl)glycine] at ≈ 6-wk intervals between April and August
of each year. No N fertilizer was applied to the research plots.
Potash was applied to all of the plots at a rate of 280 kg ha⫺1
of K2O equivalents, together with 2.2 kg ha⫺1 of B, on 13 June
1996. Lime was applied at a rate of 2500 kg ha⫺1 on 14 June
1996. The alfalfa plots were harvested on 9 June 1995, 24 July
1995, 31 Aug. 1995, 31 May 1996, 3 July 1996, and 21 Aug.
1996. Plants were cut 5 cm above the soil surface by a 90-cm-
wide sickle-bar mower. After cutting, the alfalfa shoots were
raked from the AR and ASM plots and weighed. Equal
amounts of alfalfa shoots were then applied to all ASM and
Abbreviations: AR, alfalfa with shoots removed and roots remaining;
ASM, alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch; BF, bare fallow; BFSM, bare
fallow with alfalfa shoot mulch; Ksat, saturated hydraulic conductivity;
MWD, mean weight diameter; MR, minirhizotron; RIM, root-induced
macropore; TDR, time domain reflectometry.
726 SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 64, MARCH–APRIL 2000

BFSM plots. At the end of the second growing season, cumula- was determined by the wet sieving method (Kemper and
tive shoot mulch biomass applications approached 16.4 Mg Chepil, 1965), using a stack of sieves with 4.000-, 2.000-, 1.000-,
ha⫺1 dry matter. All sampled areas were located at least 1 m 0.500-, 0.250-, and 0.106-mm opening diameters. The results
from the edge of the plots to avoid border effects. The surface of wet sieving were expressed as the MWD calculated as the
area of each plot was allocated to (i) nondestructive sampling mean fraction of soil on each sieve multiplied by the mean
using in situ instruments (2 by 4 m), (ii) a yield assessment diameter of adjacent sieves (Kemper and Chepil, 1965). A
area (4 by 4 m), and (iii) a destructive sampling area (2 by correction was applied for primary sand particles.
4 m). Plots were separated by surface plastic barriers installed Disturbed samples for total C analyses were collected from
to depths of 10 cm and protruding 5 cm above the soil surface the Ap horizon of each plot to a depth of 0.23 m on 11 Oct.
to prevent runoff and runon between plots. 1996 . Ten subsamples per plot were collected, mixed into one
composite sample, air dried, and finely ground (⬍0.5 mm).
Measurements Analyses were conducted by dry combustion method (Kirsten,
1983) using a C–N analyzer NA1500 series 2 (Carlo Erba
Volumetric soil water contents were assessed at three Strumentazione, Milano, Italy). Modifications of total soil C
depths by TDR measurements. Stainless steel TDR probes by alfalfa and bare fallow systems for this experiment are
(28.5 cm long) were inserted at 15-, 35-, and 60-cm depths to reported in Rasse et al. (1999). Here soil C is considered only
intercept the water in the central regions of the Ap, Bt1, and for its interactions with the soil physical properties.
Bt2 horizons. Probes were inserted horizontally into undis-
turbed soil layers from the wall of an access pit, about 0.4 m Statistical Analyses
long by 0.25 m wide, dug in each plot before planting. Soil
profiles were described in each access pit, and each horizon Statistical analyses were conducted using the general linear
was replaced and compacted to its original density. Volumetric model of the SAS system (SAS Institute, 1989). Mean separa-
soil water contents were collected by an in-line cable tester, tion tests were conducted using Fisher’s least significant differ-
TDR meter, model 1502C (Tektronix, Beaverton, OR). Volu- ences (LSD0.05) when global F tests were significant. Factorial
metric soil water contents were derived from the TDR-meter analyses were conducted with a root factor (i.e., presence
readings using the equation developed by Topp et al. (1980).
