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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering (University of Calgary)
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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong
Chapter 4
Oil Reservoirs – Recovery Mechanisms and Material Balance Equations
There are two objectives of this chapter: 1) to discuss the various primary recovery
mechanisms and their effects on the overall performance of oil reservoirs; 2) to learn the
material balance equations and use them to predict the volumetric performance of different
oil reservoirs.
4.1 Reservoir Recovery Processes
4.1.1 Primary production

In primary production oil is displaced to the production well by natural reservoir energy.
There are basically six driving mechanisms that provide the natural reservoir energy for oil
recovery:
x Fluid and rock expansion
x Solution gas drive
x Gas cap drive
x Water drive
x Gravity drainage drive
x Combination drive
4.1.2 Secondary Recovery (Waterflooding)

In second recovery or waterflood, water is injected into the reservoir formation to maintain
the reservoir pressure and to displace oil. The water from injection wells physically sweeps
the displaced oil to adjacent production wells as shown in Figure 4.1. Water flooding is the
least expensive and the most widely used secondary recovery method. However,
waterflooding can only recovery a small portion of the oil in place which is dependent on
properties of the oil and the reservoir. Potential problems associated with waterflood
techniques include:
x Inefficient recovery.
Recovery of primary production and waterflooding in different reservoirs are:
Heavy oil ~ 5-10% IOIP or OOIP (Initial or original oil in place)
Medium oil ~ 15%
Light oil ~ 25 –35%
x Early water breakthrough and high water cut
x Low oil production rate
Main reasons for low oil recovery by waterflood include:
x Oil viscosity too high

x Heterogeneity of the porous formation (low sweeping efficiency)
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x Trapping of oil by capillary forces
Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of waterflood
4.1.3 Tertiary Oil Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery)
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) is a generic term of techniques for increasing the recovery of
crude oil after waterflood. Using EOR, 30-60 %, or more, of the reservoir's original oil in
place can be recovered compared with 20-40% using primary and secondary recovery.
Enhanced oil recovery methods can be classified into:
Immiscible gas injection (Natural gas, flue gas, nitrogen, CO2)

Mechanisms:
x Vaporizing the light components
x Gas drive
x Viscosity reduction
x Enhanced gravity drainage in dipping reservoirs
x WAG injection (water-alternating –gas)
As an example, Figure 4.2 shows the process of miscible CO2 injection.
Miscible gas injection (CO2, hydrocarbons /solvents, flue gas)
Mechanisms:
x Generate miscibility
x Swell the oil
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x Reduce oil viscosity

x Enhance gravity drainage
Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of CO2 injection for EOR
Chemical Floodings
Polymer flooding Increasing water viscosity

Surfactant flooding Reducing capillary pressure
Alkaline flooding NaOH (or Na2CO3) reacting with natural organic acids to
produce in-situ surfactant
Surfactant – polymer flooding
Alkaline – polymer flooding
Alkaline-surfactant-polymer flooding (ASP)
Mechanisms:
x Lowering oil-water interfacial tension
x Solubilization of oil in some micellar systems
x Emulsification of oil and water
x Wettability alternation
x Mobility enhancement
Figure 4.3 Surfactant flooding
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Thermal recovery
Steam drive
Cyclic steam injection (steam huff ‘n’ puff or CSS)
Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD)
Mechanisms:
x Viscosity reduction
x Supplying pressure to drive oil to the producing wells or gravity drainage
In-situ combustion (air injection)

Mechanisms:
x Lowering viscosity
x Steam distillation
x Upgrading
4.2 Drive Mechanisms (Primary production)
Water drive
Energy available from free water in the reservoir to move the hydrocarbon out of the
reservoir. Water drive reservoirs can have bottom-water drive (Figure 4.4) or edgewater drive
(Figure 4.5).
Figure 4.4 Bottom-water

