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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering (University of Calgary)
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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong
Chapter 2
Reservoir Fluid Behavior and Equations of State
Petroleum systems found in oil and reservoirs are mixtures of hydrocarbon compounds that
may occur in the gaseous state, the liquid state, the solid state, or a multiphase system of
various combinations of gas, liquid, and solid. The properties of a reservoir fluid system,
which may be a single phase or two phases, are determined by its composition and the
reservoir conditions: temperature and pressure. These properties, along with the physical
properties of reservoir rock and fluid-rock, determine the type of a reservoir and the method
of development and production of the reservoir.
2.1 Phase Diagrams and Classification of Reservoirs in Reference of Phase

Behavior
The types of reservoirs can be defined by the phase behavior of the initial reservoir fluid with
respect to the two-phase (gas and liquid) region on pressure-temperature (P-T) phase
diagrams. Before classifying the types of different reservoirs, the P-T diagrams of pure
substances and mixtures of more than two components are first reviewed.
2.1.1 Pressure – temperature phase diagram of pure substances
Figure 2.1 Typical pressure-temperature phase diagram of a pure substance
Figure 2.1 shows a phase diagram a pure substance or a single component system. The
diagram includes the following information associated with phase behavior:
x Vapor-pressure line — the line separating the pressure-temperature conditions for a
substance in a liquid and in a gaseous state.
x Critical point — the upper limit of the vapor-pressure line. The temperature
presented at this point is called critical temperature, Tc, and the pressure at this point
is called critical pressure, Pc. Above Tc, gas cannot be liquefied, regardless of the
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pressure applied; above Pc, liquid and gas cannot coexist, regardless of the
temperature applied.
x Triple point — the point representing the conditions at which solid, liquid, and gas
coexist.
x Melting-point line — the line separating conditions for solid from the conditions for
liquid. This line is nearly vertical above the triple point.
x Sublimation-pressure line — the vapor-pressure lined separating the conditions for
solid from the conditions for gas.
Liquid
Superheated
Vapor region
C
T5
T4
Liquid-‐vapor TC
Region T3
Pv
T2
Bubble Dew
point point T1
V
Figure 2.2 P-V diagram of a pure substance
The vapor-liquid phased change described in Figure 2.1 can be presented in the form of a
pressure-volume diagram. Figure 2.2 shows isotherms of a typical pressure-volume diagram
for a pure substance. Consider a pure substance at the liquid sate and the temperature of the
system is constant (see any isotherm below critical temperature). The pressure of the system
is reduced by increasing the volume of the liquid. Because liquids are relatively
incompressible, at the liquid state, a relatively large change in pressure results from a small
change in volume. When the pressure is reduced to the vapor pressure of the substance, gas
begins to form. The point at which the first bubble forms is also called bubble point. Further
increases in volume cause vaporization of the liquid. For a pure substance, the vaporization
continues at a constant pressure, the vapor pressure, until all the liquid is vaporized. The
point at which the vaporization ends of only a tiny liquid drop left is called dew point.
Therefore a point at the vaporization line in Figure 2.1is a straight horizontal line on Figure
2.2. After all the liquid is vaporized, continued increase in volume causes expansion of the
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gas and reduction in pressure. Since the gas is highly compressible, the slope of the isotherm
is much less steep for the gas than for the liquid.
The dashed line in Figure 2.2 shows the locus of all bubble points and dew points. The area
within the dashed line is saturation envelope, indicating the conditions for liquid and gas
coexist. The bubble-point line and dew-point line meet at the critical point. There is no phase
change at temperatures above the critical temperature.
2.1.2 Pressure – temperature phase diagram of mixtures
Pressure-temperature diagram of two-component mixtures

Figure 2.3 shows isotherms on a pressure-volume diagram of a two-component mixture with
a constant overall composition. Unlike the isotherms in Figure 2.2 for a pure substance, the
pressure decreases as the process passes from the bubble point to the dew point in the two
phase region. The line from bubble point to dew point is not horizontal and is not necessarily
straight. The decrease in pressure is caused by the changes in the compositions of the liquid
and the gas as the process passes through the two-phase region.
Figure 2.3 Pressure-volume diagram of a mixture.
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Pressure-temperature diagram of multi-component mixtures
Figure 2.4 Typical pressure-temperature diagram of a multi-component mixture
Figure 2.4 shows a typical pressure-temperature diagram of multi-component mixture. P-T

