AIM: To study RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORs.

THEORY OF OPERATION:

.
Resistance thermometers, also called resistance temperature detectors or resistive
thermal devices (RTDs), are Temperature sensors that exploit the predictable change in
electrical resistance of some materials with changing temperature. RTD’s are very
similar in appearance to thermocouples but they function completely different. Now as
we know, thermocouples produce a very small voltage when heated. An RTD does not
produce any voltage and so it relies on an instrument for power. RTD’s are electrical
resistors that change resistance as temperature changes.
The same year that Seebeck made his discovery about thermoelectricity, Sir Humphrey
Davy announced that the resistivity of metals showed a marked temperature
dependence. Fifty years later, Sir William Siemens proffered the use of platinum as the
element in a resistance thermometer. His choice proved most propitious, as platinum is
used to this day as the primary element in all high-accuracy resistance thermometers. In
fact, the Platinum Resistance Temperature Detector, or PRTD, is used today as an
interpolation standard from the oxygen point (-182.96°C) to the antimony point
(630.74°C).
 Platinum is especially suited to this purpose, as it can withstand high temperatures
while maintaining excellent stability. As a noble metal, it shows limited susceptibility to
contamination.
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

The classical resistance temperature detector (RTD) construction using platinum was
proposed by C.H. Meyers in 1932. He wound a helical coil of platinum on a crossed
mica web and mounted the assembly inside a glass tube. This construction minimized
strain on the wire while maximizing resistance.
Although this construction produces a very stable element, the thermal contact between
the platinum and the measured point is quite poor. This results in a slow thermal
response time. The fragility of the structure limits its use today primarily to that of a
RESSTANCE

laboratory standard.
Another laboratory standard has taken the place of Meyers’ design. This is the bird-
cageelement proposed by Evans and Burns. The platinum element remains largely
unsupported, which allows it to move freely when expanded or contracted by
temperature variations.
Strain-induced resistance changes over time and temperature are thus minimized, and
the bird-cage becomes the ultimate laboratory standard. Due to the unsupported
structure and subsequent susceptibility to vibration, this configuration is still a bit too
fragile for industrial environments.

A more rugged construction technique is shown in below Figure . The platinum wire is
bifilar wound on a glass or ceramic bobbin. The bifilar winding reduces the effective
enclosed area of the coil to minimize magnetic pickup and its related noise. Once the
wire is wound onto the bobbin, the assembly is then sealed with a coating of molten

1
glass. The sealing process assures that the RTD will maintain its integrity under
extreme vibration, but it also limits the expansion of the platinum metal at high
temperatures. Unless the coefficients of expansion of the platinum and the bobbin
match perfectly, stress will be placed on the wire as the temperature changes, resulting
in a strain-induced resistance change. This may result in a permanent change in the
resistance of the wire.
There are partially supported versions of the RTD which offer a compromise between
the bird-cage approach and the sealed helix. One such approach uses a platinum helix
threaded through a ceramic cylinder and affixed via glass-frit. These devices will
maintain excellent stability in moderately rugged vibrational applications.

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

RESSTANCE

The resistive property of the metal is called its resistivity. The resistive property defines
length and cross sectional area required to fabricate an RTD of a given value. The
resistance is proportional to length and inversely proportional to the cross sectional
area:

2
 Where,
R = Resistance (ohms)
ρ = Resistivity (ohms)
L = Length
A = Cross sectional area

TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENT

Another common term used with RTD’s is temperature coefficient. This refers to the
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

change in resistance vs. change in temperature. There are 2 common coefficients for
platinum RTD’s’ and several others for the copper and nickel types. The most common
platinum RTD has a temperature coefficient of .00385 ohms/ohms/°C. This means that
a 100 ohm platinum RTD will increase in resistance .385 ohms for every 1°C increase in
temperature.