Alfalfa root demographics were monitored three times each
year by minirhizotron technology, using a micro video camera
(Bartz Technology, Santa Barbara, CA) as described by Fer-
guson and Smucker (1989). Three clear polybutyrate tubes
(0.05 by 2.4 m) were installed at 45⬚ angles in AR and ASM
plots. One control minirhizotron (MR) tube was placed in
each of the BF and BFSM plots. Root intersections with the
upper surfaces of MR tubes were recorded on identical frame
positions, 1.35 by 1.80 cm each. Alfalfa roots that did not
display signs of decomposition were hand counted in each of
the video frames. Root numbers were added every 10 frames,
which represents a vertical depth increment of 9.5 cm. Total
root numbers were then reported per square meter by dividing
by the cumulative surface of 10 frames. Root turnover rates
were assessed by the difference in root populations between
consecutive dates. Assumption was made that one root-in-
duced macropore (RIM) was generated each time the decom-
position of one root was observed in one MR frame.
Four undisturbed soil cores, 0.076 m in diameter by 0.076 m
deep, were collected in each plot in October 1996 for analyzing
Ksat and soil porosity. Cores were collected on the soil surface,
after gently removing the top 0.5 cm of soil and residues.
Cores were saturated from underneath for 48 h prior to Ksat
measurements using the constant head method (Klute and
Dirksen, 1986). Following Ksat measurements, cores were re-
saturated and placed in pressure chambers at 0.006 and
0.033 MPa for 4 d, corresponding with macro- and gravimetric
porosities, respectively. Cores were dried for 48 h in a forced-
air oven at 105⬚C. Total porosity was calculated from the
amount of water contained in the cores at saturation. Macro-
porosity was calculated from the difference between water
contents at saturation and at 0.006 MPa. Microporosity was
defined as the difference between total porosity and macropo-
rosity. Gravimetric porosity was calculated from the difference
between water contents at saturation and at 0.033 MPa.
Four subsamples of soil were collected from the 0.00- to
Fig. 1. Volumetric soil water contents in the Ap, Bt1, and Bt2 horizons
0.20-m region of each plot in October 1996. Air-dry aggregates of soils under bare fallow (open circle), bare fallow with alfalfa
were manually sieved to obtain the 4.75- to 6.30-mm fraction. shoot mulch (open square), alfalfa with shoots removed and roots
Aggregates, 25 g per sample, were rewetted by nebulizing remaining (filled circle), and alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch (filled
for 12 h with distilled water (Sissoko and Smucker, 1999, square), and daily rainfall measurements in 1995. Fisher’s least
unpublished data). Aggregate stability of rewetted samples significant differences (LSD0.05) represented.
 RASSE ET AL.: ALFALFA ROOT AND SHOOT EFFECTS ON SOIL PROPERTIES
or absence of living alfalfa roots) and a mulch factor (i.e.,
application or no application of alfalfa shoot mulch at harvest).
Normality tests indicated that the Ksat data were not normally
distributed, while logarithmic transformation of these data
resulted in a more normal distribution. Consequently, mean-
separation tests were performed on log-transformed data. Me-
dians of the nontransformed Ksat data were reported.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Volumetric Soil Water Contents
Variations of soil water contents with time were of
greater amplitude under alfalfa stands (AR and ASM)
than bare fallows (BF and BFSM) (Fig. 1 and 2). Soil
drying rates were modified by the presence of living
alfalfa root systems, as exemplified by the two continu-
ous soil drying periods of 3 Aug. 1995 to 13 Oct. 1995
(Fig. 1) and of 29 July 1996 to 13 Sept. 1996 (Fig. 2).
During these two drying periods, soil water contents in
AR and ASM plots followed similar trends, becoming
progressively lower than water contents for the BF and
BFSM treatments. Application of alfalfa shoot mulch
to soils under living alfalfa stands appeared to have little
Fig. 2. Volumetric soil water contents in the Ap, Bt1, and Bt2 horizons
of soils under bare fallow (open circle), bare fallow with alfalfa
shoot mulch (open square), alfalfa with shoots removed and roots
remaining (filled circle), and alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch (filled
square), and daily rainfall measurements in 1996. Fisher’s least
significant differences (LSD0.05) represented.