phase diagram depends on the composition of the mixture. Initially each hydrocarbon
accumulation will have its own phase diagram, which depends only on the composition of
the accumulation. The following are important points of P-T phase diagrams of hydrocarbon
mixtures:
x Bubble point line — the line separating the liquid-phase region from the two-phase
region.
x Dew point line — the line separating the vapor-phase region from the two-phase region.
x Two-phase region — the region enclosed by the bubble-point curve and the dew-point
curve, in which gas and liquid coexist in equilibrium.
x Constant liquid volume line (quality line) — the curves within the two-phase region show
the percentage of the total hydrocarbon volume that is liquid for any temperature and
pressure.
x Cricondentherm — the maximum temperature above which liquid cannot be formed
regardless of pressure.
x Cricondenbar — the maximum pressure above which no gas can be formed regardless of
temperature.
x Critical point — the state of pressure and temperature at which all intensive properties of
the gas and liquid phases are equal (point C). At the critical point, the corresponding
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pressure and temperature are called the critical pressure p, and critical temperature T, of
the mixture.
2.1.3 Classification of reservoirs
The pressure-temperature diagrams can be used to classify types of reservoirs, classify

reservoir fluids, and predict the phase change of the reservoir fluid when the pressure and
temperature of the fluid system change. As an example, Figure 2.5 is used to show the
relatively different locations of the points which representing the reservoir conditions of
different oil or gas reservoirs (Craft et al., 1991).
Figure 2.5 Pressure –temperature phase diagram for classifying reservoir fluids
(Craft et al., 1991)
If the reservoir temperature is lower than the critical temperature of the reservoir fluid, the
reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir. Depending on the initial reservoir pressure, oil
reservoirs can be classified into undersaturated, saturated, and gas-cap oil reservoirs:
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x Undersaturated oil reservoir ʊ the initial reservoir pressure is greater than the
bubblepoint pressure of the reservoir fluid. Initially there are two phases in the
undersaturated oil reservoirs: oil and water.
x Saturated oil reservoir ʊ the initial reservoir pressure is equal to the bubble-point
pressure of the reservoir fluid. Initially there are two phases in the undersaturated oil
reservoirs: oil and water.
x Gas-cap reservoir ʊthe initial reservoir pressure is below the bubblepoint pressure
of the reservoir fluid. There is a gas cap above the oil formation in this type of
reservoirs. The liquid quality line gives the ratio of the gas-cap volume to reservoir
oil volume.
If the reservoir temperature is higher than the critical temperature of the reservoir fluid, the
reservoir is classified as a gas reservoir. Initially gas reservoirs contains gas and water phase
and there is no liquid hydrocarbon phase. Therefore, the location of the point representing the
initial reservoir pressure and temperature is on the right hand side of the phase diagram and
outside of the two-phase region. Gas reservoirs can be classified into retrograde, wet, and dry
gas reservoirs:
x 5HWURJUDGH JDV UHVHUYRLU ʊ initially gas is in one phase state and the reservoir
temperature exceeds the critical temperature. During production, reservoir pressure
declines and will reach dew point pressure. At dew point a liquid condenses out of the
reservoir fluid as fog or dew. The process of retrograde condensation continues until a
point of maximum liquid volume is reached.
x Wet-gas reservoir ʊ RULJLQDOO\ VLQJH JDV SKDVH DQG SURGXFHG JDV KDYH WKH VDPH
composition as the gas in the reservoir. As the gas enters surface separators, it may
fall into the two-phase region due to the temperature decline.
x 'U\ JDV UHVHUYRLU ʊ RULJLQDOO\ VLQJH JDV SKDVH and produced gas have the same
composition as the gas in the reservoir, even as it enters surface separators.
2.1.4 Five types of reservoirs (reservoir fluids)
Generally, five types of reservoir fluids are defined based on the location of the point
representing the initial reservoir conditions (pressure and temperature) with respect to the
pressure-temperature diagram of the reservoir fluid. They are black oil, volatile oil,
retrograde gas, wet gas, and dry gas. These classifications are essentially based upon the
properties of the reservoir fluids, including physical properties, composition, gas-oil ratio,
appearance, and pressure-temperature phase diagrams. The major physical properties of the
five types of reservoir fluids are summarized in Table 2.1 (McCain, 1990).
Black oil ʊA typical pressure-temperature phase diagram for black oil is shown in Figure
2.6. The quality lines are approximately equally spaced.
Volatile oil ʊThe phase diagram for a volatile crude oil is given in Figure 2.7. The quality
lines are close together near the bubblepoint and are more widely spaced at lower pressures.
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This type of crude oil is commonly characterized by a high liquid shrinkage immediately
below the bubble-point.
Retrograde gas (Condensate gas) ʊ In this type of gas reservoir, the initial reservoir
pressure is above the upper dew-point pressure, the hydrocarbon system exists as a single
phase. As the reservoir pressure declines isothermally during production from the initial
pressure to the upper dewpoint pressure, some heavy components begins to condense as
shown in Figure 2.8. This retrograde condensation process continues with decreasing
pressure until the liquid dropout reaches its maximum. Further reduction in pressure permits
the heavy molecules to commence the normal vaporization process.
Wet gas ʊ 7KH reservoir temperature is above the cricondentherm of the hydrocarbon
mixture. The reservoir fluid will always remain in the vapor phase region as the reservoir is
depleted isothermally. As the produced gas flows to the surface, however, the pressure and
temperature of the gas will decline to enter the two-phase region and a liquid phase will
condense out of the gas (see Figure 2.9).
Dry gas ʊ The gas mixture exists as a gas both in the reservoir and in the surface separators
as shown in Figure 2.10.
Figure 2.6 Typical phase diagram of black oil
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Figure 2.7 Typical phase diagram of volatile oil
Figure 2.8 Typical phase diagram of retrograde gas
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Fig. 2.9 Typical phase diagram of wet gas Fig. 2.10 Phase diagram of dry gas
Table 2.1 The five types reservoir fluids (Defined with reference to phase behaviour)
Name Black oil Volatile Retrograde Wet gas Dry gas