RTD Materials:

RTD’s are manufactured using several different materials as the sensing element.
The criterion for selecting a material to make an RTD is:
 The material must be malleable so that it can be formed into small wires
 The material should also be resistant to corrosion.
 The material should be low cost
 It is preferred that the material have a linear resistance verses temperature
slope.
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Metal Film RTD’s

In the newest construction technique, a platinum or metal-glass slurry film is deposited
or screened onto a small flat ceramic substrate, etched with a laser trimming system,
and sealed. The film RTD offers substantial reduction in assembly time and has the
further advantage of increased resistance for a given size. Due to the manufacturing
technology, the device size itself is small, which means it can respond quickly to step
changes in temperature. Film RTD’s are presently less stable than their hand-made
counterparts, but they are becoming more popular because of their decided advantages
in size and production cost. These advantages should provide the impetus for future
research needed to improve stability.
METALS
All metals produce a positive change in resistance for a positive change in temperature.
This, of course, is the main function of an RTD. As we shall soon see, system error is
minimized when the nominal value of the RTD resistance is large. This implies a metal

3
wire with a high resistivity. The lower the resistivity of the metal, the more material we
will have to use.
Below Table lists the resistivities of common RTD materials:

METAL RESISTIVITY(OHM)
Gold 13
Silver 8.8
Copper 9.26
Platinum 59
Tungsten 30

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

Nickel 36

Because of their lower resistivities, gold and silver are rarely used as RTD elements.
Tungsten has a relatively high resistivity, but is reserved for very high temperature
applications because it is extremely brittle and difficult to work.
Copper is used occasionally as an RTD element. Its low resistivity forces the element to
be longer than a platinum element, but its linearity and very low cost make it an
economical alternative. Its upper temperature limit is only about 120ºC.
The most common RTD’s are made of either platinum, nickel, or nickel alloys. The
economical nickel derivative wires are used over a limited temperature range. They are
quite non-linear and tend to drift with time. For measurement integrity, platinum is the
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obvious choice.

CONSTRUCTION:

RTD’s are manufactured in 3 basic types of construction. Each of these different types
has advantages and disadvantages.

Platinum Thin Film RTD

The thin film style of RTD is probably the most popular design because of their rugged
design and low cost. The thin film element is manufactured by coating a small ceramic
chip with a very thin (.0001”) film of platinum and then laser cutting or chemical etching
a resistance path in the platinum film. The element is then coated with a thin layer of
glass to protect it from harmful chemicals and gases. Larger extension lead wires are
spot welded to the chip and this junction is then covered with a drop of epoxy to help
hold the wires to the element.

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TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

Inner Coil Wire Wound RTD

This type of element is normally manufactured using platinum wire. Very small platinum
RESSTANCE

wire (.0002”) is coiled and then slid into a small 2 hole ceramic insulator. Larger
extension leads are then spot welded to the ends of the platinum wire and cemented in
place.

Some manufacturers backfill the bores of the insulator with ceramic powder once the
coils have been inserted. This keeps the coils from moving and shorting against each
other. The end opposite the extension leads is capped with ceramic cement also.

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 TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010
Outer Wound RTD Element
The outer wound RTD element is made by winding the sensing element wire around a
center mandrill, which is usually made of ceramic. This winding is then coated with
glass or some other insulating material to protect and secure the windings. The winding
wires are then spot welded to extension leads and secured to the body with ceramic
cement or epoxy.
RESSTANCE

Each of the types has their advantages. The thin film is the least expensive to
manufacture and also the most rugged. They also can be manufactured in very small
sizes. The inner coil wire wound style is the most accurate. It is however, more
expensive to manufacture and does not perform well in high vibration applications. The

6
 outer wound element is similar in cost to the inner coil element. It is not as accurate as
the inner coil style but is more rugged.

Resistance Measurement

The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD range from 10 ohms for the bird-
cage model to several thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most common value
is 100 ohms at 0ºC. The standard temperature coefficient of platinum wire is α = .00385.
For a 100 ohm wire, this corresponds to + 0.385 ohms/ºC at 0ºC. This value for α is
actually the average slope from 0ºC to 100ºC. The more chemically pure platinum wire
used in platinum resistance standards has an α of +.00392 ohms/ohm/ºC.
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

Both the slope and the absolute value are small numbers, especially when we consider
the fact that the measurement wires leading to the sensor may be several ohms or even
tens of ohms. A small lead impedance can contribute a significant error to our
temperature measurement.
RESSTANCE

A 10 ohm lead impedance implies 10/.385 ≈ 26ºC error in measurement. Even the
temperature coefficient of the lead wire can contribute a measurable error. The classical
method of avoiding this problem has been the use of a bridge.