727
impact on soil water contents (Fig. 1 and 2). Alfalfa
shoot application to bare fallow soil reduced the rates
of water loss from the Ap and Bt1 horizons in 1995 and
1996. During drier periods in 1995 and 1996, volumetric
soil water contents of bare fallow soils were significantly
greater when shoot mulch was applied (Fig. 2), sug-
gesting that accumulated amounts of alfalfa shoot mulch
reduced soil evaporation, resulting in greater accumula-
tion of soil water in the Ap horizon. This result concurs
with other studies reporting that mulch applications to
bare fallows reduced evaporation from the soil profile
(Prasad and Power, 1991; Steiner, 1994; Walsh et al.,
1996).
Water-recharge rates of the Ap horizon were signifi-
cantly increased by alfalfa root systems. For example,
from 8 July to 9 July 1996, increases in soil water content
of the Ap horizon of unmulched plots were significantly
greater (P ⱕ 0.05) under alfalfa (⫹12.6%) than under
bare fallow (⫹7.2%). Similarly, precipitation between
26 July and 29 July 1996 increased water contents of
the Ap horizon by 11.9% in the AR plots, which was
significantly higher (P ⱕ 0.001) than the 5.7% increase
observed in the BF plots. These different increases in
soil water contents following rainfall events suggest al-
falfa roots augmented soil porosity during the first 2 yr
of treatment. Maximum soil water contents in the Ap,
Bt1, and Bt2 horizons in 1995 were observed in the BFSM
plots, while in 1996 maximum soil water contents were
reached in the AR and ASM plots. Consequently, alfalfa
root systems appeared to have increased soil porosity
with resultantly greater infiltration rates in alfalfa treat-
ments than for the bare soil treatments.
Root System Distributions
By the end of the second growing season, similar
quantities of alfalfa fine roots colonized the soil profile
in the Bt1, Bt2, and C horizons at depths from 40 to
130 cm (Fig. 3). Substantial root numbers were observed
Fig. 3. Minirhizotron observations on 20 Sept. 1996 of fine root distri-
bution patterns in soil profiles in alfalfa plots with shoots removed
and roots remaining (filled circle) and with alfalfa shoot mulch
applied (filled square) on 20 Sept. 1996. Standard errors given for
n ⫽ 4.
728 SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 64, MARCH–APRIL 2000
Fig. 4. (A) Minirhizotron root counts and (B) root turnover rates in the upper 9.5 cm of alfalfa plots. Data from alfalfa with shoots removed
and roots remaining and alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch were combined because no significant difference between treatments was observed.
Standard errors given for n ⫽ 8.
by MRs to the maximum sampling depth of 140 cm in
September 1996. These data confirm a previous report
that alfalfa roots grow deeper than 140 cm in stands
older than 2 yr (Pietola and Smucker, 1995). High root
turnover rates were observed in the surface 9.5 cm of
the Ap horizon, where death of fine roots exceeded 75
and 50% during July to October of the 1995 and 1996
growing seasons, respectively (Fig. 4). A similar pattern
of alfalfa fine root turnover has been reported by Goins
and Russelle (1996). The high rate of root mortality in
the uppermost soil layer appears to result from the large
fluctuations of soil water contents within the Ap hori-
zon. Several times, volumetric soil water contents
dropped below 12%, which is the wilting point for the
Ap horizon of Kalamazoo loam soils (Fig. 1 and 2).