oil gas
Field Identification
GOR (scf/STB) 2,000 or 2,000- 3,300- >50,000
less 3,300 150,000 (constant)
not well
defined
Specific gravity 45 40 or 40-60 40-60
(qAPI) higher (constant)
Color Very dark Brown Light colored Water-white
Black Orange Brown
Greenish Green Orange
or brown Greenish
Water-white
Laboratory Analysis
Bo (bbl/STB) < 2.0 2.0 or
higher
C7+ (mole%) > 20% 12.5-20% < 12.5%
Shrinkage <1/2 1/ 2 -3/4
Shows a dew Gas
point when P reservoir
is reduced No liquid
formed
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2.1.5 Composition Diagrams
In addition to plotting pressure-temperature and pressure-volume diagrams, pressure-

composition diagrams are also used for phase behavior analysis. Figure 2.11 shows a typical
pressure-composition diagram for a two component mixture at a single temperature. Area
above the envelope indicates conditions of pressure and compositions at which the mixture is
completely liquid. Area below the envelope indicates conditions at which the mixture is gas.
Conditions in envelope indicate that the mixture exists in two phases, gas and liquid. The
bubble-point line is also the locus of compositions of the liquid when two phases are present.
The dew-point line is the locus of compositions of the gas phase. The tie line ties the
composition of the liquid with the composition of gas in equilibrium.
Liquid
2 1 3
Bubblepoint line
Dewpoint line
Gas
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0
Composition, mole fraction of component A
Figure 2.11 Pressure-composition diagram of a two-component mixture
Ternary phase diagrams are used to show the phase behavior of three component mixtures. In
petroleum engineering, ternary diagrams are commonly used for three pseudo-component
systems: light, intermediate, and heavy components. A ternary diagram displays the phase
change with the composition of the three components at a constant pressure and temperature.
Figure 2.12 shows a ternary diagram without a phase envelope. The following is the
summary of the points of the diagram:
x $SH[ʊEach apex of the triangle corresponds to 100% of a single component.
x 6LGHʊEach side of the triangle represents two-component mixtures.
x Points within the triangle ʊ represent three-component mixtures. Composition is
usually plotted in terms of mole fraction or mole percent.
x 0L[LQJ SDWKʊ )RU H[DPSOH /ine 12 represents the compositions of all mixtures
formed by the addition of component B to the original mixture of components A and
C.
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Figure 2.13 shows a typical three-component phase diagram of methane, propane, and n-
pentane. Methane is the lightest component and is plotted at the top. Gas phase region is in
the methane side and liquid phase region is along the bottom of the diagram close to the
heavy components. Equilibrium tie-lines are straight but not horizontal determined
experimentally.
Figure 2.14 shows a ternary phase diagram with a mixing path of the first- contact miscibility.
Figure 2.12. Ternary phase

diagram
Figure 2.13 Ternary phase

diagram with two-phase envelope
and tie lines
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Figure 2.14 Ternary phase diagram with a mixing path of the first-contact miscibility
2.2 Gas Properties