drive reservoir
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Figure 4.5 Edgewater drive reservoir
Gas drive
There are two types of gas drives:
x Solution gas drive (dissolved gas drive) Light hydrocarbon components in the oil
become gaseous when the reservoir pressure is decreased. Gas evolution and
expansion will take more pore space and push oil out of the formation through
production well (Figure 4.6).
x Gas cap drive In some reservoirs, there is a gas cap on the top of the oil layer in
equilibrium with the oil layer. When the reservoir pressure is reduced, the pressure of
the compressed gas in the gas cap expands and pushes the oil downward to
production well (Figure 4.7).
Figure 4.6 Solution gas drive reservoir
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Figure 4.7 Gas-cap dive reservoir
Combination drive
More than one drive can work in a reservoir at the same time, such as:
x Gas cap and bottom water
x Solution gas and bottom water
Gravity drainage ʊ*UDYLW\GUDLQDJHPD\EHDSULPDU\SURGXFLQJPHFKDQLVPLQWKLFN

reservoirs that have a good vertical communication in steep dipping reservoirs. However, it is
a slow process (Figure 4.8).
Figure 4.8 Gravity drive reservoir
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4.3 General Material Balance Equation

General material balance equation can be applied to all reservoir types. General material
balance equation can provide insight for different reservoir drives. The purpose of material
balance is to predict how these fluids behave in the reservoir as reservoir pressure declines.
Major volume changes in fluids includes:

x Oil, gas, and water production
x Remaining oil and gas expansion
x Water influx
Other volume changes include water and formation compressibilities:

x Water and formation compressibilities are less significant in
o gas reservoirs
o gas cap reservoirs
o undersaturated oil reservoirs below Pb (there is appreciable gas saturation)
x Water and formation compressibilities are generally neglected in above reservoirs,
except in undersaturated reservoirs producing above the bubble point.
In the derivation of the general material balance equation, the changes in the oil, gas, water,
and rock volumes that occur between the start of production and any time t are considered.
The change in the rock volume is expressed as a change in the pore volume, which is simply
the negative of the change of the rock volume.
In the development of the general material balance equation, the following symbols are used:
N Initial reservoir oil, STB
Np Cumulative produced oil, STB
Boi Initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bo Oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bt Total oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bgi Initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
Bg Gas formation volume factor, bbl/SCF
Bw Water formation volume factor, bbl/STB
G Initial reservoir gas, SCF
Gf Amount of free gas in the reservoir, SCF
Rsoi Initial solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rso Solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rp Cumulative produced gas-oil ratio at time t, SCF/STB
W Initial reservoir water, bbl
Wp Cumulative produced water, STB
We Water influx into reservoir, bbl
cw Water isothermal compressibility, psi-1
cf Formation isothermal compressibility, psi -1
'p Change in average reservoir pressure, psi
Swi Initial water saturation
Vf Initial void space, bbl
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The development of the general material balance for oil reservoirs can be best understood by
defining the following terms first:
Oil
NBoi Original (initial) oil volume in place
(expressed at reservoir conditions)
(N-Np)Bo Oil volume in reservoir at time t
NBoi - (N-Np)Bo Change (decrease) in oil volume in reservoir at time t
Gas
GBgi Original (initial) free gas volume in place
GBgi
m Ratio of initial free gas (in gas cap) to the original
NBoi
(initial) oil in place (expressed at reservoir conditions)
Therefore
mNBoi = GBgi = Original (initial) free gas volume in place
ª mNBoi º
« » Original (initial) free gas in place
¬« Bgi ¼»
(expressed at standard conditions)
NRsoi Original solution gas volume

ª mNBoi º
« NRsoi » Original gas (both free and solution) volume in
¬« Bgi ¼»
reservoir (expressed at standard conditions)
Gp N p Rp Cumulative volume of produced gas at time t
N N Rp so Volume of solution gas remaining in oil at time t
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Change in Oil Volume:
Change in Initial reservoir Oil volume

oil volume = oil volume - at p
Oil volume change = NBoi í (NíNp)Bo (reservoir volume) (4.1)
Change in Free Gas Volume:
Define:
Initial reservoir free gas volume GBgi
m (4.2)
Initial reservoir oil volume NBoi
Initial free gas volume = GBgi = mNBoi
Free gas in the reservoir at t =
Initial gas Gas Gas remaining