These water deficits were not observed in deeper hori-
zons. Alfalfa root turnover rates did not appear to be
significantly modified by mulch treatments in any soil
horizons (data not reported), as the application of alfalfa
shoot mulch did not significantly modify alfalfa fine root
numbers for any 9.5-cm depth increment on any given
date (Fig. 3 is an example). Investigators have reported
no significant differences between alfalfa root produc-
tion by nodulating and non-nodulating alfalfa varieties,
when monitored by MRs (Goins and Russelle, 1996) or
by destructive root extractions (Blumenthal and Rus-
selle, 1996; Goins and Russelle, 1996; Lory et al., 1992).
These studies suggest that the development of alfalfa
root systems may not be sensitive to the availability of
N within the soil profile. Accordingly, in this study,
availability of inorganic N was increased under alfalfa
shoot mulch (Rasse et al., 1999) without inducing signifi-
cant modification of alfalfa root demographics. Larsson
and Jensén (1996) reported that mulching significantly
modifies root populations of black current bushes (Ribes
nigrum L.) as a result of increases in soil water contents,
while mulch-induced modifications of soil temperature
had no apparent effects on root growth. In our study,
water contents of soils under alfalfa stands were never
significantly modified by shoot mulch application (Fig.
1 and 2). Soil temperatures at the three TDR-probe
depths recorded on five dates in 1995 were also not
significantly different between mulched and non-
mulched alfalfa plots (data not reported). In conclusion,
application of alfalfa shoot mulch to living alfalfa stands
increased soil N (Rasse et al., 1999) but did not signifi-
cantly modify soil water contents nor temperatures,
which resulted in no consistent modifications of alfalfa
root distribution patterns or turnover rates.
Soil Physical Properties
Total, macro-, and gravimetric soil porosities were
significantly higher when alfalfa root systems were pres-
ent, while no overall significant effect of shoot mulch
was observed (Table 1). Total porosity was significantly
higher by 2.3% in unmulched alfalfa compared with
bare fallow treatments (Table 2). Macro- and gravimet-
ric porosities were significantly higher, by 3.0 and 2.8%,
respectively, in AR than in BFSM treatments. Micropo-
rosity was significantly higher when shoot mulch was
applied to bare fallow, although the factorial analysis
 RASSE ET AL.: ALFALFA ROOT AND SHOOT EFFECTS ON SOIL PROPERTIES
Table 1. Factorial analyses for root and mulch effects on saturated
hydraulic conductivity (Ksat); mean weight diameter (MWD);
total, gravimetric, micro-, and macroporosities; and total C
contents in the Ap horizon of soils under bare fallow (BF),
bare fallow with alfalfa shoot mulch added (BFSM), alfalfa
(AR), and alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch added (ASM), fol-
lowing 2 yr of treatment.
Porosity
Source of
variation Ksat MWD Total Micro Gravim. Macro
Probability of a greater F
Root ⬍0.001 0.102 0.032 0.772 0.012 0.027
Mulch 0.437 0.003 0.667 0.068 0.135 0.116
Root ⫻ mulch 0.360 0.091 0.414 0.105 0.461 0.776
indicated that overall root and mulch factors were non-
significant (Tables 1 and 2). Total porosities (TP) were
correlated to total soil C contents (C) and root numbers
(R) in the Ap horizon. The regression equations were:
TP ⫽ 28 ⫹ 13.0C (r ⫽ 0.76, P ⫽ ⱕ0.001)
TP ⫽ 39 ⫹ 5.0 ⫻ 10⫺4C (r ⫽ 0.68, P ⫽ ⱕ0.01)
⫺4
TP ⫽ 30 ⫹ 9.8C ⫹ 3.1 ⫻ 10 R (r ⫽ 0.84, P ⫽ ⱕ0.001)
Total soil C and root numbers independently increased
total porosity, as demonstrated by the absence of a sig-
nificant correlation between soil C contents and root
numbers (r ⫽ 0.45), and by the improved coefficient of
correlation when both factors were considered in the
regression. Though a trend towards greater soil C con-
tents under alfalfa stands was observed, these differ-
ences could not be proven significant for the 2-yr period
(Tables 1 and 2). These observations imply that total
porosity was modified faster than total soil C contents
by alfalfa root systems. Increased total, macro, and
gravimetric soil porosities by alfalfa root systems poten-
tially resulted from an increase in the amplitude of wet-
ting and drying cycles (Fig. 1 and 2), which have also
been reported to enhance the development of soil cracks
(Angers and Caron, 1998).