2.2.1 Ideal and Real Gas Laws (z-factor)
Before discussing gas properties, the most important two equations of state are reviewed.
They are ideal gas, Equation 2.1, and real gas law, Equation 2.1, for describe the pressure-
volume-temperature (PVT) behavior of gases.
PV = nRT (2.1)
PV = znRT (2.2)
where
p - absolute pressure
V - volume
n - moles
T - absolute temperature
R - the gas constant
Units: p - psia, V - ft3, n - lb-moles, T – Ro (Rankine) , R = 10.73

p - atm, V - cm3, n - g-moles, T – K (Kelvin), R = 82.05
Ro = 460 + oF
K = 273.15 + oC
Standard conditions: 14.7 psia and 60°F.
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Volume of gas at standard conditions: SCF (standard cubic feet), MSCF (1000 standard
cubic feet), MMSCF.
Compressibility factor z (gas deviation factor) – a measure of the deviation from the ideal
behavior. It is a dimensionless quantity and varies usually between 0.70 and 1.20.
Definition of the gas deviation factor:

Vactual
z (2.3)
Videal
Where Vactual is the actual gas volume and Vieal is the volume calculated form Ideal Gas Law.
It has been found that for all pure gases have the same z-factor at the same values of reduced
pressure and reduced temperature. Figure 2.15 gives the z-factors of pure hydrocarbon gases
as a function of reduced temperature and reduced pressure. Reduced temperature and reduced
pressure are defined as:
T P
Tr and Pr (2.4)
Tc Pc
Where Tc and Pc are critical temperature and critical pressure, respectively.
Fig. 2.15 z-factor of pure gases as a

function of reduced temperature and
reduced pressure (Brown et al., 1947)
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For gas mixtures with known composition, z-factors can be found from Figure 2.16 with
calculated pseudoreduced temperature and pseudoreduced pressure. For gas mixtures,
pseudo-critical properties are calculated as:
T pc ¦y T
j
j cj and Ppc ¦y P j
j cj (2.5)
Pseudoreduced temperature and pseudoreduced pressure are calculated as:

T P
T pr and Ppr (2.6)
T pc Ppc
Fig. 2.16 z-factor of natural gas as a function of reduced temperature and reduced pressure
(Standing and Katz, 1942)
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Specific Gravity
Density of a ideal gasȡg, at a given temperature and pressure:

pM w
Ug , (2.7)
RT
where Mw is the molecular weight of the gas.
Specific gravity - the ratio of the density of a gas at a given temperature and pressure to the
density of air at the same temperature and pressure (usually 14.7 psia and 60°F).
Ug
Jg (2.8)
U air
The specific gravity of a ideal gas (at standard conditions):
pM w
Ug RT Mw § M ·
Jg ¨ or w ¸
U air p x 28.97 28.97 © 29 ¹
R' T
If the composition of the gas mixture is not know, the pseudoreduced pressure and
pseudoreduced temperature can be determined from its specific gravity by using a correlation
developed by Sutton (1985). The correlation is shown in Figure 2.17.
Figure 2.17 Pseudo-properties of natural gases (Sutton, 1985)
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The equations of the two curves in Figure 2.17 are:
ppc = 756.8 – Ȗg -Ȗ2g (2.6)
Tpc Ȗg -Ȗ2g (2.7)
Natural gases commonly contain CO2 and H2S. The presence of these non-hydrocarbon gases
can cause large errors in z-factor obtained by the methods previously discussed. An
adjustment factor for pseudoreduced properties is developed as a function of mole fraction of
CO2 and H2S in the gas mixture (Wichert and Aziz, 1972):
İ $0.9 – A1.6) + 15(B0.5 – B4) (2.8)

where
A - sum of the mole fractions of CO2 and H2S in the gas mixture
B - mole fraction of H2S in the gas mixture
The modified pseudoproperties are given by:
T’pc = Tpc – İ (2.9)

P’pc = ppcT’pc/[Tpc + B(1-%İ@ (2.10)
2.2.2 Gas Formation Volume Factor, Bg (FVF)
Gas formation volume factor is the ratio of the gas volume in the reservoir to the gas volume
on the surface (i.e, at standard conditions).
Volume of gas in the reservoir

Bg
Volume of gas on the surface
or
VR
Bg (2.11)
VSC
Assuming a z-factor of unity for the standard conditions, the gas formation volume factor at
reservoir pressure p and temperature T is:
p SC zT
Bg
TSC p
zT
0.02829 cu ft / SCF (2.12)
p
zT
0.00504 bbl / SCF
p
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2.2.3 Gas Isothermal Compressibility, cg
Gas volume change with pressure under isothermal conditions is called gas isothermal
compressibility:
1 § wVg ·
cg ¨ ¸
Vg ¨© wp ¸¹T
(2.13)
Applying the equation of state (Eq. 2.2) gives:
1 1 § wz ·
cg ¨ ¸
p z ¨© wp ¸¹T
(2.14)
For an ideal gas, z = 1.0 and dz/dp = 0 , the compressibility is the reciprocal of the pressure.
That is:
1
cg (for ideal gas) (2.15)
p
For real gases, cg is a function of both pressure and z-factor.
x At low pressures, the z-factor decreases as pressure increases (see Figure 2.18). dz/dp
is negative and cg is larger than in the case of an ideal gas.
x At high pressures, the z-factor increase with pressure (see Figure 2.18). dz/dp is
positive and cg is less than in the case of an ideal gas.
Fig 2.18 Gas compressibility of gas deviation factor versus pressure (Craft,
Hawkins, and Terry, 1991)
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2.3 Reservoir Oil Properties