The bridge output voltage is an indirect indication of the RTD resistance. The bridge
requires four connection wires, an external source, and three resistors that have a zero
temperature coefficient. To avoid subjecting the three bridge-completion resistors to the

7
same temperature as the RTD, the RTD is separated from the bridge by a pair of
extension wires:

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

These extension wires recreate the problem that we had initially: The impedance of the
extension wires affects the temperature reading. This effect can be minimized by using
a three-wire bridge configuration:

RESSTANCE

If wires A and B are perfectly matched in length, their impedance effects will cancel
because each is in an opposite leg of the bridge. The third wire, C, acts as a sense lead
and carries no current.

The Wheatstone bridge shown in above figure creates a non-linear relationship between
resistance change and bridge output voltage change. This compounds the already non-
linear temperature-resistance characteristic of the RTD by requiring an additional
equation to convert bridge output voltage to equivalent RTD impedance

4-Wire Ohms - The technique of using a current source along with a remotely sensed
digital voltmeter alleviates many problems associated with the bridge.

The output voltage read by

the dvm is directly

8
 proportional to RTD resistance, so only one conversion equation is necessary. The
three bridge-completion resistors are replaced by one reference resistor. The digital
voltmeter measures only the voltage dropped across the RTD and is insensitive to the
length of the lead wires.
The one disadvantage of using 4-wire ohms is that we need one more extension wire
than the 3-wire bridge. This is a small price to pay if we are at all concerned with the
accuracy of the temperature measurement.

The Callendar– Van Dusen equation is

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

an equation that describes the

relationship between resistance (R)
and temperature (t) of platinum resistance
thermometers.

For the range between -200 °C to 0 °C

the equation is

R(t) = R(0)[1 + A * t + B * t 2 + (t − 100)C * t 3].

For the range between 0 °C to 661 °C the equation is

R(t) = R(0)(1 + A * t + B * t 2).

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These equations are listed as the basis for the temperature/resistance tables for
platinum resistance thermometers and are not intended to be used for the calibration of
individual thermometers.The coefficients for individual thermometers (A(t) and B(t)) can
be obtained by calibration.

The equation was found by British physicist Hugh Longbourne Callendar, and refined by
M. S. Van Dusen.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS

It is important for users of PRTs to know and understand what these error sources are
so they can make intelligent decisions related to PRT selection and use. The most

9
common error sources fall within the following categories: Hysteresis, Insulation
Resistance, Stability, Repeatability, Stem Conduction, Calibration and Interpolation,
Lead Wire Resistance, Self-Heating, Time Response, and Thermal EMF.

Hysteresis:
In general, hysteresis is a phenomena that results in a difference in an items behavior
when approached from a different path. In PRTs, thermal hysteresis results in a
difference in resistance at a given temperature based on the thermal history to which
the PRT was exposed. More specifically, the resistance of the PRT will be different
when the temperature is approached from an increasing direction vs a decreasing
direction, and the magnitude of the difference will depend on the magnitude of the

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

temperature excursion and the design of the PRT.

The most prominent factor that contributes to the hysteresis error in a PRT is strain
within the sensing element caused by thermal expansion and contraction. Most
industrial grade PRTs are manufactured using a sensing element made from a fine
diameter platinum wire, typically less than 0.001 inch diameter, or a thin film platinum
element. The other materials used to manufacture these elements are critical because
they are in direct contact with the fragile platinum and must provide mechanical support
and protection while still allowing for free thermal expansion and contraction over a wide
temperature range. These elements are then packaged into the final sensor
configuration, where the materials used must also allow for free thermal expansion and
contraction or additional strain can occur.