Saturated hydraulic conductivity was significantly
higher in soils with alfalfa roots growing than under
bare fallows (Tables 1 and 2). This result confirms that
alfalfa root systems increase soil Ksat, as previously re-
ported by several authors (Caron et al., 1996; Li and
Ghodrati, 1994; Meek et al., 1992; Mitchell et al., 1995).
Application of alfalfa shoot mulch to soils under bare
fallow and alfalfa stands did not significantly modify
Ksat (Table 1). Though little information is available for
mulch effects on Ksat, Prasad and Power (1991) estimate
that mulching is likely to increase Ksat because of higher
soil faunal activity. Lal et al. (1980) reported significant
increases in Ksat by mulch application on recently cleared
tropical Alfisols. Such an effect was not observed in
this study.
Saturated hydraulic conductivities were significantly
correlated with macroporosities (Fig. 5A) and gravimet-
ric porosities (Fig. 5B). Root turnover and increased
amplitude of wetting and drying cycles under alfalfa
stands are potentially responsible for increased Ksat and
soil macroporosity in alfalfa systems. Meek et al. (1992)
reported that RIMs have to be devoid of alfalfa root
tissues before contributing to the preferential flow of
729
Table 2. Saturated hydraulic conductivities (Ksat); mean weight
diameter (MWD); total, gravimetric, micro, and macroporosi-
ties; and total C contents in soils under bare fallow (BF), bare
fallow with alfalfa shoot mulch added (BFSM), alfalfa (AR),
and alfalfa with alfalfa shoot mulch added (ASM), following
2 yr of treatment.
Porosity
Ksat† MWD Total Micro Gravim. Macro Carbon
C
cm hr⫺1 mm %
BF 1.14b‡ 3.76b 38.7b 27.3b 13.9ab 11.4ab 0.90a
0.145 BFSM 0.86b 4.57a 39.0ab 29.0a 12.5b 10.0b 0.92a
0.849 AR 1.64a 4.26a 41.0a 27.9ab 15.3a 13.0a 0.96a
0.553 ASM 1.50a 4.56a 40.1ab 28.1ab 14.8a 12.0ab 0.95a
† Median reported; means separation test conducted on log-transformed
data.
‡ Means and medians followed by the same letter are not significantly
different by Fisher’s LSD0.05.
water through soils. Living alfalfa roots have the poten-
tial to plug empty soil macropores, thereby reducing
water fluxes through soils (Gish and Jury, 1983; Rasse
and Smucker, 1998; Smucker et al., 1995). Root popula-
tions in the upper 9.5 cm of the soil profile were reduced
from 4800 roots m⫺2 on 26 May 1995 to ⬍1000 roots
m⫺2 on 8 Aug. 1995, generating ≈4000 potential RIMs
m⫺2 (Fig. 4). From summer to fall 1996, root populations
were reduced by more than 1000 roots m⫺2. Conse-
quently, during the 2-yr period, ≈5000 potential RIMs
m⫺2 were opened by alfalfa root turnover, which is four
times as much as live root populations observed on
26 Sept. 96. Consequently, increased soil macroporosity
and Ksat appeared to result in part from high rates of
alfalfa root turnover in the upper 9.5-cm soil profile.
Additional soil drying by alfalfa roots potentially in-
creased the number and extent of soil cracks, which also
may have contributed to increasing Ksat in alfalfa soils.