2.3.1 Specific Gravity and API Gravity
Oil specific JUDYLW\Ȗo, is defined as the ratio of the density of the oil to the density of water,
both taken at the same temperature and pressure, mostly at standard conditions.
Uo
Jo
Uw (2.16)
API gravity is defined as:

141.5
o
API 131.5 (2.17)
Jo
wKHUHȖo is the specific gravity of the oil at standard conditions.
2.3.2 Solution Gas-Oil Ratio, Rso
Crude oils in reservoirs contain some natural gas components. They are mainly methane and
ethane with some propane and butanes. At initial reservoir conditions, they stay in oil phase
or in solution. As reservoir pressure is decreased to bubblepoint pressure owing to
production, these gas components start to evolve out of oil phase or solution to form gas
phase. Therefore, these gas components in oil phase are called solution gases. Solution gas –
oil ratio of a crude oil is defined as:
Rso = Solution gas volume measured at standard conditions (SCF) (2.18)

Stock tank oil volume (STB)
The solubility of natural gas in crude oil depends on depends on the pressure, temperature,
and the composition of the gas and the crude oil:
x The quantity of solution gas increases with pressure.

x The quantity of solution gas decreases with temperature.
x The quantity of solution gas increases as the compositions of the gas and crude oil
approach each other.
Saturated oil: An oil is said to be saturated with gas if on a slight reduction in pressure some
gas is released from solution.
Undersaturated oil: if no gas is released from solution as pressure is reduced, the crude oil is
said to be undersaturated. Figure 2.19 shows the typical change of solution gas-oil ratio with
pressure from a undersaturated oil reservoir.
Determination of Rso
x Laboratory analysis with reservoir fluids
x Estimation using correlations
o Charts
o Correlations
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Figure 2.19 Typical change of solution gas-oil

ratio of an undersaturated oil as a function of
pressure at constant reservoir temperature
2.3.3 Bubblepoint Pressure (pb)
Bubblepoint pressure pb of a crude oil is the pressure below which two phases coexist and
some solutions gas bubbles out of the oil.
x Dramatic changes in some oil properties occur at pb.
x It is important to know the bubblepoint pressure of a reservoir or crude oil.
x pb can be determined experimentally or calculated using correlations.
Figure 2.20 Phase change of oil at

bubblepoint pressure
2.3.4 Formation Volume Factor of Oil, Bo (FVF)
The formation volume factor of oil at any pressure is defined as the volume in barrels that
one stock tank barrel with solution gas occupies in the reservoir at reservoir conditions. That
is:
Bo = Volume of reservoir fluid (STO + solution gas) at reservoir conditions

Volume of oil entering stock tank at standard conditions
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VR
or Bo (2.19)
Vsc
As shown in Figure 2.21, because the solution gas will leave the oil at the surface, the oil
volume generally shrinks as it is moved from reservoir conditions to surface conditions.
Therefore, the formation volume factor will always be greater than 1.0.
The reciprocal of FVF is called Shrinkage factor:

1
bo (2.20)
Bo
The formation volume factor multiplied by the stock tank volume gives the oil volume in
reservoir and the reservoir volume divided by the formation volume factor or multiplied by
the shrinkage factor gives the stock tank oil volume. Figure 2.22 shows the change of oil
formation volume factor with reservoir pressure for an undersaturated oil reservoir.
Figure 2.21 Oil volume change as

produced to surface conditions
Figure 2.22 Typical change of oil formation

volume factor of an undersaturated oil as a
function of pressure at constant reservoir
temperature
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2.3.5 Total oil formation volume factor, Bt (Two-phase formation volume factor)
In the material balance equations which will be discussed in Chapters 4 and 5, total oil
formation volume factors are frequently used for convenience. The total oil formation
volume factor is defined as the volume in barrels of one stock tank barrel oil and its initial
dissolved gas occupies at any pressure and reservoir temperature. This definition is explained
schematically in Figure 2.23.
Figure 2.23 Schematic of total