í í (in SCF)
Free + dissolved produced in solution
ª mNBoi º
Free gas at time t « NRsoi » N p R p N N p Rso (in SCF)
«¬ Bgi »¼
ª mNBoi º
Re servoir free gas volume at time t « NRsoi N p R p N N p Rso » Bg
«¬ Bgi »¼
ª mNBoi º
Change in free gas volume mNBoi « NRsoi N p R p N N p Rso » Bg
«¬ Bgi »¼
(reservoir volume) (4.3)
Change in Water Volume:
Change in water volume =
Water í Water + Water

influx produced expansion
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Change in water volume We W p Bw Wcw 'p (in bbls) (4.4)
Change in the Void Space Volume:
Change in pore space V f c f 'p (4.5)
Initial void space can be expressed as:

NBoi mNBoi
Vf (4.6)
1 S wi
Initial water reservoir volume:
NBoi mNBoi
W V f S wi S wi (4.7)
1 S wi
Combination of the changes in water and rock volumes:
Change in Change in
water + pore
volume volume
NBoi mNBoi NBoi mNBoi

= We W p Bw S wi cw 'p c f 'p
1 S wi 1 S wi
ª cw S wi c f º
= We W p Bw (1 m) NBoi « » 'p (4.8)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
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Equating the changes in the oil and free gas volumes to the negative of the changes in the
water and rock volumes:
+ in
Change = in
Change + + in
Change Change in
oil volume + free gas = water + pore space
volume volume volume
ª mNBoi Bg º
NBoi NBo N p Bo mNBoi « » NRsoi Bg N p R p Bg NBg Rso N p Bg Rso
«¬ Bgi »¼
ªc S c f º
˙ We W p Bw (1 m) NBoi « w wi » 'p (4.9)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
By inserting the definition of Bt
Bt Bo ( Rsoi Rso ) Bg
Equation (4.9) can be simplified to

§ Bg ·
>
N ( Boi Bt ) N p Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg mNBti ¨1
¨ B ¸
¸ @
© gi ¹
ªc S c f º
˙W e W p Bw (1 m) NBoi « w wi » 'p (4.10)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
Rearranging Equation 4.10 gives:
mNBoi ªc S cf º
N ( Bt Boi ) ( Bg Bgi ) (1 m) NBoi « w wi » 'p We
Bgi ¬ 1 S wi ¼
N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw (4.11)
In Equation 4.11, there is the following relation:
[ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] [ Bo ( R p Rso ) Bg ]
Therefore, either term can be used in the calculation depending on the convenience of the
calculation and the availability of the corresponding data.
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Discussion of Eq. (4.11):
The left-hand side of the equation
x The first two terms account for the expansion of any oil and/or gas zones.
x The third term accounts for the change in pore volume, which includes pore space
decrease and expansion of the connate water.
x The fourth term is the amount of water influx that has occurred into the reservoir.
The right-hand side of the equation
x The first term represents the production of oil and gas.

x The second term represents the water production.
The material can only be used when there is pressure and production data as well as PVT
data of the reservoir fluids. Also needed are reservoir rock properties. To aid the analysis, the
type of drive mechanism that motivates the petroleum fluids to be produced should be known.
One key assumption of the material balance method is that the pressure throughout the
reservoir is constant. That is, the pressure and fluid properties are averaged throughout the
entire reservoir.
4.4 Material balance equations for undersaturated oil reservoirs