The stability of soil aggregates, ranging from 4.75 to
6.30 mm in diameter and sampled from 0.00- to 0.20-m
soil depths was significantly improved, as indicated by
comparisons of MWD, when alfalfa shoot mulch was
applied to the soil surface (Table 1). No significant effect
on soil aggregation by alfalfa roots was observed when
mulched and unmulched plots were considered together
(Table 1). Nevertheless, when unmulched plots were
considered separately, aggregate stability was signifi-
cantly higher in the Ap horizon of soils with alfalfa roots
(AR) than when devoid of root systems (BF) (Table
2). Although alfalfa improvements of soil structure have
been reported (Angers, 1992; Perfect et al., 1990; Chan-
tigny et al., 1997), this is the first report of the separate
and combined contributions of alfalfa shoots and roots
for improving soil aggregate stability. Chantigny et al.
(1997) reported that alfalfa promotes soil aggregation
to a lesser extent than canary grass (Phalaris arundina-
cea L.) and timothy (Pleum pratense L.). When incorpo-
rated, alfalfa improved the stability of soil structure
more than poultry manure or sewage sludge (Martens
and Frankenberger, 1992). In this study, soil aggregate
stability was not significantly correlated with Ksat, bulk
density, porosity, total C, root numbers, or root turnover
rates (data not reported), suggesting that other factors
besides these soil and plant root parameters were modi-
730 SOIL SCI. SOC. AM. J., VOL. 64, MARCH–APRIL 2000

Fig. 5. Regression of log Ksat vs. (A) macroporosity and (B) gravimetric porosity for the upper Ap horizon of plots under bare fallow (open
circle), bare fallow with alfalfa shoot mulch (open square), alfalfa with shoots removed and roots remaining (closed circle), and alfalfa with
alfalfa shoot mulch (closed square). *** Significant at P ⱕ 0.001.

fying the mechanisms associated with forming stable
aggregates. The absence of correlation between root
populations and aggregate stability suggests that the
physical enmeshing of soil aggregates and enhanced
wetting and drying cycles by alfalfa roots were not the
primary mechanisms of structural stabilization by alfalfa
roots. Similar conclusions were reported by Degens et
al. (1994), who found no significant stabilization of mac-
roaggregates by clover roots in sandy soils, while oppo-
site results were obtained by Perfect et al. (1990), who
reported significant correlations between wet aggregate
stability and root parameters. Wetting and drying cycles
can increase soil fragmentation (Angers and Caron,
1998). Highest MWD of aggregates in the BFSM treat-
ment corresponded with the lowest amplitudes of wet-
ting and drying cycles. Nevertheless, greatest amplitudes
of wetting and drying cycles were observed in the alfalfa
plots, although aggregate stabilities did not significantly
differ among AR, ASM, and BFSM plots. In addition,
lowest MWD was observed in the BF plots, where soil
water varied less over time than in AR and ASM plots.
Therefore, modifications to the soil water regime did
not appear to be the driving mechanism for differences
in MWD between treatments in this study. Transient
soluble C pools and associated microbial biomass activi-
ties, as reported by Haynes et al. (1991), Angers and
Mehuys (1989), and Sissoko and Smucker (1999, unpub-
lished data), may have been the primary stabilizing fac-
tors for aggregates during these field studies.
CONCLUSIONS
Alfalfa root systems increased water flow, as indicated
by higher Ksat, total and macroporosities, and water re-
charge rates of the Ap horizon. Increases in Ksat ap-
peared to have resulted from greater macroporosities.