oil formation volume factor
Bto is calculated as:
Bt = Bo + Bg(Rsoi – Rso) (2.21)
The calculation of Bt using Equation 2.21 can be explained as follows (see figure for this
equation):
x The system contains one barrel of stock tank oil plus its dissolved gas.
x The volume of oil at the lower pressure is Bo.
x The quantity of gas evolved is equal to the values of Rsoi – Rso, measured at
standard conditions.
x The volume of free gas at lower pressure reservoir conditions is equal to the value
of Bg(Rsoi – Rso).
x The total volume at lower pressure is equal to the total oil formation volume
factor, Bt.
x Above or at the bubble-point, Rsoi = Rso, Bt = Bo.
x Below the bubble point, Bo decreases and (Rsoi – Rso) increases as pressure
decreases, two-phase factor increases.
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Figure 2.24 gives a comparison of total formation volume factor with the formation volume
factor of oil. The two factors are identical at pressures above the bubblepoint pressure
because there is no gas is released to form gas phase in the reservoir. At pressures below
bubblepoint pressure, the volume of gas, Bg(Rsoi – Rso), in the reservoir expands with
decreasing pressure and, therefore, Bto increases steeply as pressure decreases.
Figure 2.24 Comparison of Bo and Bt of an undersaturated oil
Example of calculation of Bt
Knowns:
x Based on 1STB
x Initial solution gas = 567 SCF
x At 1200 psia and 160°F the liberated gas has a deviation factor of 0.890
x liquid phase shrinks to 1.210 bbl at 1200 psia
x At 1200 psia Rso = 337 SCF/STB
Solution:
The gas volume factor with reference to standard conditions
Bg = 0.02829 zT/p = 0.02829x 0.890 x 620/1200
= 0.01300 cu ft/SCF
= 0.002316 bbl/SCF
Rsoi – Rso = 567 – 337 = 230
Vg = Bg(Rsi – Rso) = 230 x 0.002316 = 0.5326 bbl
Bo = 1.210 bbl/STB
Bt = 1.210 + 0.002316 (567 - 337)
= 1.210 + 0.533 = 1.743 bbl/STB
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2.3.6 Isothermal Compressibility of Oil, co
Similar with the definition of gas isothermal compressibility, oil isothermal compressibility is
defined as:
1 § wV ·
co ¨¨ o ¸¸ (2.22)
Vo © wp ¹T
The oil isothermal compressibility is the fractional change in volume of an oil as pressure at
constant temperature. Because dV/dp is negative, the negative sign in the equation converts
the compressibility to a positive number. Figure 2.25 shows the relationship of oil
compressibility to pressure for typical black oil. co generally changes with pressure.
However, for black oils average compressibilities can be estimated using the following
equation:
1 V1 V2
co (2.23)
V p1 p2
The reference V in Equation 2.23 can be V1, V2, or the average of the two.
Oil compressibility coefficient can be expressed in terms of FVF:
1 § wBo ·
co ¨ ¸
Bo ¨© wp ¸¹T
(2.24)
Figure 2.25 Typical change of oil

isothermal compressibility of black oil as a
function of reservoir pressure
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2.3.7 Liquid-Gas Ratio of Vapor Phase, Rv
For natural gases and some gas cap gas which contain some condensates in them, as pressure
decreases, liquid condensate forms. The liquid-gas ration of vapor phase is defined as:
Rv = Stock tank liquid volume (STB) (2.25)

Gas volume measured at standard conditions (SCF)
2.3.8 Viscosity of Oil
Oil viscosity appears in Darcy’s law for oil phase flow. It is a measure of the resistance to
flow exerted by oil. The viscosity of reservoir oil is affected by pressure, temperature, and
the content of solution gas in it. Figure 2.26 shows a typical curve of reservoir oil viscosity
with reservoir pressure:
x Above bubble point, viscosity decreases with decreasing pressure.

x Below bubble point, viscosity increases with pressure owing to the release of solution
gas.
The viscosity of oil under reservoir conditions is commonly measured in the laboratory.
Correlations have been developed for both above and below the bubble-point pressure.
Figure 2.26 Oil viscosity change with reservoir pressure
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Reservoir Fluid Studies (PVT Studies, Phase Behavior Studies)
Laboratory reservoir fluid studies provide values of physical properties of oil and gas
required in material balance calculation and reservoir simulation. These physical properties
include:
x Bubble point pressure

x Formation volume factor of oil
x Solution gas-oil ratio
x Total formation volume factor
x Coefficient of isothermal compressibility of oil
x Oil viscosity
x z- factor of gas
x Formation volume factor of gas
x Gas viscosity
x Solubility of gas in oil as a function of pressure
The reservoir fluid study consists of five major tests. They are
x Composition measurement
x Constant composition expansion (CCE) test
x Differential-libration (DL) test
x Separator flash test
x Oil viscosity measurement
2.4.1 Compositions
The compositions of crude oils are analyzed by using simulated distillation method. This
method now is a well established technique for characterizing fractions of crude oils which
have a wide range of boiling point distribution. A fraction of oil is assumed to have the
similar properties as a normal alkane of the same boiling point. However, it is not possible to
characterize every fraction of crude oil. The heavy components in the residue of the
simulated distillation are grouped together in a plus component, such as C7+, C20+, or C35+.
Table 2.2 shows the composition of a crude oil determined form simulated distillation.
25