How to Reduce Hysteresis Error

RESSTANCE

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 Hysteresis is controlled almost exclusively by the design and manufacture of the PRT
and the temperature span to which the PRT is exposed. The best way to reduce
hysteresis error is to select a PRT that has a low specified hysteresis and minimize the
temperature span to which the PRT is exposed. Keep in mind that hysteresis is a
maximum at the midpoint temperature and is zero at the end points, so using a sensor

near the end points can reduce the magnitude of this error.

Temp Range: -200 to Temp Range: 0 to Temp Range: 0 to

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

600°C 400°C 200°C

Hysteresis Spec .02% .05% .10% .02% .05% .10% .02% .05% .10%
of of of of of of of of of
span span span span span span span span span
Error (±°C)
-200 0 0 0 - - - - - -
Te -100 .04 .10 .20 - - - - - -
mp 0 .08 .20 .40 0 0 0 0 0 0
era 100 .12 .30 .60 .04 .10 .20 .04 .10 .20
tur 200 .16 .40 .80 .08 .20 .40 0 0 0
e 300 .12 .30 .60 .04 .10 .20 - - -
(° 400 .08 .20 .40 0 0 0 - - -
C) 500 .04 .10 .20 - - - - - -
600 0 0 0 - - - - - -
RESSTANCE

Repeatability
Repeatability refers to the ability of a PRT to maintain its Resistance vs. Temperature
(R vs. T) relationship when measured under the same conditions after experiencing
thermal cycling throughout a specified temperature range .

Causes of Repeatability Error

Many factors can contribute to the inability of a PRT to repeat readings after thermal
cycling, but the most prominent factor is generally considered to be strain within the
sensing element caused by thermal expansion and contraction. Most industrial grade
PRTs are manufactured using a sensing element made from a fine diameter platinum
wire, typically less than 0.001 inch diameter, or a thin film platinum element. The other
materials used to manufacture these elements are critical because they are in direct
contact with the fragile platinum and must provide mechanical support and protection
while still allowing for free thermal expansion and contraction over a wide temperature
range. These elements are then packaged into the final sensor configuration, the
materials used here must also allow for free thermal expansion and contraction
additional strain can occur.

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 TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010
How to Reduce Repeatability Error

Since repeatability is controlled almost exclusively by the design and manufacture of the
PRT, the best way to reduce repeatability error is to select a high quality PRT that has a
low specified repeatability. When selecting a PRT, the repeatability must be considered
for the maximum temperature range of use, not necessarily the maximum rated
RESSTANCE

temperature range of the PRT itself since many PRTs are not used over their maximum
rated ranges. Never expose PRTs to temperatures in excess of their maximum rated
temperature, or less than their minimum rated temperature, without consulting with the
manufacturer first to determine the effect on repeatability.

Insulation Resistance

Insulation Resistance (IR) refers to the electrical resistance between the sensing circuit
and the metallic sheath of a PRT. It is important for the sensing element circuit to be
insulated from the sheath because electrical leakage can cause an error when
measuring the resistance of the sensing element. Any error in measuring the resistance
will translate to an error in the indicated temperature.

Resistance is a parameter that cannot be measured directly, it is calculated by either

applying a constant current and measuring the voltage drop, or by applying a constant
voltage and measuring the current. The typical method used to measure the resistance
of an industrial PRT is to apply a constant current, typically between .050 mA and 2 mA,

12
 and measure the voltage drop to determine the resistance. The formula required to
make this calculation is simply Ohms Law, however the details of this calculation are not
necessary for the purpose of understanding this concept. What is important to know is
that if a portion of the applied current has the opportunity to leak out of the circuit,
through a low insulation resistance, then a false resistance reading will be obtained for
the sensing element.

Estimating the Error Caused by Insulation Resistance

One method that has been used to estimate the magnitude of the error due to IR affect
is to treat the PRT element resistance and the IR value as two resistors in parallel. This
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

method is not completely accurate however, since electrical leakage can occur not only
from lead wire to sheath, but from lead wire to lead wire. The lead to lead leakage also
acts as a resistor in parallel and this type of leakage cannot be tested because the
sensing element is in the circuit. Nevertheless, treating the PRT element resistance and
IR as two resistors in parallel has become a common way to estimate the magnitude of
the error due to IR. It is worthwhile noting that IR almost always results in a lower
indicated temperature with few exceptions, such as installations where current may
actually leak into the circuit.