For undersaturated oil reservoirs:
x Initial reservoir pressure is higher than the bubble point pressure of the oil (no gas cap
or m = 0).
x Free gas develops after p < pb.
x There may be water influx.
The general material balance equation (Equation 4.11) for undersaturated oil reservoirs can
be simplified as:
ªc S cf º
N ( Bt Boi ) NBoi « w wi » 'p We N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw (4.12)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
In equation 4.12 the effect of water and formation commpressibilities are accounted for.
Rearranging Equation 4.12 gives the equation of calculating N (initial oil in place):
N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] We W p Bw
N (4.13)
ªc S cf º
Bt Boi Boi « w wi » 'p
¬ 1 S wi ¼
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Equations 4.12 and 4.13 are general material balance equation for undersaturated oil
reservoirs.
4.4.1 Solution gas drive reservoir
In a solution gas drive reservoir, the major drive mechanism is the expansion of the solution
gas that was originally dissolved in the oil. As shown in Figure 4.9, there are two stages of a
solution gas drive reservoir. In the first stage, the oil is undersaturated (p < pb) and there is no
gas phase in the reservoir. As fluids (oil and water) is produced from the reservoir, the
pressure falls until it reaches and decreases below the bubble point pressure of the reservoir
and some of the dissolved gas comes out of solution to form gas bubbles (gas phase). In this
stage, free gas exists in the reservoir.
Figure 4.9 Two production stages of solution gas reservoir
A schematic of the typical production history of a solution gas drive reservoir is shown in
Figure 4.10. The reason for the slight dip in the produced GOR is because after free gas
forms, the gas saturation has to rise above the critical gas saturation to become mobile in the
reservoir. Later in the process, the produced GOR drops because most of the gas has been
produced from the reservoir.
Figure 4.10 Pressure and produced gas-oil ratio history in a solution gas drive reservoir
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Material Balance @ p > pb
In this case,
x Assume that water influx is zero, We = 0
x All the gas produced at the surface originates from dissolved gas in the oil. there is:
Rso = Rsoi = Rp.
Also, @ p > pb, Bt = Bo and Boi = Bti
The generalized material balance simplifies to:
ªc S c º
N ( Bo Boi ) NBoi « w wi f » 'p N p Bo BwW p (4.14)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
Solve for N:
N p Bo BwW p
N (4.15)
ªc S c º
Bo Boi Boi « w wi f » 'p
¬ 1 S wi ¼
Oil compressibility, co, is often used with the following definition:
vo voi Bo Boi
co (4.16)
voi ( pi p ) Boi 'p
Therefore,
Bo Boi Boi co 'p (4.17)
Expansion of oil is
NBoi
N ( Bo Boi ) NBoi co 'p V f Soco 'p Soco 'p (4.18)
1 S wi
Substituting (4.18) into (4.14) and rearranging gives:
ª co S o c w S wi c f º
NBoi « » 'p N p Bo BwW p (4.19)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
Effective fluid compressibility, ce, is defined as:
co S o cw S wi c f
ce (4.20)
1 S wi
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Eq. (4.19) can be written as
NBoi ce 'p N p Bo BwW p (4.21)

And N is calculated as
N p B o BwW p
N (4.22)
Boi ce 'p
If the water production Wp is negligible:
N p Bo
N (4.23)
ce 'p Boi
The recovery factor is calculated as
Np Boi ce 'p
FR (4.24)
N Bo
In an undersaturated oil reservoir at pressures above bubble point pressure both oil expansion
and water and formation compressibilities contribute to the oil production. Neglecting the
water and formation compressibilities can introduce an error as high as 70% in the estimation
of original oil in place from the production data.
Material balance @ p < pb
In this case, there is no initial gas cap (m = 0), and we will assume that water influx is zero
(We = 0). The gas compressibility is usually a couple orders of magnitude higher than that of
the water and rock. Once appreciable gas saturation has developed in the reservoir, the water
and formation compressibilities are negligible. The generalized material balance simplifies to
N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw
N ,
Bt Bti
which can be written as
N p [ Bo ( R p Rso ) Bg ] W p Bw
N (4.25)
Bo Boi ( Rsoi Rso ) Bg
or
N [( Bo Boi ) ( Rsoi Rso ) Bg ] N p [ Bo ( R p Rso ) Bg ] W p Bw (4.26)
The left hand side of this equation represents the expansion of the oil and originally dissolved
gas; the right hand side represents the production of oil, gas, and water. If water production is
negligible, the recovery factor is:
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Np ( Bo Boi ) ( Rsoi Rso ) Bg