Increases in soil porosity by alfalfa root systems appar-
ently resulted from greater amplitudes of wetting and
drying cycles and the formation of RIMs under alfalfa
stands. Root turnover, disappearance, and resultant
connected porosities associated with RIM formation ap-
peared to have greater impacts on Ksat than living root
densities. Minirhizotron technology was successfully
used for better understanding modifications of soil wa-
 RASSE ET AL.: ALFALFA ROOT AND SHOOT EFFECTS ON SOIL PROPERTIES
ter flow induced by growth and decay of alfalfa root
systems. It is also concluded that both living root systems
and root history (i.e., turnover rates) should be consid-
ered when analyzing the impact of root systems on soil
physical properties. It is suggested that aggregate stabil-
ity was more affected by sources of C from shoot mulch
and root decomposition than by factors specific to root
activities such as physical enmeshment of aggregates
and increased soil wetting and drying cycles. Additional
research should be conducted to further confirm the
specific contributions of above- and belowground com-
ponents of different plant species to soil aggregation.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported in part by the NSF/LTER
project no. BSR 9527663, the C.S. Mott Foundation Chair
for Sustainable Agriculture, and the Michigan Agriculture
Experiment Station. Technical assistance by John Ferguson
and Mark Halvorson is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
Angers, D.A. 1992. Changes in soil aggregation and organic carbon
under corn and alfalfa. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56:1244–1249.
Angers, D.A., and J. Caron. 1998. Plant-induced changes in soil struc-
ture: Processes and feedbacks. Biogeochemistry 42:55–72.
Angers, D.A., and G.R. Mehuys. 1989. Effect of cropping on carbohy-
drate content and water stable aggregation of a clay soil. Soil Biol.
Biochem. 20:107–114.
Baldock, J.O., and R.B. Musgrave. 1980. Manure and mineral fertiliz-
ers effects in continuous and rotational crop sequences in central
New York. Agron. J. 72:511–518.
Blumenthal, J.M., and M.P. Russelle. 1996. Subsoil nitrate uptake and
symbiotic dinitrogen fixation by alfalfa. Agron. J. 88:909–915.
Caron, J., O. Banton, D.A. Angers, and J.P. Villeneuve. 1996. Prefer-
ential bromide transport through a clay loam under alfalfa and
corn. Geoderma 69:175–191.
Chantigny, M.H., D.A. Angers, D. Prévost, L.-P. Vézina, and F.-P.
Chalifour. 1997. Soil aggregation and fungal and bacterial biomass
under annual and perennial cropping systems. Soil. Sci. Soc. Am.
J. 61:262–267.
Degens, B.P., G.P. Sparling, and L.K. Abbott. 1994. The contribution
from hyphae, roots and organic carbon constituents to the aggrega-
tion of a sandy loam under long-term clover-based and grass pas-
tures. Eur. J. Soil Sci. 45:459–468.
Eberlein, C.V., C.C. Sheaffer, and V.F. Oliveira. 1992. Corn growth
and yield in an alfalfa living mulch system. J. Prod. Agric. 5:332–339.
Ferguson, J.C., and A.J.M. Smucker. 1989. Modification of the minirhi-
zotron video camera system for measuring spatial and temporal
root dynamics. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 50:627–633.
Folorunso, O.A., D.E. Rolston, T. Prichard, and D.T. Louie. 1992.
Soil surface strength and infiltration rate as affected by winter
cover crops. Soil Technol. 5:189–197.
Gish, T.J., and W.A. Jury. 1983. Effect of plant roots and root channels
on solute transport. Trans. ASAE 26SW:440–451.
Goins, G.D., and M.P. Russelle. 1996. Fine root demography in alfalfa
(Medicago sativa L.). Plant Soil 185:281–291.
Haynes, R.J., R.S. Swift, and R.C. Stephen. 1991. Influence of mixed
cropping rotations (pasture-arable) on organic matter content, wa-
ter stable aggregation and clod porosity in a group of soils. Soil
Tillage Res. 19:77–87.
731
Kemper, W.D., and W.S. Chepil. 1965. Size distribution of aggregates.
p. 499–510. In C.A. Black et al. (ed.) Methods of soil analyses.
Part 1. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA, Madison, WI.
Klute, A., and C. Dirksen. 1986. Hydraulic conductivity and diffusivity.
Laboratory methods. p. 687–734. In A. Klute (ed.) Methods of
soil analyses. 2nd ed. Part 1. Agron. Monogr. 9. ASA and SSSA,
Madison, WI.