Rated Temperature Minimum IR Test Voltage Estimated

(°C) (MQ) (VDC) Error for 100
ohm PRT (°C)
ASTM E1137 25 100 10 to 50 .0003
ASTM E1137 300 10 10 to 50 .013
RESSTANCE

ASTM E1137 650 2 10 to 50 .17

IEC 60751 25 100 10 to100 .0003
IEC 60751 100 to 300 10 10 .013
IEC 60751 301 to 500 2 10 .12
IEC 60751 501 to 850 .5 10 1.0
Stability

Stability refers to the ability of a PRT to maintain its’ Resistance vs. Temperature (R vs.
T) relationship over time as a result of thermal exposure .

Causes of Stability Error

Many factors can contribute to the instability of a PRT, but the most prominent source of
instability is contamination of the platinum in the sensing element. Contamination can
come from a variety of sources, such as metals that alloy with platinum at elevated
temperatures, and very small amounts of these contaminants can have large effects on
resistance. The materials and processes used to manufacture the sensor must be
carefully selected and/or developed such that they have minimal affect on the platinum
at temperatures up to the maximum rated temperature of the PRT. Cleanliness during

13
manufacture is also critical as any foreign substance may become a source of
contamination.

How to Reduce Stability Error

Since stability is controlled almost exclusively by the design and manufacture of the
PRT, the best way to reduce stability error is to select a high quality PRT that has a low
specified stability. When selecting a PRT, the stability must be considered for the
maximum temperature of use, not necessarily the maximum rated temperature of the
PRT itself since many PRTs are not used to maximum rated temperatures. Never
expose PRTs to temperatures in excess of their maximum rated temperature without
consulting the manufacturer first to determine the effect on stability. Also, avoid

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

unnecessary exposure to elevated temperature, the less time the sensor is exposed to
elevated temperature the smaller the cumulative effect

Industrial PRT Stability Example(Change at 0°C (°C))

RESSTANCE

APPLICATIONS:

14
 Mini RTDs for Small Places:

Small locations require small sensors. Freeze dryers, bearings, and motor windings, are
just a few of the locations that require a small diameter and short length RTD for a
repeatable and stable temperature measurement. These types of applications may also
require high accuracy, durable extension cable, and NIST traceable calibration to satisfy
requirements.
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010
RESSTANCE

The Burns design group came up with a package that is 1/8” diameter, and just 1” long
that has all the features and performance you would expect from a much larger sensor.
Temperature range is –196°C to 200°C and the sensing element is completely sealed
against moisture and can be completely immersed in water without degradation or loss
of accuracy.

The Teflon encased cable and 316L SS sensor body are compatible with a wide variety
of chemicals and other agents. Sensors are available in 0.10% and 0.05%
interchangeability and can be matched to a transmitter for even greater accuracy
of up to 0.11°C.

Battery Powered Indicator

15
Winter is here and offloading a rail tanker of a cold thick fluid can be a problem when
the temperature drops outside.

Heating the fluid allows for pumping but getting it too hot could ruin it. A portable and
extremely rugged temperature indicator was required to monitor the fluid temperature to
maintain an optimal temperature.

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

RESSTANCE

Power was not available at the location and portability between tanker cars was a must.
The sensor had to be capable of being dropped and banged around as can be expected
when handling with bulky gloves and jackets impairing movement,not to mention up and
down a ladder.

The new Burns battery powered indicator and a Series 300 sensor sporting the heavy
duty sheath option was the perfect solution. The 10 foot long heavy duty sheath
provides the strength to survive handling and the sensing element nestled
in a proprietary packaging technique insures an accurate and repeatable measurement.
Connected to the sensor is our new battery powered indicator. The LCD display is
easily readable in any light condition and it provides accuracy to one decimal point.
Battery life is three years so there’s not a lot of maintenance. Replacement is with a
standard 3.7 volt AA size lithium ion available through Burns or at a variety of
battery suppliers.