FR (4.27)
N Bo ( R p Roi ) Bg
This relationship reveals that high recovery factors are obtained when the producing GOR,
Rp, is as small as possible. That is, to obtain high recoveries, the production of gas should be
as low as possible or gas retained in the reservoir should be as high as possible.
For undersaturated oil reservoirs without water influx and water production, formulas for
calculating gas and oil saturations can be derived as follows:
Assume: We = 0, Wp = 0.
The liberated gas volume, GL, in the reservoir is the difference between the initial oil in the
reservoir and that remaining at time t:
NBoi
GL S gV p Sg (4.28)
1 S wi
where Sg is the gas saturation and Vpis the pore volume. The librated gas volume in the
reservoir is also given by:
GL NBoi ( N N p ) Bo (4.29)
Combining the above two equations give s the free gas saturation in the reservoir:
§ N ·B
Sg 1 ¨¨1 p ¸¸ o (1 S wi ). (4.30)
© N ¹ Boi
The oil saturation is given by the oil volume remaining at time t divided by the pore volume:
( N N p ) Bo
So (1 S wi ). (4.40)
NBoi
4.4.2 Gas cap drive reservoir
In a gas cap drive reservoir, the drive mechanism arises from the expansion of the gas cap
gas. Figure 4.11 presents a schematic of the gas cap expansion drive mechanism. A
schematic of the typical production history of a gas cap drive reservoir is shown in Figure
4.12.
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Figure 4.11 Production mechanism of gas cap drive reservoir
Figure 4.12 Pressure and produced gas-oil ratio history in a gas cap drive reservoir
Because of the existence of the gas cap, the effect of the water and rock compressibilities is
small. If it is assumed that the water influx is negligible (We = 0), the general material
balance equation is simplified to:
mNBoi
N ( Bt Boi ) ( Bg Bgi ) N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw (4.41)
Bgi
and
N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw
N (4.42)
B Bgi
Bt Boi mBoi g
Bgi
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4.4.3 Water drive reservoir
In a natural water drive reservoir with conditions above the bubble point pressure, the drive
mechanism arises from the expansion of water in an adjacent aquifer and consequent influx
of the water into the oil reservoir. Figure 4.13 presents a schematic of the natural water drive
mechanism. A schematic of the typical production history of a natural water drive
undersaturated oil reservoir is shown in Figure 4.14.
Figure 4.13 Production mechanism of water drive reservoir
Figure 4.14 Pressure, water cut, and produced gas-oil ratio history in a water drive reservoir
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In this case, assuming no initial gas cap and pressure is above the bubble point pressure of
the reservoir, the general material balance equation is simplified as:
ªc S cf º
N ( Bo Boi ) NBoi « w wi » 'p We N p Bo W p Bw (4.43)
¬ 1 S wi ¼
Rearranging Equation 4.43 gives the equation of calculating N (initial oil in place):
N p Bo We Wp Bw
N (4.44)
ªc S cf º
Bo Boi Boi « w wi » 'p
¬ 1 S wi ¼
4.4.4 Combined drive reservoirs
In many reservoirs, two or more drive mechanisms act together to produce a reservoir. In
these types of reservoirs, typically pressure maintenance by injecting gas or water or both
is done to improve the ultimate recovery from the reservoir.
With neglecting the effects from the compressibilities of water and rock, the general material
balance equation can be rearranged to give three fractions, each an index associated with one
of the primary drive mechanisms, that sum to one:
mNBti
( Bg Bgi )
N ( Bt Boi ) Bgi We W p Bw
1 (4.45)
N p [ Bo ( R p Rso ) Bg ] N p [ Bo ( R p Rso ) Bg ] N p [ Bo ( R p Rso ) Bg ]
x The first index is associated with solution gas drive and called the Depletion Drive
Index (DDI);
x The second index is associated with gas cap drive and called the Gas-cap Drive Index
(GDI);
x The third one is associated with natural water drive and called the Water Drive Index
(WDI).
If it is possible to evaluate the three indices, the relative role of each of the drive mechanisms
can be deduced. A decline in the pressure and with growing production GOR would suggest
that the dominant mechanisms are solution gas drive and gas cap drive. This result might
indicate that water injection be done to augment the natural water drive to raise recovery.
Table 4.1 summarizes the characteristics of the three drive mechanisms.
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Table 4.1 Characteristics of solution gas, gas cap, and natural water drive mechanisms
Characteristic Solution gas drive Gas cap drive Natural water drive
Recovery factor, 5-30% 20-40% 35-75%

FR
Reservoir pressure Stage II: Declines slowly Declines slightly
change , p Rapid decline
Stage II:
Less rapid decline
Production GOR, First low then rises to Continuously rises Remains nearly
Rp maximum and them constant and low
falls
Water production, Small or none Small or none Starts small and then
Wp rises to appreciable
amounts
4.5 The Havlena-Odeh Method of Applying the Material Balance Equation