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Table 2.2 Composition of a crude oil determined form simulated distillation

(Dong et al., 2000)
26

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2.4.2 Constant composition expansion test (CCE)
Constant composition expansion test is schematically shown in Figure 2.27 and the
procedures are as follows:
x A sample of reservoir fluid is placed in a PVT cell and pressure is brought to or

greater than initial reservoir pressure.
x Temperature is set at reservoir temperature.
x Pressure is reduced by increasing the cell volume in increments.
x No gas or liquid is removed from the cell.
x Pressure-volume relationship is determined.
Data produced from constant composition tests can be used to calculate bubblepoint pressure
(see Figure 2.28), oil compressibilities and oil formation volume factors at pressures above
bubblepoint pressure.
Fig. 2.27 Constant composition

expansion test
Figure 2.28 Determination of bubble point pressure

from data of constant composition expansion test
27

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2.4.3 Differential liberation test (DL)
Figure 2.29 shows a schematic diagram of differential libration test. The procedure of the test
includes:
x A sample of reservoir fluid is placed in a PVT cell and pressure is brought to bubble
point pressure.
x Temperature is set at reservoir temperature.
x Pressure is reduced by increasing the cell volume in steps.
x At each pressure step, all the free gas is expelled for the cell while the pressure in the
cell is held constant by reducing the cell volume.
x Gas is collected and its properties are measured. Liquid volume in cell and liquid
properties are measured.
Data produced from differential libration tests can be used to calculate, gas compressibilities,
oil compressibilities and oil formation volume factors at pressures below bubblepoint
pressure.
Figure 2.29 Procedure of differential libration test
28

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2.4.4 Separator flash test
Separator test is conducted as follows:

x A sample of reservoir fluid is placed in a PVT cell and brought to bubble point
pressure and reservoir temperature.
x Pressure is reduced to separator pressure and the liquid is expelled to stock tank (for
two-stage separation).
x Stock tank oil and standard gas volumes are collected.
Figure 2.30 is a schematic diagram of separator test. From this test, the solution gas-oil ratio
of oil is determined. The formation volume factor of oil at bubblepoint pressure from
separator test is also used in solution gas and formation volume factors of the oil at other
pressure in combination with CCE or DL test.
Figure 2.30 Procedure of separator flash test
2.4.5 Calculation of Rso and Bo
For p > pb, use the data from CCE and separator flash tests.
Bo Vr BoSb (2.26)
Rso RsSb (2.27)
29

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For p < pb, use the data from DL and separator flash tests.
BoSb
Bo BoD (2.28)
BoDb
ª B º
Rso RsSb «RsDb RsD oSb » (2.29)
¬ BoDb ¼
where
BoD = relative oil volume by differential libration
BoDb = relative oil volume at bubble point by differential libration
BoSb = formation volume factor at bubble point from separator test
Vr = (Vt/Vb)C, relative total volume (oil and gas) by constant composition
expansion
RsD = gas oil ratio remaining in solution by differential libration
RsDb = gas oil ratio at bubble point (and above) by differential libation
RsSb = sum of gas oil ratios from separator gas and stock-tank gas from separator
flash test
2.5 Equations of State

2.5.1 van der Waal’s EOS (1873) (Two constant EOS)
Van der Waal’s equation of one the earliest attempts to represent the real gas P-V-T behavior.
He proposed the following P-V-T relationship:
§ a ·
¨ p 2 ¸Vm b RT (2.30)
¨ Vm ¸¹
©
a
where 2
is used to correct pressure for the forces of attraction between molecules.
Vm
b is used to correct the molar volume.
Discussion:
x An improvement over ideal gas law
x Accurate at low pressures
x The idea has been used by many researchers to develop EOS.
x Two-constant EOS
It is also called Cubic Equation of state ( a, b, R ):
30