Lal, R., D. De Vleesscauwer, and R. Malafa Nganje. 1980. Changes
in properties of a newly cleared tropical Alfisol as affected by
mulching. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44:827–833.
Larsson, L., and P. Jensén. 1996. Effects of mulching on the root and
shoot growth of young black currant bushes (Ribes nigrum ). Acta
Agric. Scand., Sect. B, Soil Plant Sci. 46:197–207.
Li, Y., and M. Ghodrati. 1994. Preferential transport of nitrate through
columns containing root channels. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58:653–659.
Lory, J.A., M.P. Russelle, and G.H. Heichel. 1992. Quantification of
symbiotically fixed nitrogen in soil surrounding alfalfa roots and
nodules. Agron. J. 84:1033–1040.
Kirsten, W.J. 1983. Organic elemental analysis. Academic Press,
New York.
Martens, D.A., and W.T. Frankenberger. 1992. Modifications of infil-
tration rates in an organic-amended irrigated soil. Agron. J. 84:
707–717.
McVay, K.A., D.E. Radcliffe, and W.L. Hargrove. 1989. Winter le-
gume effect on soil physical properties and nitrogen fertilizer re-
quirements. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 53:1856–1862.
Meek, B.D., E.R. Rechel, L.M. Carter, W.R. DeTar, and A.L. Urie.
1992. Infiltration rate of a sandy loam soil: Effects of traffic, tillage,
and plant roots. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 56:908–913.
Mitchell, A.R., T.R. Ellsworth, and B.D. Meek. 1995. Effect of root
systems on preferential flow in swelling soils. Commun. Soil Sci.
Plant Anal. 26:2655–2666.
Perfect, E., B.D. Kay, W.K.P. Van Loon, R.W. Sheard, and T. Pojasok.
1990. Rates of change in soil structural stability under forages and
corn. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 54:179–186.
Pietola, L.M., and A.J.M. Smucker. 1995. Fine root dynamics of alfalfa
after multiple cuttings and during a late invasion by weeds. Agron.
J. 87:1161–1169.
Prasad, R., and J.F. Power. 1991. Crop residue management. Adv.
Soil Sci. 15:204–251.
Rasse, D.P., and A.J.M. Smucker. 1998. New root distribution and
recolonization in a corn–alfalfa rotation. Plant Soil 204:203–212.
Rasse, D.P, A.J.M. Smucker, and O. Schabenberger. 1999. Modifica-
tions of soil N pools in response to alfalfa root systems and shoot
mulch. Agron. J. 91:471–477.
Robbins, C.W., and D.L. Carter. 1980. Nitrate-nitrogen leached below
the root zone during and following alfalfa. J. Environ. Qual. 9:
447–450.
SAS Institute. 1989. SAS/STAT user’s guide. Version 6. 4th ed. Vol.
2. SAS Inst., Cary, NC.
Smucker, A.J.M., W. Richner, and V.O. Snow. 1995. Bypass flow via
root-induced macropores (RIMS) in subirrigated agriculture. p.
255–258. In Clean water–clean environment–21st Century. Vol. 3.
Practices, systems & adoption. Conf. proc. Kansas City, MO. 5–8
Mar. 1995. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI.
Steiner, J.L. 1994. Crop residue effect on water conservation. p. 41–76.
In P.W. Unger (ed.) Managing agricultural residues. Lewis, Boca
Raton, FL.
Topp, G.C., J.L. Davis, and A.P. Annan. 1980. Electromagnetic deter-
mination of soil water content: Measurements in coaxial transmis-
sion lines. Water Resour. Res. 16:574–582.
Walsh, B.D., S. Salmins, D.J. Buszard, and A.F. MacKenzie. 1996.
Impact of soil management on organic dwarf apple orchards and
soil aggregate stability, bulk density, temperature and water con-
tent. Can. J. Soil Sci. 76:203–209.