ʊ Straight-Line Method
To obtain reliable results of reservoir drive behavior by applying the material balance
equation, an engineer need to consider each pressure and the corresponding production data
or all the data points. From each separate point, a calculation for a dependent variable is
made. The results of the calculations are sometimes averaged. The Havlena-Odeh method
uses all the data points, with the further requirement that these points must yield solutions to
the material balance equation that behave linearly to obtain values of the independent
variables.
The Havlena-Odeh method begins with the material balance equation written as:
N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw WI GI BIg
mNBoi ªc S cf º
N ( Bt Boi ) ( Bg Bgi ) (1 m) NBoi « w wi » 'p We (4.46)
Bgi ¬ 1 S wi ¼
In Equation 4.46 the three terms WI, the cumulative water injection (in reservoir conditions),
GI, the cumulative gas injection (in standard conditions), and BIg, the formation volume
factor of the injected gas, have been added to Eq. (4.11). Havlena and Odeh defined the
following terms:
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F { N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw WI GI BIg
Eo { Bt Boi
Eg { Bg Bgi
ª c cw S wi º
E fw { « f » 'p
¬ 1 S wi ¼
G
Rp { p
Np
Where F represents the fluids cumulative production, Eo represents the expansion of the oil
and the gas originally dissolved in it, Eg describe the expansion of the gas cap gas, and Efw
captures the expansion of the connate water and rock. Using the above definitions, Equation
4.46 can be rewritten as:
NmBoi
F NEo E g N (1 m) Boi E fw We (4.47)
Bgi
Havlena and Odeh proposed a series of linear plots to determine the original oil or gas in
place from all measured pressure and production data rather than calculating them from
individual data points. The plots can be applied to volumetric (i.e.,no water influx) reservoirs
to determine OOIP and OGIP and to water drive reservoirs to determine aquifer parameters.
Towler (2002) extend these ideas to propose a series of diagnostic plots that not only can
determine OOIP and OGIP but also can diagnose a water drive early in the life of the
reservoir and determine aquifer parameters. These proposed plots are not the same as
Havlena and Odeh's but are based on some of their plots. Towler’s plots always include the
formation-water expansion term, Efw and suggest that it is safer to measure and include this
term. It is true that in some cases neglecting or underestimating formation compressibilities
eventually leads to large errors.
4.5.1 Under-saturated oil reservoirs
In undersaturated oil reservoir, pressure is above the bubble point pressure and there is no gas
cap or free gas originally in the reservoir. Therefore, m = 0. If GI = 0 and WI = 0 are
assumed, Equation 5.47 reduces to:
F NEo NBoi E fw We
where
F { N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw
Eo { Bt Boi
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ª c cw S wi º
E fw { « f » 'p
¬ 1 S wi ¼
The straight line equation is:
F We
N
Eo Boi E fw Eo Boi E fw
The oil in place N can be obtained from the intercept of the plot F We .
vs.
The plot is horizontal if water drive is not present. If water drive is present the plot of
F We
vs. increases with time.
Other ways to diagnose water drive is to plot:

F
vs. t
Eo Boi E fw
or
F
vs. N p
Eo Boi E fw
Both plots should be horizontal is water drive is not present but increases with time or oil
production if water drive is present.
If neglecting Efw at p < pb:
F We
N
Eo Eo
F
The water drive can be also diagnosed by plotting vs. t (or N p ) .
Eo
If it is known for sure that there is no water influx (We =0) in an undersaturated oil reservoir
(solution gas drive reservoir) and GI = 0 and WI = 0, Equation 5.47 reduces to:
F NEo NBoi E fw
The straight line equation is:
F N ( Eo Boi E fw )
The oil in place N can be obtained from the sloe of the plot F vs. ( Eo Boi E fw ) .
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In a reservoir with no gas cap, no water influx and injection, no gas injection, and small
influence of water and rock compressibilities, this simplifies to:
F NEo
In this case, if F is plotted versus Eo, the slope will be the original oil in place. If the plot is
not linear, this is indicative that another drive mechanism is at work, for example, there
might water influx or gravity drainage. It also indicates that possibly the fluid properties used
in the calculation are in error.
4.5.2 Saturated oil reservoirs
In a saturated oil reservoir without water and gas injection, the following material balance
equation is obtained by substituting gas in place G NmBoi into Equation 5.47:
Bgi
F NEo GE g NBoi E fw GBgi E fw We
Rearranging the equation gives:
F We N ( Eo Boi E fw ) G ( E g Bgi E fw )
where
F { N p [ Bt ( R p Rsoi ) Bg ] W p Bw
Eo { Bt Boi
Eg { Bg Bgi
ª c cw S wi º
E fw { « f » 'p
¬ 1 S wi ¼
Two straight line (plot) equations can be obtained by rearranging material balance equation:
F We Eg Bgi E fw
N G
and
F We Eo Boi E fw
GN
Eg Bgi E fw Eg Bgi E fw
The first equation implies that, if a plot of F We E g Bgi E fw is made, a straight line
vs.
with slope, equal to G, and intercept, equal to N, is obtained. Hence, with this one plot, both
the oil and free gas in place can be determined; the second equation implies that, if a plot of
23

lOMoARcPSD|4734809
F We E Boi E fw
vs. o is made, a straight line with slope, equal to N, and intercept, equal
to G, is obtained. Hence, with this one plot, both the oil and free gas in place can also be
determined.
For a saturated oil reservoir with a gas cap but no water drive, We = 0, the material balance
equation becomes:
F N ( Eo Boi E fw ) G ( E g Bgi E fw )
Two straight line (plot) equations can also be obtained by rearranging material balance
equation:
F Eg Bgi E fw
N G
and
F Eo Boi E fw
GN
If water and rock compressibilities are negligible, the two straight line equations become to:
F Eg
N G
Eo Eo
and
F Eo
GN .
Eg Eg
24

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Introduction to Reservoir Engineering (University of Calgary)

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

4.1 Reservoir Recovery Processes

4.1.1 Primary production

4.1.2 Secondary Recovery (Waterflooding)

Main reasons for low oil recovery by waterflood include:

x Oil viscosity too high

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

x Trapping of oil by capillary forces

Figure 4.1 Schematic diagram of waterflood

4.1.3 Tertiary Oil Recovery (Enhanced Oil Recovery)

Enhanced oil recovery methods can be classified into:

Immiscible gas injection (Natural gas, flue gas, nitrogen, CO2)

As an example, Figure 4.2 shows the process of miscible CO2 injection.

Miscible gas injection (CO2, hydrocarbons /solvents, flue gas)

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

x Reduce oil viscosity

Figure 4.2 Schematic diagram of CO2 injection for EOR

Polymer flooding Increasing water viscosity

Figure 4.3 Surfactant flooding

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

In-situ combustion (air injection)

4.2 Drive Mechanisms (Primary production)

Figure 4.4 Bottom-water

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 4.5 Edgewater drive reservoir

Figure 4.6 Solution gas drive reservoir

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Figure 4.7 Gas-cap dive reservoir

Gravity drainage ʊ*UDYLW\GUDLQDJHPD\EHDSULPDU\SURGXFLQJPHFKDQLVPLQWKLFN

Figure 4.8 Gravity drive reservoir

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

4.3 General Material Balance Equation

Major volume changes in fluids includes:

Other volume changes include water and formation compressibilities:

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

NRsoi Original solution gas volume

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ENPE 523 Introduction to Reservoir Engineering Mingzhe Dong

Change in Oil Volume:

Change in Initial reservoir Oil volume

Oil volume change = NBoi í (NíNp)Bo (reservoir volume) (4.1)

Change in Free Gas Volume:

Initial free gas volume = GBgi = mNBoi

Free gas in the reservoir at t =

Initial gas Gas Gas remaining

Change in Water Volume:

Change in water volume =

Water í Water + Water

Change in water volume We W p Bw Wcw 'p (in bbls) (4.4)

NBoi mNBoi NBoi mNBoi

NBoi ce 'p N p Bo BwW p (4.21)

Np ( Bo Boi ) ( Rsoi Rso ) Bg