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§ RT · 2 § a · ab
Vm ¨¨ b ¸¸Vm ¨¨ ¸¸Vm
3
0 (2.31)
© p ¹ © p¹ p
Equations of State at the Critical Point
At critical pointy C:
§ wp · § w2 p ·
¨¨ ¸¸ 0 and ¨¨ 2 ¸¸ 0 (2.32)
© wVm ¹Tc © wVm ¹Tc
At critical point C, van der Waal’s Equation can be written as:
§ a ·
¨ pc ¸V b RTc
2 ¸ mc
¨ (2.33)
© Vmc ¹
Rearranging Equation 2.33 gives:
RTc a
pc (2.34)
Vmc b Vmc 2
Apply Equations (2.32) to (2.33) and (2.34):
§ wp · RTc 2a
¨¨ ¸¸ 0 (2.35)
w
© m ¹Tc
V Vmc b Vmc 3
2
§ w2 p · 2 RTc 6a
¨ ¸ 0 (2.36)
¨ wV 2 ¸ Vmc b Vmc 4
3
© m ¹Tc
Solving (2.35) and (2.36) gives expressions of constants a and b:
2
27 R 2Tc RTc
a and b (2.37)
64 pc 8 pc
The constants a and b in van der Waal’s equation for different gases are different because the
critical properties change from gas to gas.
After van der Waal’s equation, there have been many equations of state proposed in the
“spirit of van der Waals”. The same method as discussed in this section can be used to
obtained constants in other equations of state.
31

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2.5.2 Most Recent Equations of State

Two popularly accepted equations of state which are widely used in petroleum industry are
introduced in this section. They are Soave-Redlish-Kwong (SRK) and Peng-Robinson (P-R)
equations.
Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) Equation of State
ª º
» Vm b RT
aT
«p
Vm Vm b ¼
(2.38)
¬
aT acD
RTc
b 0.08664
pc
2
R 2Tc
ac 0.42747
pc (2.39)
1
D 2 1 m§¨1 Tr 2 ·¸
1
© ¹
m 0.480 1.574Z 0.176Z 2
Z log pvr 1 at Tr 0.7
Peng-Robinson Equation of State
ª º
» Vm b RT
aT
«p
¬ Vm Vm b b Vm b ¼
(2.40)
aT acD
RTc
b 0.07780
pc
2
R 2Tc
ac 0.45724 (2.41)
pc
1
1 m§¨1 Tr 2 ·¸
1
D 2
© ¹
m 0.37464 1.54226Z 0.26992Z 2
32

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Mixing rules
For gas mixtures, the following mixing rules are recommended for using both Soave-
Redlish-Kwong (SRK) and Peng-Robinson (P-R) equations.
b ¦y b
j
j j and aT ¦¦ y y a
i j
i j Tij (2.42)
1 G a Ti aTj
1
aTij ij
2 (2.43)
¦¦ yi y j aTi aTj 2 1 G ij
1
aT (2.44)
i j
G ij - binary interaction coefficients
33

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering (University of Calgary)

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

2.1 Phase Diagrams and Classification of Reservoirs in Reference of Phase

2.1.1 Pressure – temperature phase diagram of pure substances

Figure 2.1 Typical pressure-temperature phase diagram of a pure substance

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

2.1.2 Pressure – temperature phase diagram of mixtures

Pressure-temperature diagram of two-component mixtures

Figure 2.3 Pressure-volume diagram of a mixture.

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Pressure-temperature diagram of multi-component mixtures

Figure 2.4 Typical pressure-temperature diagram of a multi-component mixture

Figure 2.4 shows a typical pressure-temperature diagram of multi-component mixture. P-T

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

2.1.3 Classification of reservoirs

The pressure-temperature diagrams can be used to classify types of reservoirs, classify

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

2.1.4 Five types of reservoirs (reservoir fluids)

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 2.6 Typical phase diagram of black oil

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 2.7 Typical phase diagram of volatile oil

Figure 2.8 Typical phase diagram of retrograde gas

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Name Black oil Volatile Retrograde Wet gas Dry gas

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

2.1.5 Composition Diagrams

In addition to plotting pressure-temperature and pressure-volume diagrams, pressure-

Composition, mole fraction of component A

Figure 2.11 Pressure-composition diagram of a two-component mixture

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 2.12. Ternary phase

Figure 2.13 Ternary phase

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

2.2 Gas Properties

Units: p - psia, V - ft3, n - lb-moles, T – Ro (Rankine) , R = 10.73

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Definition of the gas deviation factor:

Fig. 2.15 z-factor of pure gases as a

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Pseudoreduced temperature and pseudoreduced pressure are calculated as:

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Density of a ideal gasȡg, at a given temperature and pressure:

ppc = 756.8 – Ȗg -Ȗ2g (2.6)

Tpc Ȗg -Ȗ2g (2.7)

İ $0.9 – A1.6) + 15(B0.5 – B4) (2.8)