16
 Surface Mount Sensor for Outdoor

A gas manufacturer wants to measure the temperature of a liquid nitrogen pipeline.

They want
to make the measurement without tapping into the line. They would like a sensor to
mount to
the exterior of the pipe which is located outdoors.

Since the measurement is outdoors, this eliminates the use of traditional surface mount
sensors. The packaging of many surface sensors is not waterproof and the cabling is
not protected from the elements.
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

In addition, measuring the temperature of liquid nitrogen requires the sensor to be able
to operate reliably from –196ºC to 50ºC and not be influenced by the ambient air
temperature outside
RESSTANCE

In order to meet the weatherproof requirement and temperature range requirement, a

Series 200 probe was selected. The operational range of the Series 200 is –196ºC to
500ºC and the construction is suitable for outdoor use. The probe, however, must be
able to mount to the surface and make accurate pipeline temperature measurements.
A Series 200 ‘B’ style probe was modified for the application.

• A 90 degree bend was put in the probe to offset the connection head from the pipeline.

• A stainless steel block was attached to the tip and radiused to match the outside
diameter
of the pipe allowing the probe to simply be hose clamped into place.

• The connection head allowed the use of weatherproof PVC-coated armored cable for
the signal back to the control panel.

17
BURNS ENGINEERING COMPANY:

FOOD & BEVERAGE:

From the plant floor to the lab, Burns temperature measurement experts identify the
best approach to our most important and most challenging temperature measurement
needs.

Regulatory compliance, product quality and product safety are our top priorities.
Experience with distillation, pasteurization, SIP, CIP, retort, cold storage, and drying

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

combined with 3-A, ASTM, and MWFPA participation gives Burns the industry
knowledge and awareness to ensure our process success.

It offers an extensive offering of standard sanitary sensors for both direct and indirect
immersion. Designed to optimize our process by providing accurate and reliable
performance over our entire temperature range.

It has also designed a high-accuracy probe for process validation in response to an

FDA regulation that is now widely used in the dairy industry.
Series S sanitary sensors are highly accurate and reliable temperature sensors. Perfect
for applications in pharmaceutical, biotech, chemical and food and beverage markets.
RESSTANCE

The SNI Series is ideally suited for use in small diameter piping where temperature
measurement is critical, but direct immersion temperature probes cannot be used.

Non-Intrusive RTDs

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 Although designed primarily for use in autoclaves, the Burns Autoclave RTD can be
TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

used for any application in which moisture is a concern. An example? Measuring

underground pipeline temperatures and more.

Autoclave RTDs
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Advantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors

The advantages of using RTD's include:

 Linear over wide operating range

 Wide temperature operating range
 High temperature operating range
 Interchangeability over wide range
 Good stability at high temperature
 High accuracy
 Low drift
 Suitable for precision applications

Disadvantages of Resistance Temperature Detectors

19
The disadvantages of using RTD's include:

 Low sensitivity
 Higher cost than thermocouples
 No point sensing
 Affected by shock and vibration
 Requires three or four-wire operation
 RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 °C. At temperatures
above 660 °C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from
becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath of the thermometer.
This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal sheath with a

TEMPERATURE DETECTOR | 10/25/2010

glass construction.
 At very low temperatures, say below -270 °C (or 3 K), due to the fact that there
are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by
impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of
temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and
therefore not useful.
 Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature
changes.
 RTDs are characterized by a slow response time
 Because they require current excitation, they can be prone to self-heating

CONCLUSION:
RESSTANCE

Thus, resistance thermometers should be used when:

 When accuracy and stability are a requirement of the customer’s specification
 When accuracy must extend over a wide temperature range
 When area, rather than point sensing improves control
 When a high degree of standardisation is desirable

Hence, we can conclude that resistance thermometers have become very popular
because of their excellent stability, and exhibit the most linear signal with respect to
temperature of any electronic temperature sensor.

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